Final Edited Draft Text Book On Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics

This textbook was developed by TVTI faculties through KOICA
project “PMC Service for Capacity Development for TVET

Leaders and Trainers in Ethiopia”
Fundamental of Soil Mechanics
August 2022
Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Road Construction Materials and
Testing
Dejen Gebresilassie (Ms.C.)

Fitsum Kebede ( M.Sc.)
Road Construction Technology Department

August 2022
Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@etu.edu.et, Website: http://www.etu.edu.et
Contents
Course Profile ..................................................................................................................................... I
Detail Course Outline ...................................................................................................................... III
Part I Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1................................................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction to soil mechanics ........................................................................................................... 1
Lesson Plan.......................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Definition of Soil Mechanics ........................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Soil, Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Mechanics...................................................................... 4
1.3 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering ............................................................................... 5
1.4 Formation of Soils......................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 General Types of Soils .................................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Soil Particle Size and Shape ........................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Composition of Clay Minerals .................................................................................................... 11
1.8 Structure of Clay Minerals .......................................................................................................... 11
1.8.1 Formation of Minerals ..................................................................................................... 14
1.9 Clay Particle-Water Relations..................................................................................................... 18
Assessment ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Objective Type Question .................................................................................................................. 21
Subjective questions ....................................................................................................................... 22
References:............................................................................................................................................ 24
Chapter 2 Physical characteristics of soils ............................................................................................ 25
Lesson Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 25
1 Physical Characteristics of Soils ........................................................................................................ 27
2.1 The phase diagram ...................................................................................................................... 27
2.2 Soil Phase Relationships ............................................................................................................. 27
2.3 Mass-Volume Relationships ....................................................................................................... 28
2.4 Weight-Volume Relationships .................................................................................................... 34
2.5 Comments on Soil Phase Relationships ...................................................................................... 35
2.6 Particle Size Analysis ................................................................................................................. 39
2.6.1 Sieve Analysis ................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.2 The Hydrometer Method of Analysis ............................................................................. 43
2.7 Grain Size Distribution Curves ................................................................................................... 45
2.8 Consistency of Clay Soil ............................................................................................................. 48
2.9 Consistency Limits and Indices .................................................................................................. 49
2.10 Classification of Soils ............................................................................................................... 55
2.10.1 AASHTO Soil Classification System .......................................................................... 55
2.10.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)................................................................ 58
2.11 Comments on the Systems of Soil Classification ..................................................................... 67
Assessment 2.1...................................................................................................................................... 69
Subjective type of questions ............................................................................................................. 69
Assessments 2-2 ................................................................................................................................ 71
References:............................................................................................................................................ 76
Chapter 3 Soil permeability and seepage ............................................................................................ 77
Lesson Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 77
3 Soil Permeability and Seepage ........................................................................................................... 79
3.1 Soil Permeability......................................................................................................................... 79
3.2 Hydraulic Head ........................................................................................................................... 79
3.3 Darcy‟s Law ................................................................................................................................ 81
3.4 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability............................................................................. 83
3.4.1 Constant-Head Test .......................................................................................................... 84
3.4.2 Falling-Head Test ............................................................................................................. 86
3.4.3 Empirical Relationships for k ......................................................................................... 87
3.5 Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposits..................................................................................... 90
3.5.1 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers ............................................................................................ 90
3.5.2 Flow Normal to Soil Layers ............................................................................................ 91
3.6 Seepage ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 95
Subjective type of questions ............................................................................................................. 95
References:............................................................................................................................................ 97
Chapter 4 Stress distribution in soil ................................................................................................... 99
Lesson Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 99
4 Stress Distribution in Soil ................................................................................................................ 101
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 101
4.2 Stress due to soil weight............................................................................................................ 101
4.2.1 Total stress ....................................................................................................................... 102
4.2.2 Pore pressure ................................................................................................................... 103
4.2.3 Effective stress ................................................................................................................ 104
4.3 Soil Layers with Steady Water Table ....................................................................................... 105
4.4 Totally Submerged Soil Layers................................................................................................. 106
4.5 Effective Stress Change Due to Water Table Change .................................................... 107
4.6 Vertical Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads............................................................................ 110
4.6.1 Vertical Stress due to a Point Load .............................................................................. 111
4.6.2 Vertical Stress due to a Line Load ............................................................................... 112
4.6.3 Vertical Stress due to a Strip Load ............................................................................... 114
4.6.4 Vertical Stress under a Circular Footing ..................................................................... 117
4.6.5 Vertical Stress under an Embankment Load ............................................................... 118
4.6.6 Vertical Stress under Corner of Rectangular Footing ................................................ 121
4.6.7 Vertical Stress below Arbitrarily Shaped Area........................................................... 123
Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 129
Subjective type questions ................................................................................................................ 129
References:.......................................................................................................................................... 132
Chapter 5 Compaction of soil ......................................................................................................... 133
Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 133
5 Compaction of Soil .......................................................................................................................... 135
5.1 General Principles of Compaction ............................................................................................ 135
5.2 Role of moisture in compaction ................................................................................................ 136
5.3 Compaction effort ..................................................................................................................... 137
5.4 Saturation (Zero-Air-Voids) Line ............................................................................................. 138
5.5 Laboratory compaction tests / Proctor compaction ................................................................... 140
5.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction ................................................................ 141
5.6.1 Sand Cone Method ......................................................................................................... 141
5.6.2 Rubber balloon method .................................................................................................. 143
5.6.3 Nuclear method ............................................................................................................... 143
5.7 Control of Compaction ............................................................................................................. 144
5.8 Factors Affecting Compaction .................................................................................................. 147
5.9 In-Situ Soil Compaction Techniques ........................................................................................ 148
Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 149
Subjective type of questions ........................................................................................................... 149
References:.......................................................................................................................................... 152
Chapter 6 Shear strength of soil ........................................................................................................ 153
Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 153
6 Shear Strength of Soil ...................................................................................................................... 155
6.1 Basic Concept of Shearing Resistance and Shearing Strength ................................................. 155
6.2 The Coulomb Equation Methods of Determining Shear Strength Parameters ......................... 156
6.3 Stress Condition at a Point in a Soil Mass ................................................................................ 157
6.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear ............. 159
6.5 Undrained and Drained Shear Strength .................................................................................... 164
6.6 Laboratory Shear Strength Tests ............................................................................................... 165
6.6.1 Direct Shear Test ............................................................................................................ 165
6.6.2 Triaxial Shear Test ....................................................................................................... 167
6.6.3 Consolidated-Drained Test ............................................................................................ 170
6.6.4 Consolidated-Undrained Test ....................................................................................... 171
6.6.5Unconsolidated-Undrained Test .................................................................................... 171
6.6.6 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay ..................................................... 172
Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 176
Objective type of questions ............................................................................................................. 176
Subjective type of questions ........................................................................................................... 177
References:.......................................................................................................................................... 179
Chapter 7 Bearing capacity of soils ................................................................................................ 181
Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 181
7 Bearing capacity of soil ................................................................................................................... 183
7.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity ........................................................................................................ 183
7.2 Allowable Bearing Capacity ..................................................................................................... 183
7.3 Modes of bearing capacity or shear failure ............................................................................... 184
7.3.1 General Shear Failure ..................................................................................................... 184
7.3.2 Local Shear Failure ........................................................................................................ 185
7.3.3 Punching Shear Failure .................................................................................................. 186
7.4 Ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation ..................................................................... 186
7.4.1 General equation for bearing capacity ......................................................................... 186
7.5 Effect of water on the bearing capacity of soils ........................................................................ 189
Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 194
Subjective type of question ............................................................................................................. 194
References:.......................................................................................................................................... 196
PART-II PRACTICAL PART ......................................................................................................... 197
WEEK-1.............................................................................................................................................. 198
Test-1. Measurement of Water Content ...................................................................................... 198
Evaluation sheet.................................................................................................................................. 201
WEEK-2.............................................................................................................................................. 202
Test-2. Measurement of Unit Weight or Density of Soil ................................................................ 202
WEEK-3.............................................................................................................................................. 206
Test-3. Measurement of Specific Gravity ....................................................................................... 206
WEEK-4.............................................................................................................................................. 210
Test-4. Sieve Analysis .................................................................................................................... 210
WEEK-5.............................................................................................................................................. 217
Test-5. Hydrometer Method of Analysis ........................................................................................ 217
WEEK-6.............................................................................................................................................. 229
Test-6. Measurement of Liquid Limit ............................................................................................. 229
WEEK-7.............................................................................................................................................. 234
Test-7. Determination of Plastic Limit ........................................................................................... 234
Evaluation sheet .................................................................................................................................. 237
WEEK-9.............................................................................................................................................. 238
Test-8. Constant-Head Test ............................................................................................................ 239
WEEK-10............................................................................................................................................ 245
Test-9. Standard Proctor Test.......................................................................................................... 245
WEEK-11............................................................................................................................................ 252
Test-10. Sand Cone Method ........................................................................................................... 252
Week-12 .............................................................................................................................................. 258
Test-11. Direct shear test ................................................................................................................ 258
Week-13 .............................................................................................................................................. 265
Test-12. Triaxial Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test .................................................................. 265
Week-14 .............................................................................................................................................. 272
Test-13. Unconfined compression strength test (UCS)................................................................... 272
Week-15 .............................................................................................................................................. 279
Test-14. Plate load test .................................................................................................................... 279
References:.......................................................................................................................................... 285
Course Profile
DEPARTMENT Road Construction Technology
COURSE Fundamental of Soil Mechanics

TITLE
COURSE This course is designed to introduce students to the properties and
DESCRIPTION
behavior of soil as an engineering material and their application in the
solution of certain civil engineering problems such as compressibility
of soil, foundation, retaining walls and stability of slopes. The course
covers introductions soil mechanics, Simple soil properties and soil
classifications, weight volume relationships, grain size distribution, soil
consistency, Soil water and seepage, compaction of soils and stress
distribution and effective stress in soils, shear strength and bearing
capacity of soil.
COURSE Upon successful completion of this course students will be able to:
OBJECTIVE
o clarify soil, geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics
o conduct and differentiate engineering physical characteristics of
soils
o classify engineering soil
o conduct soil permeability and seepage
o compute stress distribution in soil
o conduct and compute compaction
o conduct and compute the shear strength of soil
o conduct and compute bearing capacity
LEARNING 1. Knowledge
OUTCOMES 1.1.Clarify soil, geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics
1.2.Express Formation of soils, General types of soils
1.3.Compute The phase diagram, Soil Phase Relationship
1.4.Express and compute Soil Permeability, Hydraulic Head and
Darcy‟s Law , Permeability of Stratified Soil
1.5.Compute stress due to soil weight and surface load
1.6.Express General Principles of Compaction
1.7.Clarify shear strength of soil
1.8.Compute bearing capacity of soil
2. Practical skills
I
2.1.Conduct lab test for Composition of clay minerals, Structure of
clay minerals and Clay particle-water relations
2.2.Conduct lab test for Particle Size Analysis, Consistency of Clay
Soils, Classification of Soils
2.3.Conduct soil permeability tests
2.4.Conduct lab compaction and field compaction test
2.5.Conduct shear test using direct shear and triaxial shear test
2.6.Conduct bearing capacity test using plate load test
PRE- None
REQUISITE
TARGET 2nd year Road Construction Technology
GROUP
II
Detail Course Outline
Week Topics to be covered Topics to be covered Outc Required equipment
theory practical omes
(2 lecture hours) (3 lab hours)
Chapter One : Introduction Soil Mechanics
1 (Definition of Soil Composition of clay 5.1.1
Mechanics, Soil, minerals, Structure of 5.1.2
Geotechnical clay minerals, Clay 5.2.1
Engineering and Soil particle-water relations
Mechanics , Soil
Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering,
Formation of soils,
General types of soils)
Chapter Two: Physical Characteristics of Soils
2 (The phase diagram, Soil 5.1.3  Relative density of
Phase Relationship) 5.2.2 cohesionless soils,
 Constant volume
mold,
 End-over-end shaker
Particle density of
soils
 Drying Oven
 Infrared moisture
meter
3 (Particle Size Analysis, 5.1.3  Standard test sieves 30

Consistency of Clay 5.2.2 cm diameter
Soils, Index Properties  Laboratory sample
of Soils) mixers,
 Balloon density
apparatus
 Wet sieve shake ,
 sand equivalent value,
 laboratory sample
mixers
 electromagnetic sieve
shakers
 High capacity sieve
shaker, standard test
sieves 20cm diameter,
 Pycnometer
 Noise reduction
cabinet
III
4 (Particle Size Analysis, 5.2.2  hydrometer method
Consistency of Clay  pipette method,
Soils, Index Properties
of Soils)
5 (Classification of 5.1.3  Cone penetrometer
Soils) 5.2.2 method,
 Casagrande method,
 Plastic limit
 Linear shrinkage
Chapter Three : Soil Permeability and Seepage

6 (Soil Permeability, (Determination of 5.1.2
Hydraulic Head , Darcy‟s Coefficient of
Law ) Permeability,
Permeability of
Stratified Soil
Deposits)
7 (Seepage through Soils , 5.1.4  Constant head
Laplace‟s Equation, 5.2.3 apparatus permeability
Stream and Potential 5.1.5  Falling head apparatus
Functions, permeability
Characteristics and  universal permeability
Construction of Flow ,
Net, Seepage through
Earth Dams)
Chapter Four: Stress distribution and Effective Stress in soil
8 ( Stress due to soil 5.1.6
weight, Stress due to
concentrated surface
loading, Stress due to
uniform line loading ,
Stress due to uniformly
distributed surface load,
Stress due to non-
uniformly distributed
surface load , Stress due
to uniformly distributed
load by approximate
method)
9 ( Effective Stress 5.1.6
Principles , Effect of
Water Table Fluctuations
on Effective Stress ,
Effective Stress in a Soil
Mass under Hydrostatic
Conditions , Effective
Stress and Surcharge ,
Effective Stress and
Seepage Pressure)
IV
Chapter Five: Compaction of soil
10 (General Principles of 5.1.7  Standard proctor,
Compaction , Role of (Laboratory 5.2.4  Modified proctor,
moisture in compaction, compaction tests  Universal proctor
Compaction effort ) ,Field compaction tests  Vibratory compaction
,Field control of hammer,
compaction)  Sand replacement
 Sample extruder,
 Soil lathe,
 Motorized hydraulic
extruder,
 Soil die cutter
Chapter Six: : Shear Strength of Soil

11 (Basic Concept of 5.1.8
Shearing Resistance and 5.2.5
Shearing Strength , The
Coulomb Equation ,
Methods of Determining
Shear Strength
Parameters)
12 (Stress Condition at a (Undrained and 5.1.8

Point in a Soil Mass Drained Shear Strength 5.2.5
,Mohr-Coulomb Failure , Direct Shear Test)
Criteria Inclination of the
Plane of Failure Caused
by Shear)
13 (Triaxial Shear Test, 5.1.8  Fully automatic

Consolidated-Drained 5.2.5 triaxial tester
Test  Direct shear tester
, Consolidated-  Unconfined
Undrained Test compression tester
, Unconsolidated-
Undrained Test ,
Unconfined
Compression Test on
Saturated Clay)
Chapter Seven: Bearing Capacity of Soils
V
14 (Ultimate Bearing 5.1.9
Capacity , Allowable
Bearing Capacity
, Bearing Capacity of
Shallow Foundation ,
Failure zones below
smooth base Footing
loaded at ground level ,
Failure zones below
rough base Footing
loaded at ground level )
15 (Ultimate bearing 5.2.6  Plate bearing test 100
capacity of shallow kN
Foundation, Effect of  California bearing
water on bearing capacity ratio
of soils, General Bearing
Capacity Equations )
16 Final examination period
VI
Part I Theory
Chapter 1
Introduction to soil mechanics
Lesson Plan
1. Learning objectives
• Be able to define soil, geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics
• Be able to determine the relation between soil mechanics and foundation engineering
• Be able to explain formation of soils and the types of soil
• Be able to explain composition of clay minerals
• Be able to interpreted clay particle-water relations
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction of soil, ge
otechnical engineering and soil mechanics, formation of soil, and composition of clay
minerals.
3. Expectations or Outcomes
• Define the terminologies, differentiate and explain soil, geotechnical engineering,
soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
• Can clarify formation of soils and the types of soil.
• Can explain and interpreted composition of clay minerals and clay particle-water
relations
1
4. Equipment
-
5. Practice contents/Activities/Safety
-
6. Assessments
• Define soil, geotechnical engineering, soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
• How is soil formed?
• Differentiate the general types of soils.
7. Clean-up
-
8. Independent practice/Follow-up activities
• Learning through assignment
9. Review/Reflection
• Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure and previous reflected op
inions.
2
1. Introduction
1.1. Definition of Soil Mechanics
Soil mechanics is described as the application of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering

problems involving soil as a construction material and foundation. A geotechnical engineer's
description of soil includes not just agricultural material, but also broken-up rock fragments,
volcanic ash, alluvium, Aeolian sand, glacial material, and residual or transported rock
weathering results.
Soil Mechanics is an area of study that deals with the mechanical properties of soil and the
application of this knowledge to engineering problems. In particular, it is concerned with the
interaction of structures with their foundation material. This includes both conventional
structures and structures such as earth dams, embankments, and roads which are their-selves
made of soil.
The term 'soil mechanics' was described by Dr. Karl Terzaghi in 1925 when his book
Erdbaumechanic on the subject was published in German. Soil mechanics is the application
of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and
other accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical
disintegration of rock. Soil mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the action of
forces on soil and with the flow of water in the soil. The development of modern soil
mechanics is due to the contribution of Karl Terzaghi, who was regarded as the father of soil
mechanics.
As the soil is inherently a particulate system, soil mechanics is also called particulate
mechanics. The soil consists of discrete solid particles which are neither strongly bonded as
in solids nor they are as free as particles of fluids. It is not, therefore, surprising that soil
mechanics draws heavily from solid and fluid mechanics.
3
1.2 Soil, Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Mechanics
The term 'Soil' has different meanings in different scientific fields. It originated from the
Latin word Solum - meaning soil. To an agricultural scientist, it means 'the loose material on
the earth's crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of organic matter, which
supports plant life'. To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material which has not
been transported from its source to the place where it was formed. But, to a civil engineer,
the word 'soil' means the unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth's crust produced by
the disintegration of rocks, overlying hard rock with or without organic matter. Foundations
of all structures have to be placed on or in such soil, and this is the primary reason for our
interest as Civil Engineers.
Geotechnical engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that involves natural

materials found close to the surface of the earth - such as soil, aggregate, and rock - being
used to make civil structures. The term “geo” means earth. With the growth of science and
technology, the need for better and more economical structural design and construction
became critical.
Some exposure to rock mechanics and geology will strengthen your geotechnical engineering
skills. Mechanics is the physical science that deals with forces, stresses, moments,
displacements, strains, and equilibrium. Soil mechanics is where the principles of mechanics
are applied to soils, treating them as continuous media or continuum for simplicity.
Geotechnical operations are of importance with respect to soil sampling, investigating

geomaterials properties, controlling groundwater level and flow as well as environmental and
hydrological interactions. Foundation engineering, excavations and supporting ground
structures, underground structures, dams, natural or artificial fills, roads and airports,
subgrades and ground structures are examples of geotechnical engineering applications in
practice.
Geotechnical operations are of importance with respect to soil sampling, investigating

geomaterial properties, controlling groundwater level and flow, as well as environmental and
4
hydrological interactions. Foundation engineering, excavations and supporting ground
structures, underground structures, dams, natural or artificial fills, roads and airports,
subgrades and ground structures, and slope stability assessments are examples of
geotechnical engineering applications in practice.
1.3 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Foundation engineering is a branch of geotechnical engineering which applies soil

mechanics, structural engineering, and project serviceability requirements for design and
construction of foundations for building, bridge, wind turbine, onshore, offshore, and in-land
structures. The term Soil Mechanics is now accepted quite generally to designate that
discipline of engineering science which deals with the properties and behavior of soil as a
structural material. All structures have to be built on soils.
1.4 Formation of Soils
Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or without organic

constituents that can be separated by gentle mechanical means such as agitation in
water. By contrast rock is considered to be a natural aggregate of mineral grains
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces. The process of weathering of the
rock decreases the cohesive forces binding the mineral grains and leads to the
disintegration of bigger masses to smaller and smaller particles. Soils are formed by
the process of weathering of the parent rock. The weathering of the rocks might be by
mechanical disintegration, and/or chemical decomposition.
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering of rocks to smaller particles is due to the action of such

agents as the expansive forces of freezing water in fissures, due to sudden changes of
5
temperature or due to the abrasion of rock by moving water or glaciers. Temperature
changes of sufficient amplitude and frequency bring about changes in the volume of
the rocks in the superficial layers of the earth's crust in terms of expansion and
contraction. Such a volume change sets up tensile and shear stresses in the rock
ultimately leading to the fracture of even large rocks. This type of rock weathering
takes place in a very significant manner in and climates where free, extreme
atmospheric radiation brings about considerable variation in temperature at sunrise
and sunset. Erosion by wind and rain is a very important factor and a continuing
event. Cracking forces by growing plants and roots in voids and crevasses of rock can
force fragments apart.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering (decomposition) can transform hard rock minerals into soft,
easily erodible matter. The principal types of decomposition are hydration, oxidation,
carbonation, desilication and leaching. Oxygen and carbon dioxide which are always
present in the air readily combine with the elements of rock in the presence of water.
1.5 General Types of Soils
It has been discussed earlier that soil is formed by the process of physical and
chemical weathering. The individual size of the constituent parts of even the
weathered rock might range from the smallest state (colloidal) to the largest possible
(boulders). This implies that all the weathered constituents of a parent rock cannot be
termed soil. According to their grain size, soil particles are classified as cobbles,
gravel, sand, silt and clay. Grains having diameters in the range of 4.75 to 76.2 mm
are called gravel. If the grains are visible to the naked eye, but are less than about
4.75 mm in size the soil is described as sand. The lower limit of visibility of grains
for the naked eyes is about 0.075 mm. Soil grains ranging from 0.075 to 0.002 mm
are termed as silt and those that are finer than 0.002 mm as clay. This classification is
6
purely based on size which does not indicate the properties of fine grained materials.
Residual and Transported Soils
On the basis of origin of their constituents, soils can be divided into two large groups:
a) Residual soils, and
b) Transported soils.
Residual soils are those that remain at the place of their formation as a result of the
weathering of parent rocks. The depth of residual soils depends primarily on climatic
conditions and the time of exposure. In some areas, this depth might be considerable.
In temperate zones residual soils are commonly stiff and stable. An important
characteristic of residual soil is that the sizes of grains are indefinite. For example,
when a residual sample is sieved, the amount passing any given sieve size depends
greatly on the time and energy expended in shaking, because of the partially
disintegrated condition.
Transported soils are soils that are found at locations far removed from their place of
formation. The transporting agencies of such soils are glaciers, wind and water. The
soils are named according to the mode of transportation. Alluvial soils are those that
have been transported by running water. The soils that have been deposited in quiet
lakes are lacustrine soils. Marine soils are those deposited in sea water. The soils
transported and deposited by wind are Aeolian soils. Those deposited primarily
through the action of gravitational force, as in landslides, are Colluvial soils. Glacial
soils are those deposited by glaciers. Many of these transported soils are loose and
soft to a depth of several hundred feet. Therefore, difficulties with foundations and
other types of construction are generally associated with transported soils.
Organic and Inorganic Soils
Soils in general are further classified as organic or inorganic. Soils of organic origin
are chiefly formed either by growth and subsequent decay of plants such as peat, or
by the accumulation of fragments of the inorganic skeletons or shells of organisms.
Hence a soil of organic origin can be either organic or inorganic. The term organic
7
soil ordinarily refers to a transported soil consisting of the products of rock
weathering with a more or less conspicuous admixture of decayed vegetable matter.
1.6 Soil Particle Size and Shape
The size of particles as explained earlier may range from gravel to the finest size
possible. Their characteristics vary with the size. Soil particles coarser than 0.075
mm are visible to the naked eye or may be examined by means of a hand lens. They
constitute the coarser fractions of the soils. Grains finer than 0.075 mm constitute the
finer fractions of soils. It is possible to distinguish the grains lying between 0.075
mm and 2µ (1µ = 1 micron = 0.001 mm) under a microscope. Grains having a size
between 2µ and 0.1µ can be observed under a microscope but their shapes cannot be
made out. The shape of grains smaller than 1µ can be determined by means of an
electron microscope. The molecular structure of particles can be investigated by
means of X-ray analysis.
The coarser fractions of soils consist of gravel and sand. The individual particles of
gravel, which are nothing but fragments of rock, are composed of one or more
minerals, whereas sand grains contain mostly one mineral which is quartz. The
individual grains of gravel and sand may be angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded,
rounded or well-rounded as shown in Fig. 1.1. Gravel may contain grains which may
be flat. Some sands contain a fairly high percentage of mica flakes that give them the
property of elasticity.
Silt and clay constitute the finer fractions of the soil. Any one grain of this fraction
generally consists of only one mineral. The particles may be angular, flake-shaped or
sometime needle-like. Table 1.2 gives the particle size classification systems as
adopted by some organizations. The Unified Soil Classification System is now
almost universally accepted and has been adopted by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM).
8
Fig 1.1: Shapes of coarser fractions of soils
Table1.1: Particle size classification by various systems
9
Specific Surface
Soil is essentially a particulate system, that is, a system in which the particles are in a
fine state of subdivision or dispersion. In soils, the dispersed or the solid phase
predominates and the dispersion medium, soil water, only helps to fill the pores
between the solid particles. The significance of the concept of dispersion becomes
more apparent when the relationship of surface to particle size is considered. In the
case of silt, sand and larger size particles the ratio of the area of surface of the
particles to the volume of the sample is relatively small. This ratio becomes
increasingly large as size decreases from 2µ which is the upper limit for clay-sized
particles. A useful index of relative importance of surface effects is the specific
surface of grain. The specific surface is defined as the total area of the surface of the
grains expressed in square centimeters per gram or per cubic centimeter of the
dispersed phase.
The shape of the clay particles is an important property from a physical point of
view. The amount of surface per unit mass or volume varies with the shape of the
particles. Moreover, the amount of contact area per unit surface changes with shape.
It is a fact that a sphere has the smallest surface area per unit volume whereas a plate
exhibits the maximum. Ostwald (1919) has emphasized the importance of shape in
determining the specific surface of colloidal systems. Since disc-shaped particles can
be brought more in intimate contact with each other, this shape has a pronounced
effect upon the mechanical properties of the system. The interparticle forces between
the surfaces of particles have a significant effect on the properties of the soil mass if
the particles in the media belong to the clay fraction. The surface activity depends not
only on the specific surface but also on the chemical and mineralogical composition
of the solid particles. Since clay particles are the active portions of a soil because of
their high specific surface and their chemical constitution, a discussion on the
chemical composition and structure of minerals is essential.
10
1.7 Composition of Clay Minerals
The word `clay' is generally understood to refer to a material composed of a mass of

small mineral particles which, in association with certain quantities of water, exhibits
the property of plasticity. According to the clay mineral concept, clay materials are
essentially composed of extremely small crystalline particles of one or more
members of a small group of minerals that are commonly known as clay minerals.
These minerals are essentially hydrous aluminum silicates, with magnesium or iron
replacing wholly or in part for the aluminum, in some minerals. Many clay materials
may contain organic material and water-soluble salts. Organic materials occur either
as discrete particles of wood, leaf matter, spores, etc., or they may be present as
organic molecules adsorbed on the surface of the clay mineral particles. The water-
soluble salts that are present in clay materials must have been entrapped in the clay at
the time of accumulation or may have developed subsequently as a consequence of
ground water movement and weathering or alteration processes.
Clays can be divided into three general groups on the basis of their crystalline
arrangement and it is observed that roughly similar engineering properties are
connected with all the clay minerals belonging to the same group. An initial study of
the crystal structure of clay minerals leads to a better understanding of the behavior
of clays under different conditions of loading. Table 1.3 gives the groups of minerals
and some of the important minerals under each group.
1.8 Structure of Clay Minerals
Clay minerals are essentially crystalline in nature though some clay minerals do
contain material which is non-crystalline (for example allophane). Two fundamental
building blocks are involved in the formation of clay mineral structures. They are:
Tetrahedral unit and octahedral unit.
11
Table 1.2: Clay Minerals
The tetrahedral unit consists of four oxygen atoms (or hydroxyls, if needed to balance
the structure) placed at the apices of a tetrahedron enclosing a silicon atom which
combines together to form a shell-like structure with all the tips pointing in the same
direction. The oxygen at the bases of all the units lies in a common plane.
Each of the oxygen ions at the base is common to two units. The arrangement is
shown in Fig. 1.2. The oxygen atoms are negatively charged with two negative
charges each and the silicon with four positive charges. Each of the three oxygen ions
at the base shares its charges with the adjacent tetrahedral unit. The sharing of
charges leaves three negative charges at the base per tetrahedral unit and this along
with two negative charges at the apex makes a total of 5 negative charges to balance
the 4 positive charges of the silicon ion. The process of sharing the oxygen ions at the
base with neighboring units leaves a net charge of 1 per unit.
The second building block is an octahedral unit with six hydroxyl ions at apices of an
octahedral enclosing an aluminum ion at the center. Iron or magnesium ions may
replace aluminum ions in some units. These octahedral units are bound together in a
sheet structure with each hydroxyl ion common to three octahedral units. This sheet
is sometimes called as gibbsite sheet. The Al ion has 3 positive charges and each
hydroxyl ion divides its 1 charge with two other neighboring units.
12
Fig1.2: Basic structural units in the silicon sheet (Grim, 1959)
This sharing of negative charge with other units leaves a total of 2 negative charges
per unit [(1/3) x 6]. The net charge of a unit with an aluminum ion at the center is +1.
Fig. 1.3 gives the structural arrangements of the units. Sometimes, magnesium
replaces the aluminum atoms in the octahedral units in this case the octahedral sheet
is called a brucite sheet.
Fig 1.3: Basic structural units in octahedral sheet (Grim, 1959)
13
1.8.1 Formation of Minerals
The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite in different arrangements and
conditions lead to the formation of different clay minerals as given in Table 1.3. In
the actual formation of the sheet silicate minerals, the phenomenon of isomorphous
substitution frequently occurs. Isomorphous (meaning same form) substitution
consists of the substitution of one kind of atom for another.
Kaolinite Mineral
This is the most common mineral of the kaolin group. The building blocks of gibbsite
and silica sheets are arranged as shown in Fig. 1.4 to give the structure of the
kaolinite layer. The structure is composed of a single tetrahedral sheet and a single
alumina octahedral sheet combined in units so that the tips of the silica tetrahedrons
and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. All the tips of the
silica tetrahedrons point in the same direction and towards the center of the unit made
of the silica and octahedral sheets. This gives rise to strong ionic bonds between the
silica and gibbsite sheets. The thickness of the layer is about 7 (one =angstrom =
10-8 cm) thick. The kaolinite mineral is formed by stacking the layers one above the
other with the base of the silica sheet bonding to hydroxyls of the gibbsite sheet by
hydrogen bonding. Since hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong, the kaolinite
crystals consist of many sheet stackings that are difficult to dislodge. The mineral is
therefore, stable, and water cannot enter between the sheets to expand the unit cells.
The lateral dimensions of kaolinite particles range from 1000 to 20,000 and the
thickness varies from 100 to 1000 . In the kaolinite mineral there is a very small
amount of isomorphous substitution.
14
Figure 1.4: Structure of kaolinite layer
Halloysite Mineral
Halloysite minerals are made up of successive layers with the same structural
composition as those composing kaolinite. In this case, however, the successive units
are randomly packed and may be separated by a single molecular layer of water. The
dehydration of the interlayers by the removal of the water molecules leads to changes
in the properties of the mineral. An important structural feature of halloysite is that
the particles appear to take tubular forms as opposed to the platy shape of kaolinite.
Montmorillonite Mineral
Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the montmorillonite group. The

structural arrangement of this mineral is composed of two silica tetrahedral sheets
with a central alumina octahedral sheet. All the tips of the tetrahedra point in the
same direction and toward the center of the unit. The silica and gibbsite sheets are
combined in such a way that the tips of the tetrahedrons of each silica sheet and one
15
of the hydroxyl layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. The atoms
common to both the silica and gibbsite layer become oxygen instead of hydroxyls.
The thickness of the silica-gibbsite-silica unit is about 10 as indicated in Fig. 1.5. In
stacking these combined units one above the other, oxygen layers of each unit are
adjacent to oxygen of the neighboring units with a consequence that there is a very
weak bond and an excellent cleavage between them. Water can enter between the
sheets, causing them to expand significantly and thus the structure can break into 10
thick structural units. Soils containing a considerable amount of montmorillonite
minerals will exhibit high swelling and shrinkage characteristics. The lateral
dimensions of montmorillonite particles range from 1000 to 5000 with thickness
varying from 10 to 50 . Bentonite clay belongs to the montmorillonite group. In
montmorillonite, there is isomorphous substitution of magnesium and iron for
aluminum.
Figure 1.5: Structure of montmorillonite layer
16
Illite Mineral
The basic structural unit of Illite is similar to that of montmorillonite except that
some of the silicons are always replaced by aluminum atoms and the resultant charge
deficiency is balanced by potassium ions. The potassium ions occur between unit
layers. The bonds with the nonexchangeable K+ ions are weaker than the hydrogen
bonds, but stronger than the water bond of montmorillonite. Illite, therefore, does not
swell as much in the presence of water as does montmorillonite. The lateral
dimensions of illite clay particles are about the same as those of montmorillonite,
1000 to 5000 , but the thickness of illite particles is greater than that of
montmorillonite particles, 50 to 500 . The arrangements of silica and gibbsite sheets
are as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Fig 1.6: Structure of Illite Layer
17
1.9 Clay Particle-Water Relations
The behavior of a soil mass depends upon the behavior of the discrete particles
composing the mass and the pattern of particle arrangement. In all these cases water
plays an important part. The behavior of the soil mass is profoundly influenced by the
inter-particle-water relationships, the ability of the soil particles to adsorb
exchangeable cations and the amount of water present.
Adsorbed Water
The clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surface. This is the result of
both isomorphous substitution and of a break in the continuity of the structure at its
edges. The intensity of the charge depends to a considerable extent on the
mineralogical character of the particle. The physical and chemical manifestations of
the surface charge constitute the surface activity of the mineral. Minerals are said to
have high or low surface activity, depending on the intensity of the surface charge.
As pointed out earlier, the surface activity depends not only on the specific surface
but also on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the solid particle. The
surface activity of sand, therefore, will not acquire all the properties of a true clay,
even if it is ground to a fine powder. The presence of water does not alter its
properties of coarser fractions considerably excepting changing its unit weight.
However, the behavior of a saturated soil mass consisting of fine sand might change
under dynamic loadings. This aspect of the problem is not considered here. This
chapter deals only with clay particle-water relations.
In nature every soil particle is surrounded by water. Since the centers of positive and
negative charges of water molecules do not coincide, the molecules behave like
dipoles. The negative charge on the surface of the soil particle, therefore, attracts the
positive (hydrogen) end of the water molecules. The water molecules are arranged in
a definite pattern in the immediate vicinity of the boundary between solid and water.
More than one layer of water molecules sticks on the surface with considerable force
18
and this attractive force decrease with the increase in the distance of the water
molecule from the surface. The electrically attracted water that surrounds the clay
particle is known as the diffused double-layer of water. The water located within the
zone of influence is known as the adsorbed layer as shown in Fig. 1.7. Within the
zone of influence the physical properties of the water are very different from those of
free or normal water at the same temperature. Near the surface of the particle the
water has the property of a solid. At the middle of the layer it resembles a very
viscous liquid and beyond the zone of influence, the properties of the water become
normal. The adsorbed water affects the behavior of clay particles when subjected to
external stresses, since it comes between the particle surfaces. To drive off the
adsorbed water, the clay particle must be heated to more than 200 °C, which would
indicate that the bond between the water molecules and the surface is considerably
greater than that between normal water molecules.
The adsorbed film of water on coarse particles is thin in comparison with the
diameter of the particles. In fine grained soils, however, this layer of adsorbed water
is relatively much thicker and might even exceed the size of the grain. The forces
associated with the adsorbed layers therefore play an important part in determining
the physical properties of the very fine-grained soils, but have little effect on the
coarser soils.
Soils in which the adsorbed film is thick compared to the grain size have properties
quite different from other soils having the same grain sizes but smaller adsorbed
films. The most pronounced characteristic of the former is their ability to deform
plastically without cracking when mixed with varying amounts of water. This is due
to the grains moving across one another supported by the viscous interlayers of the
films. Such soils are called cohesive soils, for they do not disintegrate with pressure
but can be rolled into threads with ease. Here the cohesion is not due to direct
molecular interaction between soil particles at the points of contact but to the
shearing strength of the adsorbed layers that separate the grains at these points.
19
Figure 1.7: Adsorbed water layer surrounding a soil particle
20
Assessment
Objective Type Question
1. Soil are basically

a. Organic material
b. Inorganic material
c. Mineral material
d. Organic material and Inorganic material
2. Chemical weathering occurs because of
a. Oxidation
b. Hydration
c. Carbonation
d. All
3. On the basis of origin of their constituents, soils can be
a. Residual soils, and Transported soils
b. Gavel and sand
c. Silt and clay
d. Cobble
4. ______is described as the application of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering pro
blems involving soil as a construction material and foundation.
a. Hydraulics engineering
b. Soil mechanics
c. Engineering mechanics
d. Solid mechanics
5. Tetrahedral unit and octahedral unit are:
a. Involves in the formation of clay mineral structures
b. Involves construction of foundation
c. Important in defining soil shape
d. Included design of geotechnical structure
21
Subjective questions
1. Describe briefly the origin of soils and summarize the factors which
control their formation.
2. Discuss the composition of soil in the context of civil engineering.
3. What are the fundamental problems of soil Mechanics in civil engineering

practice?
4. Discuss in detail about clay mineral structure.
5. Differentiate soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering.
22
6. Explain the difference between Residual soils and Transported soils .
7. Classify soil based on their size.
23
References:
1. Das, Braja, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th ed., Brooks/Cole, 2002.
2. Arora, D. K. (n.d.). Soil mechanics and Foundaion Engineering, 2003
4. Budhu M., Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley and Sons, 2000
5. Lambe, T. W., Whitman, R. V., Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 199966
6. Helwany, S., The Mechanics of Soils and Foundations, 2nd ed..
7. McCarthy, David F. - Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations _ basic geotechnics-

Pearson (2014)
24
Chapter 2 Physical characteristics of soils
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define soil phase relationships
• Be able to interpret the phase diagram
• Be able to compute terms in mass-volume relationships
• Be able to conduct test for particle size analysis
• Be able to conduct test for consistency of clay soil
• Be able to classify soils
2. Motivation
• Outputs through question and answer; repetitive discussion and conducting tests abo
ut physical characteristics of soils.
3. Expectations or outcomes
 Define the terminologies, differentiate and explain soil phase relationships
architecture; the assessment standard attached at the end of the job task sheet.
 Can compute terms in mass-volume relationships
 Can conduct test for water content, density and specific gravity
 Can conduct test for particle size analysis and consistency of clay soil
 Can consistency of clay soil
4. Equipment
• Sieve sets, sieve shaker
• Oven dry
• Hydrometer
• Liquid limit service
25
• Plastic limit device
• Shrinkage limit device

 Determination of water content
 Determination of density
 Determination of specific gravity
 Particle Size Analysis
o Sieve Analysis
o The Hydrometer Method of Analysis
 Consistency of Clay Soil
o Determination of Liquid Limit
o Determination of Plastic Limit
o Determination of Shrinkage limit
6. Assessments
7. Clean-up
 After finishing practice, all tools and equipment utilized in the practice shall be
returned back to the proper storage place.
 Clean up the work bench and practice shop.
8. Independent practice/follow-up activities
• Learning through assignment, laboratory project

9. Review/reflection
inions.
26
1 Physical Characteristics of Soils
2.1 The phase diagram
In general, soil is a three-phase system composed of solid, liquid and gaseous matter. The
voids in between solid soil particles are filled with either water or air or both. In completely
saturated soil, the voids are filled with water only whereas; in case of completely dry soil
voids are filled with air only. In case of partially saturated soil, the voids are filled with both
water and air. The representation of different phases of soil with diagrams is called as phase
diagram. Figure 2.1(a) shows the phase diagram of partially saturated soil (three-phase
system: solid, water and air).
2.2 Soil Phase Relationships
Soil mass is generally a three phase system. It consists of solid particles, liquid and gas. For
all practical purposes, the liquid may be considered to be water (although in some cases, the
water may contain some dissolved salts) and the gas as air. The phase system may be
expressed in SI units either in terms of mass-volume or weight-volume relationships. The
inter relationships of the different phases are important since they help to define the
condition or the physical make-up of the soil.
Mass-Volume Relationship
In SI units, the mass M is normally expressed in kg and the density p in kg/m3. Sometimes,
the mass and densities are also expressed in g and g/cm3 or Mg and Mg/m3 respectively. The
density of water o at 4 °C is exactly 1.00 g/cm3 (= 1000 kg/m3 = 1 Mg/m3). Since the
variation in density is relatively small over the range of temperatures encountered in ordinary
27
engineering practice, the density of water w at other temperatures may be taken the same as
that at 4 °C. The volume is expressed either in cm3 or m3.
Weight-Volume Relationship
Unit weight or weight per unit volume is still the common measurement in geotechnical
engineering practice. The density, may be converted to unit weight,  by using the
relationship
  g 2.1
The 'standard' value of g is 9.807 m/s2 (= 9.81 m/s2 for all practical purposes).
2.3 Mass-Volume Relationships
The phase-relationships in terms of mass-volume and weight-volume for a soil mass are
shown by a block diagram in Fig. 2.1. A block of unit sectional area is considered. The
volumes of the different constituents are shown on the right side and the corresponding
mass/weights on the right and left sides of the block. The mass/weight of air may be assumed
as zero.
Volumetric Ratios
There are three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotechnical engineering and these
can be determined directly from the phase diagram, Fig. 2.1.
Void ratio
The void ratio, e, is defined as
vv
e 2.2
vs
28
Where, Vv = volume of voids, and Vs = volume of the solids.
The void ratio e is always expressed as a decimal.
Fig 2.1: Block diagram for the three phases of a soil element
Porosity
The porosity n is defined as
vv
n  100 2.3
v
Where, V - total volume of the soil sample.
The porosity n is always expressed as a percentage.
29
Degree of saturation
The degree of saturation S is defined as
vw
S 100 2.4
vv
Where, Vw = volume of water
It is always expressed as a percentage. When S = 0%, the soil is completely dry, and when S
= 100%, the soil is fully saturated.
Water Content
The water content, w, of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of water, Mw, in the
voids to the mass of solids, Ms, as
Mw
w 100 2.5
Ms
The water content, which is usually expressed as a percentage, can range from zero (dry soil)
to several hundred percent. The natural water content for most soils is well under 100%, but
for the soils of volcanic origin (for example bentonite) it can range up to 500% or more.
Density
Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is density (or, unit weight) which is
expressed as mass per unit volume. There are several commonly used densities. These may
be defined as the total (or bulk), or moist density, r; the dry density, d; the saturated
density, sat; the density of the particles, solid density, s; and density of water w. Each of
these densities is defined as follows with respect to Fig. 2.1.
M
Total density, t  2.6
v
30
Ms
Dry density, d  for S = 0 2.7
v
M
Saturated density,  sat  for S = 100% 2.8
v
Ms
Density of solids, s  2.9
vs
Mw
Density of water, w  2.10
vw
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mass in air to the mass of an
equal volume of water at reference temperature, 4 °C. The specific gravity of a mass of soil
(including air, water and solids) is termed as bulk specific gravity Gm. It is expressed as
t M
Gm   2.11
w vw
The specific gravity of solids, Gs, (excluding air and water) is expressed by
s Ms
Gs   2.12
 w vs  w
Interrelationships of Different Parameters
We can establish relationships between the different parameters defined by equations from
(2.2) through (2.12). In order to develop the relationships, the block diagram Fig. 3.2 is made
use of. Since the sectional area perpendicular to the plane of the paper is assumed as unity,
the heights of the blocks will represent the volumes. The volume of solids may be
represented as Vs = 1. When the soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with
water.
31
Relationship between e and n (Fig. 2.2)
vv vv v e
e   vv , n  v 
vs 1 v 1 e
2.13
n
or
1 n
Relationship between e, Gs and S
Case 1: When partially saturated (S < 100%)
vw vw
S  2.14
vv e
vw vw M wM s wGsVS W
S  but v w  w    wGs
vv e w w w
wGs wGs
Therefore, S  or e= 2.15
e s
Case 2: When saturated (S = 100%)
From Eq. (2.15), we have (for S=1) e = wGs
Relationships between Density  and Other Parameters
The density of soil can be expressed in terms of other parameters for cases of soil (1)
partially saturated (S < 100%); (2) fully saturated (S = 100%); (3) Fully dry (S = 0); and (4)
submerged.
  w  Gs  eS 
 t  For S  100%
 1 e
  w  Gs  e 
 t  For S = 100% 2.16
 1 e
  wGs
 t  1  e For S= 0%

32
Figure 2.2 Block diagram for the three phases of a soil element
Submerged density
If the soil is submerged, the density of the submerged soil b, is equal to the density of the
saturated soil reduced by the density of water, that is:
( ) ( )
( ) 2.17
Relative Density
The looseness or denseness of sandy soils can be expressed numerically by relative density
Dr, defined by the equation:
emax  e
Dr  100 2.18
emax  emin
emax= void ratio of sand in its loosest state having a dry density of dm
emin = Vid ratio in its densest state having a dry density of dM
e = void ratio under in-situ condition having a dry density of d
33
From the third case of Eq. (2.16), a general equation for e may be written as:
2.19
Now substituting the corresponding dry densities for emax, emin and e in Eq. (2.18) and
simplifying, we have
dM d  dm
Dr   100 2.20
d dM  dm
The loosest state for a granular material can usually be created by allowing the dry material
to fall into a container from a funnel held in such a way that the free fall is about one
centimeter. The densest state can be established by a combination of static pressure and
vibration of soil packed in a container.
2.4 Weight-Volume Relationships
The weight-volume relationships can be established from the earlier equations by

substituting  for p and W for M. The various equations are formulated below.
Ww
1. Water content (w) w  100% 2.21
Ws
W  Gs  Se 
    w
V  1  e 
2. Unit weight 2.22
3. Unit weight of solids  2.23
Ws  G s  
4. Dry unit weight (S = 0) d     w  2.24
V 1  e  1 w
G  e
5. Saturated unit weight (S = 1)  sat   s  w 2.25
 1 e 
Ws
6. Specific gravity (Gs) Gs  2.26
Vs  w
34
 G  1
7. Submerged unit weight  '   sat   w   s  w 2.27
 1 e 
2.5 Comments on Soil Phase Relationships
The void ratios of natural sand deposits depend upon the shape of the grains, the uniformity
of grain size, and the conditions of sedimentation. The void ratios of clay soils range from
less than unity to 5 or more. The soils with higher void ratios have a loose structure and
generally belong to the montmorillonite group. The specific gravity of solid particles of most
soils varies from 2.5 to 2.9. For most of the calculations, G can be assumed as 2.65 for
cohesionless soils and 2.70 for5 clay soils. The dry unit weights (d) of granular soils range
from 14 to 18 kN/m3, whereas, the saturated unit weights of fine grained soils can range from
12.5 to 22.7 kN/m3. Table 2.1 gives typical values of porosity, void ratio, water content
(when saturated) and unit weights of various types of soils
Table 2.1: Porosity, void ratio, water content, and unit weights of typical
soils in natural state
Soil Porosity Void Water Uni t weight

no. Description of soil n% ratio e content w% kN/m 3 ,  d  sat
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Uniform sand, loose 46 0.85 32 14 18.5
2 Uniform sand, loose 34 0.51 19 17 20.5
3 Mixed-grained sand, loose 40 0.67 25 15.6 19.5
4 Mixed-grained sand, dense 30 0.43 16 18.2 21.2
5 Glacial till, mixed grained 20 0.25 9 20.8 22.7
6 Soft glacial clay 55 1.2 45 11.9 17.3
7 Soft glacial clay 37 0.6 22 16.7 20.3
8 Soft slightly organic clay 66 1.9 70 9.1 15.5
9 Soft highly organic clay 75 3 110 6.8 14
10 Soft bentonite 8 5.2 194 4.2 12.4
35
Example 2.1
The soil was put in an over and dried to a constant mass of 2.5 kg. When the soil is wet its
mass is 3 kg with a volume of 1.5 liters. Determine the water content, dry density, void ratio,
porosity, degree of saturation, bulk density & saturated density.
Solution
Mass of water = Mt - Ms = 3 kg – 2.5 kg = 0.5 kg
 Water content, w =
 Dry density,
 Void ratio, e =
Vv = Vt - Vs = 1.5 x 10-3 - 0.0009434 = 0.000557 m3
 Porosity, n =
or n =
 Degree of saturation, S =
 Wet bulk density,
M Sat
 Sat  , Msat  Ms  Mw  w x Va
Vt
Va = Vv - Vw = 0.000557 m3 - 0.0005 m3 = 0.000057 m3
Msat = 2.5 kg + 0.5 kg + (0.000057) x 1000 = 3.057 kg
36
Example 2.2
Drive
( )
a.
Solution
Mt Ms  Mw G w .Vs   w .Vw G. w   w .Se

b    
Vt 1 e 1 e 1 e
W (G  Se)
 b 
1 e
b. [ ( ) ]
Solution
GW (1  n)  W Sn
1
 b  G(1  n)  SnW
Example 2.3
The mass of a soil in a mold is 1.90 kg. The water content of the soil is 15 %. Volume of the
mold = 0.95 liters. Determine the dry density, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation.
Solution
Mt 1.90 kg
b   3
 2000kg / m3
Vt 0.95 x10
b 2000 2000
d     1739.13 kg / m3
1 w 1  0.15 1.15
37
Gw Gw 2.67 x1000
d   1 e    1.535
1 e d 1739.13
 e = 1.535 –1 = 0.535
wG 0.15 x 2.67
 S    74.86 %
e 0.535
Example 2.4
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 9.35x10-3 m3 and weights 177.6x10-3 kN. The
oven-dry weight of the soil is 153.6x10-3 kN. If Gs=2.67, calculate the moisture content
moist unit weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.
Solution
Ww=177.6x10-3 – 153.6x10-3=0.024 kN
W= =15.6%
= =18.99 kN/m3
= =16.43 kN/m3
( )
= 16.43= e=0.59
n= = =0.371
Se=Gsw
( )
S= =69.9%
38
Example 2.5
For a given sandy soil, emax=0.75, emin=0.46, and Gs=2.86. What will be the moist unit weight
of compaction (kN/m3) in the field Dr=78% and w=9%?
Solution
Dr= 0.78= → e= 0.5238
( ) ( )( )
= = =18.8 kg/m3
2.6 Particle Size Analysis
The grain size analysis test is performed to determine the percentage of each size of grain
that is contained within a soil sample, and the results of the test can be used to produce the
grain size distribution curve. This information is used to classify the soil and to predict its
behavior. The two methods generally used to find the grain size distribution are:
 Sieve analysis which is used for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter and
 Hydrometer analysis which is used for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in
diameter
2.6.1 Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves. Sieves are made by weaving
two sets of wires at right angles to one another. The square holes thus formed between the
wires provide the limit which determines the size of the particles retained on a particular
sieve. The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of openings per inch. The number of
openings per inch varies according to different standards.
39
Sieve analysis is a method that is used to determine the grain size distribution of soils that
are greater than 0.075 mm in diameter. It is usually performed for sand and gravel but
cannot be used as the sole method for determining the grain size distribution of finer
soil. The list of the U.S. standard sieve numbers with their corresponding opening sizes are
provided
Table 2.2 U.S. Sieve Sizes with Number Designation
Sieve Opening Sieve Opening

no. (mm) no. (mm)
4 4.75 45 0.355
5 4 50 0.3
6 3.35 60 0.25
7 2.8 70 0.212
8 2.36 80 0.18
10 2 100 0.15
12 1.7 120 0.125
14 1.4 140 0.106
16 1.18 170 0.09
18 1 200 0.075
20 0.85 230 0.063
25 0.71 270 0.053
30 0.6 325 0.045
35 0.5 400 0.038
40 0.425
40
The usual procedure is to use a set of sieves which will yield equal grain size intervals on a
logarithmic scale. A good spacing of soil particle diameters on the grain size distribution
curve will be obtained if a nest of sieves is used in which each sieve has an opening
approximately one-half of the coarser sieve above it in the nest. If the soil contains gravel,
the coarsest sieve that can be used to separate out gravel from sand is the No. 4 Sieve (4.75
mm opening). To separate out the silt-clay fractions from the sand fractions, No. 200 sieve
may be used. The intermediate sieves between the coarsest and the finest may be selected on
the basis of the principle explained earlier. The nest of sieves consists of Nos 4 (4.75 mm), 8
(2.36 mm), 16 (1.18 mm) 30 (600 µm), 50 (300 µm), 100 (150 µm), and 200 (75 µm).
Example 2.6
For the sieve analysis the Data we have is:
Sieve Diameter Sieve Mass

Sieve No Sieve Mass + Soil Mass (g)
(mm) (g)
(1/2) 12.500 544.54 544.54
(3/8) 9.5000 543.60 548.33
#4 4.7500 511.02 533.03
# 10 2.00 487.74 512.09
# 20 0.85 419.77 446.09
# 40 0.425 385.33 399.66
#60 0.25 357.4 365.7
# 100 0.1500 353.76 362.84
# 200 0.0750 339.16 360.34
41
Solution
Sieve Sieve Mass Cumulative

% retained % finer
Size Size retained % retained
( Rn ) 100- ∑Rn
(inch) (mm) (gm) ∑Rn
(1/2) 12.5 0 0.000% 0 100
(3/8) 9.5 4.73 0.473% 0.473% 99.527
#4 4.75 22.01 2.201% 2.674% 97.326
# 10 2 24.35 2.435% 5.109% 94.891
# 20 0.85 26.32 2.632% 7.741% 92.259
# 40 0.425 14.33 1.433% 9.174% 90.826
#60 0.25 8.3 0.830% 10.004% 89.996
# 100 0.15 9.08 0.908% 10.912% 89.088
# 200 0.075 21.18 2.118% 13.030% 86.970
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
% Passing
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain size
42
2.6.2 The Hydrometer Method of Analysis
The hydrometer method was originally proposed in 1926 by Prof. Bouyoucos of Michigan
Agricultural College, and later modified by Casagrande (1931). The hydrometer method is
used to determine the distribution of the finer particles. The hydrometer analysis is the
procedure generally adopted for determining the particle-size distribution in a soil for the
fraction that is finer than No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm) size. This method depends upon
variations in the density of a soil suspension contained in a 1000 mL graduated cylinder. In
hydrometer analysis, a soil specimen is dispersed in water. In a dispersed state in water, the
soil particles will settle, individually. The density of the suspension is measured with a
hydrometer at determined time intervals; then the coarsest diameter of particles in suspension
at a given time and the percentage of particles finer than that coarsest (suspended) diameter
are computed. These computations are based on Stokes' formula which is described below.
Stokes' Law
Stokes (1856), an English physicist, proposed an equation for determining the terminal
velocity of a falling sphere in a liquid. If a single sphere is allowed to fall through a liquid of
indefinite extent, the terminal velocity, v can be expressed as,
s w 2
v D 2.21
18
in which, distance L
dist an ce L
v -terminal velocity of fall of a sphere through a liquid  
time t
s = unit weight of solid sphere
w = unit weight of liquid
 = absolute viscosity of liquid
43
D = diameter of sphere.
From Eq. (2.21), after substituting for v, we have
18 L
D 2.22
 Gs  1  w t
In which s = Gsγw
If L is in cm, t is in min, y in g/cm3,  in (g-sec)/cm2 and D in mm, then Eq. (2.22) may be
written as
D  mm  18 L

10  Gs  1  w t  60
2.23
30 L L
or D= K
 Gs  1  w t t
30
Where, K  2.24
 Gs  1
By assuming w lg/cm3
It may be noted here that the factor K is a function of temperature T, specific gravity Gs of
particles and viscosity of water. Table 3.4a gives the values of K for the various values of Gs
at different temperatures T. If it is necessary to calculate D without the use of Table 2.4a we
can use Eq. (2.23) directly. Correction of Hydrometer Reading
The hydrometer readings are corrected as:

i. Meniscus correction since the suspension is opaque; the observations are taken at the top
of meniscus. The meniscus correction is equal to the reading between the top of the
meniscus and the level of the liquid. As the marking on the stem increases downward, the
correction is positive and is a constant for a given hydrometer. The meniscus correction is
about 0.5 to 1.0 g/L for most 152 H hydrometer. The correction hydrometer reading for
meniscus is:
44
R = Ra+ meniscus correction
Where: Ra = the actual reading above meniscus.
ii. Temperature correction the hydrometer is calibrated at 20°C. If the temperature of the
suspension is different from 20°C, a temperature correction (CT) is required for
hydrometer reading. The temperature correction is obtained from the table ------.
iii. Dispersion agent correction Addition of the dispersing agent to the soil specimen causes
increasing in the specific gravity of the suspension. The effect of water impurities and the
dispersing agent on hydrometer readings can be obtained by using a control jar from the
same source and with the same quantity of dispersing agent (125 ml) as used in the soil-
water suspension to obtain "zero correction".
Figure 2.3 ASTM 152 H type Figure 2.4 Immersion correction
2.7 Grain Size Distribution Curves
A typical set of grain size distribution curves is given in Fig. 2.5 with the grain size D as the
abscissa on the logarithmic scale and the percent finer P as the ordinate on the arithmetic
45
scale. On the curve C1 the section AB represents the portion obtained by sieve analysis and
the section B'C' by hydrometer analysis. Since the hydrometer analysis gives equivalent
diameters which are generally less than the actual sizes, the section B'C' will not be a
continuation of AB and would occupy a position shown by the dotted curve. If we assume
that the curve BC is the actual curve obtained by sketching it parallel to B'C', then at any
percentage finer, say 20 per cent, the diameters Da and De represent the actual and
equivalent diameters respectively. The ratio of Da to Dg can be quite high for flaky grains.
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On the basis of the shapes we
can classify soils as:
1 .Uniformly graded or poorly graded.
2. Well graded.
3. Gap graded.
Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical lines as shown by curve C 2 in Fig.
2.7. Such soils possess particles of almost the same diameter. A well graded soil, represented
by curve Cp possesses a wide range of particle sizes ranging from gravel to clay size
particles. A gap graded soil, as shown by curve C3 has some of the sizes of particles missing.
On this curve the soil particles falling within the range of XY are missing.
The grain distribution curves as shown in Fig. 2.5 can be used to understand certain grain
size characteristics of soils. Hazen (1893) has shown that the permeability of clean filter
sands in a loose state can be correlated with numerical values designated D10, the effective
grain size. The effective grain size corresponds to 10 per cent finer particles. Hazen found
that the sizes smaller than the effective size affected the functioning of filters more than did
the remaining 90 per cent of the sizes.
To determine whether a material is uniformly graded or well graded, Hazen proposed the
following equation:
D60
Cu  2.25
D10
46
Where D60 is the diameter of the particle at 60 per cent finer on the grain size distribution
curve. The uniformity coefficient, Cu, is about one if the grain size distribution curve is
almost vertical, and the value increases with gradation. For all practical purposes we can
consider the following values for granular soils.
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
C < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size
Figure 2.5 Grain size distribution curves
There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of particles. This is based
on the term called the coefficient of curvature which is expressed as
47
D302
Cc  2.26
D10  D60
Where in D30 is the size of particle at 30 percent finer on the gradation curve. The soil is said
to be well graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands.
Two samples of soils are said to be similarly graded if their grain size distribution curves are
almost parallel to each other on a semi logarithmic plot. When the curves are almost parallel
to each other the ratios of their diameters at any percentage finer approximately remain
constant. Such curves are useful in the design of filter materials around drainage pipes.
2.8 Consistency of Clay Soil
Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of firmness of cohesive soils. The
consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed qualitatively by such terms as very
soft, soft, stiff, very stiff and hard. This is applicable specifically to clay soils and is
generally related to the water content. The physical properties of clays greatly differ at
different water contents. A soil which is very soft at a higher percentage of water content
becomes very hard with a decrease in water content. However, it has been found that at the
same water content, two samples of clay of different origins may possess different
consistency. One clay may be relatively soft while the other may be hard. Further, a decrease
in water content may have little effect on one sample of clay but may transform the other
sample from almost a liquid to a very firm condition. Water content alone, therefore, is not
an adequate index of consistency for engineering and many other purposes.
As the water content is reduced from a soil from the stage of almost a suspension, the soil
passes through various states of consistency, as shown in Fig. 2.8. Atterberg, a Swedish Soil
Scientist, in 1911, formally distinguished the following stages of consistency–liquid, plastic,
semi-solid, and solid. The water contents at which the soil passes from one of these states to
the next have been arbitrarily designated as „consistency limits‟–Liquid limit, Plastic limit
48
and Shrinkage limit, in that order. These are called „Atterberg limits‟ in honor of the
originator of the concept.
Figure 2.6 Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water
content
2.9 Consistency Limits and Indices
The consistency limits or Atterberg limits may be defined as follows:
Liquid Limit
„Liquid limit‟ (LL or wL) is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil is
just about to pass from the plastic state into the liquid state. At this limit, the soil possesses a
small value of shear strength, losing its ability to flow as a liquid. In other words, the liquid
limit is the minimum moisture content at which the soil tends to flow as a liquid.
49
Plastic Limit
„Plastic limit‟ (PL or wp) is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to pass
from the plastic state to the semi-solid state of consistency. Thus, this is the minimum water
content at which the change in shape of the soil is accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when
worked upon, the soil crumbles.
Shrinkage Limit
„Shrinkage limit‟ (SL or ws) is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to
pass from the semi-solid to the solid state. It is that water content at which a soil, regardless,
of further drying, remains constant in volume. In other words, it is the maximum water
content at which further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in volume of the
soil mass, the loss in moisture being mostly compensated by entry of air into the void space.
In fact, it is the lowest water content at which the soil can still be completely saturated. The
change in color upon drying of the soil, from dark to light also indicates the reaching of
shrinkage limit.
Plasticity Index
„Plasticity index‟ (PI or Ip) is the range of water content within which the soil exhibits plastic
properties; that is, it is the difference between liquid and plastic limits.
PI (or Ip) = (LL – PL) = (wL – wp)
When the plastic limit cannot be determined, the material is said to be non-plastic (NP).
Plasticity index for sands is zero.
50
Table 2.3 Plasticity characteristics
Plasticity Index Plasticity

0 Non-plastic
1 to 5 Slight
5 to 10 Low
10 to 20 Medium
20 to 40 High
> 40 Very high
Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called activity (A) to
describe the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The equation for A is:
IP
A 2.27
Clay fraction (%)
You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less than 2 μm. Skempton
classified clays according to Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Typical Atterberg limits for soils
A Description
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 – 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
51
Liquidity Index I l
The Atterberg limits are found for remolded soil samples. These limits as such do not
indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils. The index that is used to indicate the
consistency of undisturbed soils is called the liquidity index. The liquidity index is expressed
as
wn  wp
Il 
lp
Shrinkage Index Is
„Shrinkage index‟ (SI or Is) is defined as the difference between the plastic and shrinkage
limits of a soil; in other words, it is the range of water content within which a soil is in a
semisolid state of consistency.
SI(or Is) = (PL – SL) = (wp – ws)
Consistency Index
„Consistency index‟ or „Relative consistency‟ (CI or Ic) is defined as the ratio of the
difference between liquid limit and the natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil:
wl  wn
Ic 
Ip
52
Figure 2.7. Casagrande's liquid limit apparatus
Example 2.7
500 g of dry soil was used for a sieve analysis. The masses of soil retained on each sieve are
given below:
Plot a grain size distribution curve and compute the following:
(a) Percentages of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand and silt, as per the Unified
Soil Classification System, (b) uniformity coefficient (c) coefficient of curvature.
Comment on the type of soil.

53
54
2.10 Classification of Soils
Soils in nature rarely exist separately as gravel, sand, silt, clay or organic matter, but are
usually found as mixtures with varying proportions of these components. Grouping of soils
on the basis of certain definite principles would help the engineer to rate the performance of
a given soil either as a sub-base material for roads and airfield pavements, foundations of
structures, etc. Buildings, bridges, dams etc. are built on natural soils (undisturbed soils),
whereas earthen dams for reservoirs, embankments for roads and railway lines, foundation
bases for pavements of roads and airports are made out of remolded soils. Sites for structures
on natural soils for embankments, etc, will have to be chosen first on the basis of preliminary
examinations of the soil that can be carried out in the field. An engineer should therefore be
conversant with the field tests that would identify the various constituents of a soil mixture.
The classification or grouping of soils is mainly based on grain size distribution and limits of
soil.
2.10.1 AASHTO Soil Classification System
This system was originally proposed in 1928 by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads for use by
highway engineers. A Committee of highway engineers for the Highway Research Board
met in 1945 and made an extensive revision of the PRA System. This system is known as the
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) System
(ASTM D-3242, AASHTO Method M 145). The revised system comprises seven groups of
inorganic soils, A-l to A-7 with 12 subgroups in all. The system is based on the following
three soil properties:
1. Particle-size distribution
2. Liquid Limit
55
3. Plasticity Index.
A Group Index is introduced to further differentiate soils containing appreciable fine-grained

materials. The characteristics of various groups are defined in Table 2.16. The Group Index
may be determined from the equation.
GroupIndex(GI )  0.2a  0.005ac  0.01bd 2.28
a = that portion of percentage of soil particles passing No. 200 sieve greater than 35 = (F-35).
b = that portion of percentage of soil particles passing No. 200 sieve, greater than 15 = (F -15).
c = that portion of the liquid limit greater than 40 = (wl -40).
d = that portion of the plasticity index greater than 10 = (7 -10).
F = percent passing No. 200 sieve. If F < 35, use (F -35) = 0
It may be noted here that if GI < 0, use GI = 0. There is no upper limit for GI. When calculating
the GI for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index (PGI) only
that is (From Eq. 2.60)
PGI = 0.01bd = 0.01(F - 15)(IP- 10) 2.29
The group index is a means of rating the value of a soil as a subgrade material within its own
group. It is not used in order to place a soil in a particular group that is done directly from the
results of sieve analysis, the liquid limit and plasticity index. The higher the value of the group
index, the poorer is the quality of the material. The group index is a function of the amount of
material passing the No. 200 sieve, the liquid limit and the plasticity index.
If the pertinent index value for a soil falls below the minimum limit associated with a, b, c or d,
the value of the corresponding term is zero, and the term drops out of the group index equation.
The group index value should be shown in parenthesis after a group symbol such as A-6(12)
where 1 2 is the group index.
Classification procedure: With the required data in mind, proceed from left to right in the chart.
The correct group will be found by a process of elimination. The first group from the left
56
consistent with the test data is the correct classification. The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5
or A-7-6 depending on the plasticity index,Ip .
For A-7-5, lp < =wl - 30
For A-7-6, Ip >=wl-30
Table 2.4. AASHTO soil classification
57
Figure 2.8 Chart for use in AASHTO soil classification system
2.10.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the recognition of the type and
predominance of the constituents considering grain-size, gradation, plasticity and
compressibility. It divides soil into three major divisions: coarse-grained soils, fine grained
soils, and highly organic (peaty) soils. In the field, identification is accomplished by visual
examination for the coarse-grained soils and a few simple hand tests for the fine-grained
soils. In the laboratory, the grain-size curve and the Atterberg limits can be used. The peaty
soils are readily identified by color, odor, spongy feel and fibrous texture.
The Unified Soil Classification System is a modified version of A. Casagrande's Airfield

Classification (AC) System developed in 1942 for the Corps of Engineers. Since 1942 the
original classification has been expanded and revised in cooperation with the Bureau of
Reclamation, so that it applies not only to airfields but also to embankments, foundations,
and other engineering features. This system was adopted in 1952. In 1969 the American
58
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) adopted the Unified System as a standard method
for classification for engineering purposes (ASTM Test Designation D-2487).
Table 2.17 presents the primary factors to consider in classifying a soil according to the
Unified Soil Classification system.
The following subdivisions are considered in the classification:
1. Gravels and sands are GW, GP, SW, or SP if less than 5 percent of the material passes the
No. 200 sieve; G = gravel; S = sand;
W = well-graded; P = poorly-graded. The well- or poorly-graded designations depend on
C. and C as defined in section 2.9 and numerical values shown in Table 2.16
2. Gravels and sands are GM, GC, SM, or SC if more than 12 percent passes the No. 200
sieve; M = silt; C = clay. The silt or clay designation is determined by performing the liquid
and plastic limit tests on the (-) No. 40 fraction and using the plasticity chart of Fig. 2.22.
This chart is also a Casagrande contribution to the USC system, and the A line shown on this
chart is sometimes called Casagrande's A line.
Figure 2.22: Plasticity chart for fine-grained soils
59
Table 2.5. The Unified Soil Classification System (Source: Bowles, 1992)
60
The chart as presented here has been slightly modified based on the Corps of Engineers
findings that no soil has so far been found with coordinates that lie above the "upper limit" or
U line shown. This chart and lines are part of the ASTM D 2487 standard.
3. Gravels and sands are (note using dual symbols)
GW-GC SW-SC GP-GC SP-SC, or GW-GM SW-SM GP-GM SP-SM if between 5 and 12
percent of the material passes the No. 200 sieve. It may be noted that the M or C designation
is derived from performing plastic limit tests and using Casagrande's plasticity chart.
4. Fine-grained soils (more than 50 percent passes the No. 200 sieve) are:
ML, OL, or CL if the liquid limits are < 50 percent; M = silt; O = organic soils; C = clay. L =
Less than 50 percent for Wl
5. Fine grained soils are
MH, OH, or CH if the liquid limits are > 50 percent; H = Higher than 50 percent. Whether a
soil is a Clay (C), Silt (M), or Organic (O) depends on whether the soil coordinates plot
above or below the A line on Fig. 3.22.
The organic (O) designation also depends on visual appearance and odor in the USC method.
In the ASTM method the O designation is more specifically defined by using a comparison
of the air-dry liquid limit wl and the oven-dried w'r If the oven dried value is w‟l< 0.75wl and
the appearance and odor indicates "organic" then classify the soil as O.
The liquid and plastic limits are performed on the (-) No. 40 sieve fraction of all of the soils,
including gravels, sands, and the fine-grained soils. Plasticity limit tests are not required for
soils where the percent passing the No. 200 sieve < 5 percent. The identification procedure of
fine grained soils is given in Table 3.18.
A visual description of the soil should accompany the letter classification. The ASTM
standard includes some description in terms of sandy or gravelly, but color is also very
important.
61
Certain areas are underlain with soil deposits having a distinctive color (e.g., Boston blue
clay,
Chicago blue clay) which may be red, green, blue, grey, black, and so on. Geotechnical
engineers should become familiar with the characteristics of this material so the color
identification is of considerable aid in augmenting the data base on the soil.
Example 2.8
A series of Atterberg limit tests was performed on samples of a gray brown silty clay. Table
below summarizes the results of four liquid limit tests.
Using this data,
a) Draw the flow curve for the soil.
b) Determine the flow index for the soil.
c) Calculate the liquid limit.
d) Calculate the plasticity index for the soil.
In the same series of Atterberg limit tests, the average plastic limit (wPL) was found to be
38.5%.
Trial Number 1 2 3 4
Number of blows 24 37 27 22
Weight of wet sample þ container (g) 22.5 25.94 25.86 25.27
Weight of dry sample þ container (g) 18.89 21.1 21.59 20.96
Weight of container (g) 14.12 14.61 15.82 15.34
Solution
Consider trial number 1. The weight of the pore fluid is first computed as follows:
Ww =22.50 - 18:89 = 3.61 g
The weight of the solid phase is next computed
Ws = 18.89 -14.12 = 4.77 g
The moisture content for trial number 1 is thus
62
w =(Ww/Ws)x100%
w= (3.61/4.77)x100%= 75.7%
Similar calculations are performed for the remaining three trials as table below
Trial Number 1 2 3 4
Number of blows 24 37 27 22
Weight of wet sample + container (g) 22.5 25.94 25.86 25.27
Weight of dry sample + container (g) 18.89 21.1 21.59 20.96
Weight of container (g) 14.12 14.61 15.82 15.34
Weight of water (g) 3.61 4.84 4.27 4.31
Weight of dry soil (g) 4.77 6.49 5.77 5.62
Moisture content (%) 75.68 74.58 74.00 76.69
a) To construct the flow curve, the moisture content is plotted versus the number of blows (in
logarithmic scale).
b) The flow index for the soil is equal to the absolute value of the slope of the flow curve. As
such, it is equal to 0.146.
c) The liquid limit is then the moisture content corresponding to 25 blows.
wLL =75.5%
63
d) The plasticity index (Ip) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit.
PI=LL - PL
=75.5 -38.5
= 37.0%
Example 2.9
A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit (LL) of 110% and a plastic limit (PL) of 56%. The clay
content is 68% and the field moisture content of the soil is 60%. Compute the plasticity index
(PI), the liquidity index (LI), and the activity (A).
The PI is
PI= 110 -56 = 54%
LI = (w-PL)/ PI
LI= (60-56)/54
= 0.074
The activity is
IP
A
Clay fraction (%)
A=54/68
=0.79
Example 2.10
A sample of gravel with sand has 74% fine to coarse subangular gravel, 24% coarse angular
sand, and 2% fines. The maximum size of particles in the soil is 74 mm. The coefficient of
curvature (Cc) is 2.7, and the coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is 12.6. Classify this soil
according to the USCS.
Solution
Since the particle sizes in the soil do not exceed 75 mm, there are no cobbles present.
Since less than 5% fines are present, the soil will be a “clean gravel.”
64
Since Cu > 4 and Cc < 3, the appropriate group symbol will thus be GW.
The associated USCS group name will be a well-graded gravel (with sand).
Example 2.11
A sample of soil has 60% passing the No. 4 sieve and 42% passing the No. 200 sieve. The
liquid limit (LL) for the soil is 28%, and the plasticity index (PI) is 4.5%. Classify this soil
according to the USCS.
Solution
Since less than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve, the soil is considered to be “coarse grained”.
Since 60% > 50% passes the No. 4 sieve, the soil will be a sand.
The point on the A-line corresponding to LL ¼ 28% is
PIA_line =0.73(28 _ 20) = 5.8%
Since the soil‟s PI (4.5%) is less than 5.8%, it will plot below the A-line.
Since the percent fines (42%) exceed 12%, the soil will contain clay.
The appropriate group symbol will thus be SM-SC; i.e., a silty, clayey sand.
Since 58% was retained on the No. 200 sieve, the “coarse” fraction is 58%.
In addition, since 60% passed the No. 4 sieve, the gravel fraction =100-60 = 40%.
Finally, the sand fraction =58-40 =18%.
The associated USCS group name will be silty, clayey sand with gravel.
Example 2.12
Grain-size analysis and consistency tests conducted on an inorganic soil revealed the
following results:
Size of particle (mm) Percentage passing

0.75 32
The liquid limit is 41% and plastic limit 33%. Classify the soil as per the AASHTO system.
65
Solution
Percentage of soil particles less than 0.075 mm = 32.

GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
a = 32 – 35 = –3 = 0
b = 32 – 15 = 17
c = 41 – 40 = 1
d = 8 – 10 = – 1 = 0
GI = 0.02 × 0 + 0.005 × 0 × 1 + 0.01 × 17 × 0
=0
From on the basis of percentage of fine-grained soil, liquid limit, and plasticity
index values, the soil is classified as A–2–5 (0).
Example 2.12
In hydrometer test, the results are as follows: Gs=2.60. Temperature of water=24° C, and
R=43 at 60 min after the start of sedimentation (see figure 2.24). What is the diameter, D, of
the smallest-size particles that have settled beyond the zone of measurement at that time (that
is, t=60 min)?
Solution
Gs=2.60, Temperature of water=24° C, R=43 at 60 min, D=??
D= √
K=0.01321 form table 2.6

L=16.29-0.164R
L=16.29-0.164(43) =9.24 cm
t=60 min
D= √ =0.00518 mm
66
2.11 Comments on the Systems of Soil Classification
The various classification systems described earlier are based on:
1. The properties of soil grains.
2. The properties applicable to remolded soils.
The systems do not take into account the properties of intact materials as found in nature.
Since the foundation materials of most engineering structures are undisturbed, the properties
of intact materials only determine the soil behavior during and after construction. The
classification of a soil according to any of the accepted systems does not in itself enable
detailed studies of soils be dispensed with altogether. Solving flow, compression and
stability problems merely on the basis of soil classification can lead to disastrous results.
However, soil classification has been found to be a valuable tool to the engineer. It helps the
engineer by giving general guidance through making available in an empirical manner the
results of field experience.
67
Table 2.6. Unified Soil Classification System fine-grained soils
68
Assessment 2.1
Subjective type of questions
1. Answer the following questions

a. What is a block diagram? What is its use?
b. How do you determine the void ratio of a soil?
c. Discuss various methods for determination of water content in the laboratory.
d. Drive a formula for water content W; in terms of Gm=mass specific gravity,
G=specific gravity of solids and S=degree of saturation.
2. The mass of a chunk of moist soil is 22 kg, and its volume is 0.015 m3. After drying
in an oven, the mass reduces to 18 kg. Determine the water content, the density of
moist soil, the dry density, void ratio, porosity and & the degree of saturation. take
G=2.7
3. A soil specimen has a water content of 12% and a wet unit weight of 30 kN/m3.if
the specific gravity of solids is 2.7, determine the dry unit weight, void ratio ,and
the degree of saturation
4. A soil sample has a unit weight of 1.9gm/cc and a water content of 12%.If
Gs=2.65, Determine the dry density, degree of saturation, void ration and porosity
of the soil.
5. A saturated soil sample, weighing 178gm, has a volume of 96cc. If the specific
gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determine the void ratio, water content and unit
Weight of soil.
6. A fully saturated soil has a volume of 28cc. The sample was dried in oven and the
weight of the dry soil pat was found to be 48.86gm. Determine the void ratio,
moisture content, saturated density and dry density of the soil mass. Given
Gs=2.68
7. A given soil sample mass has a moisture content of 10.5% and a void ratio of 0.67.
The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68.it is required to construct three cylindrical
test specimen of diameter 3.75cm and height 7.5cm from this soil mass. Each
69
specimen should have a moisture content of 15% and a dry density of 1.6gm/cc.
Determine: i) The quantity of the given soil to be used for this purpose. ii) The
quantity of water to be mixed with it.
8. A borrow area soil has a natural water content of 9% and a bulk density of 1.6
Mg/m3.the soil is used for an embankment to be compacted at 18% moisture
content to a dry density of 1.8 Mg/m3.Detrmine the amount of water to be added to
1.0 m3 of borrow soil. How many cubic meters of excavation is required for 1 m3 of
compacted embankment
9. There are two borrowing areas A and B which have soils with voids ratios of 0.80
and 0.70, respectively. The in place water content is 22%, and 16%, respectively.
The fill at the end of construction will have a total volume of 10,000 m3, bulk
density 1.9 Mg/m3 and a placement water content of 23%. Determine the volume of
the soil required to be excavated from both areas. G=2.65. `
10. The moisture content and bulk density of partially saturated silt sample were 18%
and 19.6KN/m3 respectively. The sample was kept in an oven at 105oc for 15minute
resulting in a partial evaporation of the pore water. The bulk density of the sample
reduced to 18.3KN/m3.Assuming the void ratio to remain constant, determine the
final water content of the sample. What would have been its bulk density if the
sample was kept in the oven for 24hours?
11. An embankment was constructed with a clayey soil at a moisture content of 12%.
Just after construction, the degree of the saturation of the soil was found to be 55%.
The soil absorbed water during the monsoon and its degree of saturation increased to
90%. Determine the water content of the soil at this stage. What will be the degree
of saturation if the moisture content reduces to 5% in the dry season? Given
Gs=2.68.
70
Assessments 2-2
1. What is the use of classification of soils? Discuss the different classification schemes
mostly used for civil engineering works.
2. Compare the AASHTO classification system and USC system, why the latter system
is more commonly used?
3. A test for the determination of moisture content was carried on a soil sample. The
following test observations were taken. Determine the moisture content.
4.
Container number 1
Weight of container…………gm 20
Wt. of container + wet soil …gm 30
Wt. of container + dry soil ….gm 25
5. A test for the determination of specific gravity was carried on a soil sample. The
following test observations were taken. Determine the specific gravity of the soil
both at test temperature and standard temperature.
Wt. of dry soil (Ws) …………………..gm 1

Wt. of Pycnometer +Water +Soil (W1)..gm 200
Wt. of pycnometer + Water(W2)………gm 150
Test Temperature (To) …………………gm 20
6. A test for the determination of gradation was carried on a soil sample. The following
test observations were taken. Analyze the % passing and Plot the gradation and also
compute Cc and CU.
Sieve mm 14 10.00 5 2.36 1.18 0.60 0.3 0.15 0.075 pan

Sieve Wt 1363 1331 1378 1256 391 351 321 299 288 270.9
(gm)
Wt of sieve + 1524 1424 1676 1611 865 943 683 436 318 323.8
soil
7. Discuss the importance of Atterberg‟s limits in highway engineering
71
8. What are the different methods for the determination of the liquid limit of a soil?
What are their relative merits& demerits?
9. Differentiate between :(a)Liquidity index & consistency index,(b)Flow index
&toughness index,(c)plasticity & consistency,(d)Activity & sensitivity
10. A test for the determination of the liquid limit was carried on a soil sample. The
following tests of observations were taken. Plot the flow curve & determine the
liquid limit & the flow index.
No. of blows(N) 38 27 20 13
Water content(w)% 47.5 49.5 51.9 53.9
11. A cone penetrometer test was conducted on a sample of soil for the determination of
the liquid limit and the following observations were recorded. Determine the liquid
limit.
Depth of penetration(mm) 19.1 20.5 22.2 25.5 26.3

Water content(w)% 51.5 53.2 55.2 58.1 59.5
12. The following results were recorded during a cone penetrometer test on a cohesive
soil:
13.
Average penetration (mm) 15.2 17.3 18.9 21.1 22.8
Average water content (%) 35.4 42.6 49.2 59.4 66.8
a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

b) If the plastic limit of the soil was found to be 33%, determine its plasticity
index and classify the soil.
14. In a liquid limit test on a fine grained soil, using the casagrande apparatus, the
following results were recorded.
Moisture content (%) 62.8 55.5 51.2 47.2 42.0

No. of Blows 12 19 27 37 52
72
The results of a plastic limit test on the sample soil were as follows:
Tin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mass of empty(gm) 16.12 16.09 16.14 16.24 16.18 16.21 16.17 16.20
Tin+Wet soil (gm) 29.45 31.62 26.10 29.30 27.71 30.00 29.38 29.78
Tin+Dry soil (gm) 27.04 28.76 24.28 26.96 25.66 27.47 27.07 27.31
Determine the liquid and plastic limits; the plasticity index, and then classify the soil.
15. Calculate he flow index, plasticity index and toughness index of a soil sample from
the following data are obtained while conducting the liquid limit test.
No of Blows 8 20 32 45
Water Content 70% 60.2% 53.4% 50%
Plastic limit of the soil may be taken as 25%.
16. The following index properties were determined for two sols A and B.
Index properties A B
Liquid limit 65 35
Plastic limit 25 20
Water content 35 25
Sp.gr. of solids 2.7 2.65
Degree of saturation 100% 100%
hich of the two soils (i) contains more clay particles, (ii) has greater bulk density, (iii)
has greater dry density, (iv) has a greater void ratio?
17. Classify the soils A&B, with the properties as shown below ,according to USC
system
73
Soil LL (%) PI (%) % passing % passing
No. 4 sieve No. 200sieve
A 45 29 100 59
B 55 15 100 85
18. Classify the soils A&B, with the properties as shown below ,according to USC
system
19.
Soil LL (%) PI (%) % passing % passing
No. 4 sieve No. 200sieve
A 22 6 60 45
B 35 20 80 40
20. A combined mechanical analysis of a given sample soil was carried out. The total
mass of the soil used in the analysis was 350gm. The sample was divided in to
coarser and finer fractions of 125gm by washing it through 200 No. sieve opening.
The coarse fraction was used for the sieve analysis, and 50gm of the finer fraction
was used for the hydrometer analysis. The test results obtained are given below.
Sieve Analysis:-
U.S.Sieve Opening No 4 10 14 20 35 50 80 100 200

Mass Retained in (gm) 9.00 15.50 10.5 10.5 35.0 24.5 49.0 28.0 43.0
Hydrometer Analysis: - Reading in suspension.
Time min 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 120 240 480 1440

Reading 28 24 20.5 17.2 12 8.5 6.21 5.1 4.25 3.10 2.3 1.3 0.7
The hydrometer was inserted in to the suspension at the start of the test, and the readings
were taken up to 2min. it was next removed and introduced just before each of the
subsequent readings. Other data is as given below.
74
 Temperature of the suspension=300c.
Hydrometer Reading Depth of suspension below the hydrometer Reading

1.00 22.5cm
1.03 9.50cm
 Meniscus correction, Cm=(+)0.4.
 Correction due to change in the density due to the addition of dispersion agent Cd= (-
) 0.2.
21. A soil sample having the following data: Grain- size distribution.
Sieve No. 4 40 200

% passing 88 28 9
D10=0.08mm.
D30=0.50mm.
D60=2.0mm.
Atterberg limits:- Wp=20% and Ip=11%.
Classify the soil as per UCSC and AASHTO systems separately. And try to comment about
the results of these two systems up on which one is suitable or safer for your judgment as
you are a practicing engineer of a specific site. Why?
75
References:
[1]. Das, Braja, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th ed., Brooks/Cole, 2002.
[2]. Arora, D. K. (n.d.). Soil mechanics and Foundaion Engineering, 2003
[4]. Budhu M., Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley and Sons, 2000
[5]. Lambe, T. W., Whitman, R. V., Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 199966
[6]. Helwany, S., The Mechanics of Soils and Foundations, 2nd ed..
[7]. McCarthy, David F. - Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations _ basic geotechnics-
Pearson (2014)
76
Chapter 3 Soil permeability and seepage
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define soil permeability coefficient
• Be able to compute coefficient of permeability
• Be able to conduct laboratory test of constant head
• Be able to conduct laboratory test of falling head
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and performing laborat
ory tests of coefficient of permeability
 Define the terminologies, in soil permeability
 Conduct laboratory test of coefficient of permeability
4. Equipment
• Constant head apparatus
• Falling head appartus

 Brief introduction of soil permeability
⁃ Active practice; it can increase learning effect including personal technical skill,
but its efficiency decreases if too much time is allocated.
 Difference between constant head and falling head method
 Tool setup
 Always remind students of safety precautions.
6. Assessments
• Differentiate constant head and falling head method.
77
• Laboratory performance in determining coefficient of permeability
7. Clean-up

inions
78
3 Soil Permeability and Seepage
3.1 Soil Permeability
Soil is a particulate material and has pores that provide a passage for water. Such passages
vary in size and are winding and interconnected. Under certain conditions soil moisture or
water in the soil is not stationary but is capable of moving through the soil. A sufficiently
large number of such paths of flow are grouped to act together, and the average rate of flow
is considered to represent a property of the soil. This property is termed permeability of the
soil and may be defined as the capacity of a soil to permit water to pass through its
interconnected void spaces. As in any other porous medium, water transmission takes place
between two points due to the difference in pressure heads or total heads (h). Movement of
water through soil affects the properties and behavior of the soil, rather in a significant way.
Construction operations and the performance of completed construction could be influenced
by soil water. Ground water is frequently encountered during construction operations; the
manner in which movement of water through soil can occur and its effects are, therefore, of
considerable interest in the practice of geotechnical engineering.
3.2 Hydraulic Head
Darcy‟s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before investigate into Darcy‟s law,
we will discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics Bernoulli‟s principle which is
essential in understanding flow through soils.
If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and then rest it on your table (Fig. 3.1),
the height of water with reference to your table is called the pressure head (hP).
79
Figure 3.1: Illustration of elevation and pressure heads.
Head refers to the mechanical energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above the table,
the mechanical energy or total head increases. You now have two components of total head –
the pressure head (hp) and the elevation head (hz). If water were to flow through the tube with
a velocity v , under steady state condition, then we have an additional head due to the velocity
2
given as v 2 g . The total head (sometimes called piezometric head), H, according to
Bernoulli‟s principle is:
v2
H  hz  h p  3.1
2g
The elevation or potential head is referenced to an arbitrary datum and the total head will
change depending on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential that you
identify your datum position in solutions to flow problems. Pressures are defined relative to
atmospheric pressure. The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (< 1 cm/s) and we
usually neglect the velocity head. The total head in soils is then
u
H  hz  h p  hz  3.2
w
Where u = γwhp is the pore water pressure.
Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water flowing through it at a constant rate as
depicted in Fig. 3.2. If we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a distance l
80
apart, the water will rise to different heights in each of the tubes. The height of water in tube
B near the exit is lower than A. Why? As the water flows through the soil, energy is
dissipated through friction with the soil particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss
between A and B, assuming decrease in head is positive and our datum is arbitrarily selected
at the top of the cylinder, is ΔH = (h p ) B  (h p ) A .
Figure 3.2: Head loss due to flow of water through soil.
3.3 Darcy’s Law
Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the
gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is
dH
vj  kj 3.3
dx j
where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the

coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity, and dH is the change in total head over
a distance dx. The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is, cm/s. With reference to
Fig. 3.2, Darcy‟s law becomes
81
H
vx  k x  k xi 3.4
l
where i  H l is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy‟s law is valid for all soils if the flow is
laminar (Reynolds number < 1).
The average velocity, v, calculated from Eq. (3.4) is for the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however, happens only through the interconnected
voids. The velocity through the void spaces is called the seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained
by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:
kj
vs  i 3.5
n
The volume rate of flow, qv, or, simply, flow rate is the product of the average velocity and
the cross-sectional area:
qv  v j A  Ak j i 3.6
The unit of measurement for qv is m3/s or cm3/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity)
stipulates that the volume rate of inflow (qv)in into a soil element must equal the volume rate
of outflow, (qv)out, or, simply, inflow must equal outflow: (qv)in = (qv)out.
The coefficient of permeability depends on several factors, most of which are listed below:
1. Shape and size of soil particles.

2. Void ratio. Permeability increases with increase of void ratio.
3. Degree of saturation. Permeability increases with increase of degree of saturation
4. Composition of soil particles.
5. Soil structure. Fine-grained soils with a flocculated structure have a higher coefficient of
permeability than those with a dispersed structure
6. Viscosity of the permeant.
7. Density and concentration of the permeant.
82
Table 3.1 Typical values for coefficient of permeability
Material Coefficient of permeability, mm/s
Fine gravel, coarse and medium sand 10-2 to 10
Fine sand, loose silt 10-4 to 10-2
Dense silt, clayey silt 10-5 to 10-4
Silty clay, clay 10-8 to 10-5
3.4 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
Methods that are in common use for determining the coefficient of permeability k can be
classified under laboratory and field methods.
 Laboratory methods: Constant head permeability method

Falling head permeability method
 Indirect Method: Empirical correlations

The various types of apparatus which are used in soil laboratories for determining the
permeability of soils are called permeameters. The apparatus used for the constant head
permeability test is called a constant head permeameter and the one used for the falling head
test is a falling head permeameter.
The soil samples used in laboratory methods are either undisturbed or disturbed. Since it is
not possible to obtain undisturbed samples of cohesionless soils, laboratory tests on
cohesionless materials are always conducted on samples which are reconstructed to the same
density as they exist in nature. The results of tests on such reconstructed soils are often
misleading since it is impracticable to obtain representative samples and place them in the
83
test apparatus to give exactly the same density and structural arrangement of particles. Direct
testing of soils in place is generally preferred in cases where it is not possible to procure
undisturbed samples. Since this method is quite costly, it is generally carried out in
connection with major projects such as foundation investigation for dams and large bridges
or building foundation jobs where lowering of the water table is involved. In place of
pumping tests, bore hole tests as proposed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation are quite
inexpensive as these tests eliminate the use of observation wells.
3.4.1 Constant-Head Test
This test method covers the measurement of the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic
conductivity) by a constant-head method for the laminar flow of water through granular
soils. The procedure is to establish representative values of the coefficient of
permeability of granular soils that may occur in natural deposits as placed in embankments
or when used as base courses under pavements. In order to limit consolidation influences
during testing, this procedure is limited to disturbed granular soils containing not more than
10 % soil passing the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve.
This procedure is suitable for soils having coefficients of permeability in the range 10 -2 to
10 -5 m/sec.
A typical constant-head apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. Water is allowed to flow through a

cylindrical sample of soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in a
graduated cylinder at a convenient duration (t).
With reference to Fig. 3.3
H h
H  h and i   3.7
L L
84
Fig.3.3 A constant-head apparatus
the flow rate through the soil is qv = Q / t, where Q is the total quantity of water collected in
the measuring cylinder over time t.
From equation 3.12
qv QL
kz   3.8
Ai tAh
Where:
KT = coefficient of permeability at temperature T, cm/sec. L = length of specimen in
centimeters
t = time for discharge in seconds
Q = volume of discharge in cm3 (assume 1 mL = 1 cm3)
A = cross-sectional area of permeameter
h = hydraulic head difference across length L, in cm of water
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. The
experimental value (kT˚C) is corrected to a baseline temperature of 20˚C using
85
3.9
Where μ is the viscosity of water, T is the temperature in ˚C at which the measurement was
made, and RT =μT˚C /μ20˚C is the temperature correction factor that can be calculated from
RT = 2.42 – 0.475 ln (T)
3.10
3.4.2 Falling-Head Test
The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these
soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant-head test. A compacted
soil sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal cylinder. Porous stones
are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its disintegration and to
allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a standpipe
attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs
through the soil. At different times, the head of water is recorded. The Falling-head
permeability test method is not standardized by ASTM.
Fig. 3.4 A falling-head apparatus
86
k in the vertical direction is
aL h  3.11
k  kz  ln 1 
A(t 2  t1 )  h2 
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec).
a = cross section area of stand pipe (cm 2).
L = length of the sample (cm).
A = cross section area of soil sample perpendicular to flow direction (cm 2).
t = collection duration (sec).
h1 = hydraulic head across the sample at the beginning of the test (cm).
h2 = hydraulic head across the sample at the end of the test (cm).
3.4.3 Empirical Relationships for k
For a homogeneous soil, the coefficient of permeability depends predominantly on its void
ratio. You should recall that the void ratio is dependent on the soil fabric and structural
arrangement of the soil grains. A number of empirical relationships have been proposed
linking k to void ratio and grain size for coarse-grained soils. Hazen (1930) proposed one of
the early relationships as:
k z  C  D102 cm/s 3.12
where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.2 if the unit of measurement of D10
(effective diameter) is mm. Typically, C = 1.0. Other relationships were proposed for coarse
and fine-grained soils by Samarasinghe et al. (1982), Kenny et al. (1984), and others. One
has to be extremely cautious in using empirical relationships for k because it is very sensitive
87
to changes in void ratio and the wholeness of your soil mass. Empirical correlations have
been developed relating grain size and void ratio to hydraulic conductivity
Example 3.1
A sand sample of 25 cm length was subjected to a constant head permeability in a

permeameter having an area of 30 m2. A discharge of 100 cm3 was obtained in a period of 1
minute under a head of 39 cm. Mass of dry sand in the sample was 1,350 g. The specific
gravity of the sand particles was 2.67. Determine (i) the coefficient of permeability, (ii) the
superficial velocity, and (iii) the seepage velocity.
Solution
Example 3.2.
A falling head permeameter contains a soil sample 8 cm high and 60 cm3 in cross-sectional
area. The permeability of the sample is expected to be 1 × 10−4 cm/s. If it is desired that the
head in the standpipe should fall from 30 to 10 cm in 40 minutes, determine the size of the
standpipe which should be used.
88
Solution
Example 3.3
For falling-head permeability test, the following are given: length of specimen = 380 mm;
area of specimen = 6.5 cm2; k=0.175 cm/min. What should be the area of standpipe for the
head drop from 650 cm to 300 cm in 8 min?
Solution
K=0.175 cm/min, A=6.5 cm2, L=380mm → 38 cm, t= 8 min, h1=650 cm, h2=300 cm
t=
8=
9.1= (38) a (0.77319)
a= =0.31 cm2
89
3.5 Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposits
In general, natural soil deposits are stratified. In calculating flow through layered soils, an
average or equivalent or effective permeability representing the whole soil mass is
determined from the permeability of each layer.
Fig. 3.2 Flow through stratified layers
3.5.1 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers
When the flow is parallel to the soil layers, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points.
The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the
layers. If we consider a unit width (in the y direction) of flow and use Eq. (3.6), we obtain
qv = Av = (1*H0)kx(eq)I = (1*z1)kx1i + (1*z2)kx2i + ….+(1*zn)kxni 3.13
Where H0 is the thickness of the soil mass, kx(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the
horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn are the thickness of the first to the nth layer, and kx1 to kxn
are the horizontal permeabilities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Eq. 3.7 for kx(eq), we get
90
( ) ( ) 3.14
3.5.2 Flow Normal to Soil Layers
For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses
in each layer:
ΔH = Δh1 + Δh2 + ………..+ Δhn 3.15
Where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head losses in each of the n layers.
The velocity in each layer is the same. From Darcy‟s law we obtain
H h h h 3.16
k z ( eq )  k z1 1  k z 2 2  ..........  k zn n
H0 z1 z2 zn
Where kz(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the vertical (z) direction and kz1 to kzn are the
vertical permeabilities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Eqs. 3.9 and 3.10 leads to Values
of kz(eq) are generally less than kx(eq) – sometimes as much as 10 times less.
H0
k z ( eq )  3.17
zz z z
 2  .......... ....  n
k z1 k z 2 k zn
Values of kz(eq) are generally less than kx(eq) – sometimes as much as 10 times less.
Example 3.4
For the layered soil is given that its properties.
 H1 =1.5 m , K1=10-5 cm/sec

 H2= 2.5 m , K2=3.0 x 10-3 cm/sec
 H3= 3.0 m , K3=3.5 x 10-3 cm/sec
Determine the coefficient of permeabilities of the layered soil horizontally and vertically.
91
Solution
( )= (KH1H1+ KH2H2+ KH3H3)
= (10-5 x1.5+ 3x10-3 x2.5 + 3.5x10-3 x3)
( ) =2.57x 10-3
( ) =
( ) ( ) ( )
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) =4.6x 10-5
Example 3.5
Permeability tests were carried out on the three layers shown as in Figure below. The
relevant horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability is indicated for each layer.
Calculate the average permeability in both directions.
92
Solution
( ) ( )
( )
H0
k z ( eq ) 
zz z z
 2  .......... ....  n
k z1 k z 2 k zn
3.6 Seepage
Groundwater is frequently encountered in construction projects. The movement of water

through soil is referred to as seepage, and such movement leads to several groups of
problems in civil engineering. Seepage of water has a bearing on three major types of
problems, viz., (i) loss of stored water through an earth dam or foundation, (ii) instability of
slopes and foundations of hydraulic structures due to the force exerted by the percolating
water, and (iii) settlement of structures founded on or above compressible layers due to
expulsion of water from the voids caused by load applications. Theoretical solutions based
93
on simple assumptions in problems related to stability and settlement have been successful.
But hydraulic problems do not lead to simple solutions because of adverse field conditions.
94
Assessment
1. Define soil permeability

2. Explain the way to determine coefficient of permeability for fine and course grained
soil.
3. In a constant head permeameter test ,the following observations were taken:
Distance between piezometer tapping=100 mm
Difference of water levels in piezometers=60 mm
Diameter of the test sample=100 mm
Quantity of water collected=350 ml
Duration of the test =270 seconds
Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
4. The falling-head permeability test was conducted on a soil sample of 4 cm diameter
& and 18 cm length. The head fell from 1.0 m to 0.40 m in 20 minutes. If the cross-
sectional area of the stand pipe was 1 cm2, determine the coefficient of permeability.
5. A constant-head permeability test was run on a sand sample 30 cm in length and 20
cm2 in area. When a loss of head was 60 cm, the quantity of water collected in 2
minutes was 250 ml. determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
6. A falling-head permeability test was performed on a soil sample. One minute was
required for the initial head of 100 cm to fall to 50 cm in the stand pipe of the cross-
sectional area 1.5 cm2. If the sample was 4 cm in diameter & 20 cm long, calculate
the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
7. What are the factors affecting permeability of soils? Discuss in brief.
8. What are the different methods for determination of the coefficient of permeability in
a laboratory? Discuss their limitations & preference to the soil type
9. write true if the statement is correct or false if the statement is wrong
95
a) The coefficient of permeability of a soil increases with an increase in
temperature.
b) The coefficient of permeability of a soil decreases with an increase in specific
surface.
c) For a given soil, the coefficient of permeability increase with an increase in
void ratio.
d) The variable-head permeability test is used for fine grained soils
e) Vertical permeability is greater than horizontal permeability.
10. Determine the seepage discharge through the foundation of an earth dam if the flow
net has 10 equipotential drops and 3.5 flow channels. The length of the dam is 300 m
and the coefficient of permeability of the soil is 2.5*10-4 m3/sec. The level of water
above the base of the dam is 12 m on upstream and 4 m on downstream.
11. A falling head permeability test was conducted on a sample of soil for the
determination of the coefficient of permeability, the following observations were
recorded. Compute the coefficient of permeability both at test temperature & standard
temperature provided that the test temperature recorded was 22 oc ,the internal
diameter and depth of mold are 10.2 cm and 11.55 cm respectively, internal
diameter of stand pipe is 1 cm, time taken to fall from 50 cm to 48.9 cm was 180
seconds. Also comment the type of soil by referring the range of its coefficient of
permeability
12. A Constant head permeability test was conducted on a sample of soil for the
determination of the coefficient of permeability, the following observations were
recorded. Compute the coefficient of permeability both at test temperature & standard
temperature provided that the test temperature recorded was 21 oc ,the internal
diameter and depth of mold are 10 cm and 18 cm respectively, Difference in level
of the piezometers was 10 cm, time taken to collect a discharge of 100 ml was 2
minutes .Also comment the type of soil by referring the range of its coefficient of
permeability.
96
References:
Pearson (2014)
97
98
Chapter 4 Stress distribution in soil
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define stress distribution in a soil
• Be able to calculate self-weight of soil
• Be able to total stress and effective stress
• Be able to stress distribution due to surcharge load
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion stress due self-weight s
tress of soil and surcharge load.
 Define the terminologies, differentiate and stress due self-weight stress of soil and
surcharge load lts.
4. Equipment
• -
6. Assessments
• Differentiate stress due self-weight stress of soil and surcharge load
• What does stress mean?
• How can to calculate stress due self-weight stress of soil and surcharge load
99
8. Clean-up

inions.
100
4 Stress Distribution in Soil
4.1 Introduction
Stress, or intensity of loading, is the load per unit area. The fundamental definition of stress
is the ratio of the force acting on plane to the area of the plane. Stress in soil in caused by the
first or both of the following:
a. Self-Weight of soil.
b. Structural loads, applied at or below the surface.
Many problems in foundation engineering require a study of the transmission and
distribution of stresses in large and extensive masses of soil. Some examples are wheel loads
transmitted through embankments to culverts, foundation pressures transmitted to soil strata
below footings, pressures from isolated footings transmitted to retaining walls, and wheel
loads transmitted through stabilized soil pavements to sub-grades below. In such cases, the
stresses are transmitted in all downward and lateral directions.
Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil mass due to external loading is essential
to the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges and embankments. The most widely
used theories regarding distribution of stress in soil are those of Boussinesq and
Westergaard. They have developed first for point loads and later, the values for point load
have been integrated to give stresses below uniform strip loads, uniformly loaded circular
and rectangular areas.
4.2 Stress due to soil weight
Stresses induced by the overburden pressure are called geostatic stresses. This situation gives
rise to simple stress calculations when the ground surface is horizontal, and there is no
marked variation of the soil properties in the horizontal direction. Hence, the vertical stress
101
caused by the soil at a point below the surface is equal to the weight of the soil lying directly
above the point. Considering the unit weight, γ, to be constant with depth, the vertical stress,
σv due to overburden at a depth z from the ground surface is given as Fig. 4.1a
σv = γz 4.1
(a) Uniform soil (b) Layered soil

Fig. 7Figure. 4.17 Vertical stress distribution in uniform and layered soils
As the ground surface is horizontal, there are no shear stresses upon the horizontal or vertical
planes. The vertical stress increases with depth. If the soil stratum is layered with different
total unit weights, then the vertical stress at a depth z will be equal to the total weight of the
individual soil layers (Fig. 4.1b); that is,
σv = γ1 z1 +γ2 z2 +γ3 z3 =Σ γ z
4.2
4.2.1 Total stress
The total vertical stress acting at a point in the soil is due to the weight of everything that lies
above that point including soil, water and any load applied to the soil surface. Stresses
induced by the weight of the soil subject the elemental to vertical stress only and they cannot
create shear stresses under a level surface. Total stress increases with depth and with unit
weight and the total vertical stress at depth z in the soil due to the weight of the soil acting
above, as depicted in Fig 4.2, is defined
102
σT = γz
Figure 4.2 Total stress in a homogeneous soil mass
4.2.2 Pore pressure
Pore water experiences pressure known as the pore pressure or pore water pressure, u. The
magnitude of the pore pressure at a point in the soil depends on the depth below the water
table and the flow conditions. In the case of a horizontal ground water table, we may be able
to assume that no flow is taking place and the pore pressure at a point beneath the ground
water table can be established from the hydrostatic pressure acting. The magnitude of the
pore pressure at the water table is zero. In Fig. 4.3 the pore pressure is given by the
hydrostatic pressure.
u = γwzw 4.3
where
zw = the depth below the water table.
γw= unit weight of water
103
Figure 4.3 Hydrostatic pore water pressure
4.2.3 Effective stress
The stress that controls changes in the volume and strength of a soil is known as the effective
stress. A soil mass consists of a collection of mineral particles with voids between them.
These voids are filled with water, air and water, or air only. For the moment let us consider
saturated soils only. When a load is applied to such a soil, it will be carried by the water in
the soil voids (causing an increase in the pore water pressure) or by the soil skeleton (in the
form of grain to grain contact stresses), or else it will be shared between the water and the
soil skeleton as illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The portion of the total stress carried by the soil
particles is known as the effective stress, σ′.
Figure 4.4 Load carried by soil particles and pore water.

104
Terzaghi explained that if a saturated soil fails by shear, the normal stress on the plane of
failure, σ, also consists of the neutral stress, u, and an effective stress, σ′ which led to the
equation known to all soils engineers:
Effective stress =Total stress - Pore pressure
σ‟= σT - u 4.4
Where
σ‟= Effective stress
σT= Total stress
u = Pore pressure
This equation is applicable to all saturated soils.
4.3 Soil Layers with Steady Water Table
Figure 4.5 plots a situation with a steady groundwater table. The water table is at a midway
of soil layer 2. In this case, the total vertical stress σ at point A is calculated first as the
weight of a soil as before, and then the hydrostatic water pressure u is computed. Finally, the
effective vertical stress σ′ is computed as follows:
σT = H1γ1 + H2 γ2 + H3γ3 + H4γ4

u = (H3 + H4) γw 4.5
σ′ = σ − u = [H1γ1 + H2 γ2 + H3γ3 + H4γ4] − (H3 + H4) γw]
σ′ = H1γ1 + H2 γ2 + H3 (γ3 − γw) +H4 (γ4 − γw) 4.6
105
Figure 4.5 Soil layers with a steady groundwater table
4.4 Totally Submerged Soil Layers
To calculate the effective stress σ ′ for soils under lakes or at ocean bottom, it uses the same
principles as before that is, use of γ′ for soils under the water table. Since all soils are under
the water table, it is simply.
Figure 4.6. Totally submerged soil
106
4.5 Effective Stress Change Due to Water Table Change
When the water table changes, the effective overburden stress changes since the effective
stress computation uses either γt or γ′ depending on the water table elevation as seen in the
previous section. In particular, when the water table drops, the effective stress increases. The
effective stress increase implies higher grain skeleton stress, and thus, it causes volume
decrease or settlement. In modern history, many urban industrial cities pumped up
underground water for industrial uses and lowered the water table elevation permanently.
The consequence was ground surface settlement in many cities around the world.
In contrast to cases with lowering water table elevation, its rise causes a reduction in
effective stress. In such cases, some swell is possible, but it may not be as severe as in the
case of settlement. One potential problem of this case is that, underground structures,
including buried pipes as well as massive underground structures may be pushed upward due
to increased buoyancy forces applied to such structures.
Example 4.1
A 3 m layer of sand, of saturated unit weight 18 kN/m3, overlies a 4 m layer of clay, of

saturated unit weight 20 kN/m3. If the groundwater level occurs within the sand at 2 m below
the ground surface, determine the total and effective vertical stresses acting at the center of
the clay layer. The sand above groundwater level may be assumed to be saturated.
Figure 4.7. Soil layer
107
Solution
Total vertical stress at center of clay = Total weight of soil above

σT = 2m saturated clay+3m saturated sand
= 2×20+3×18= 94 kPa
Effective stress = Total stress−Water pressure
σ‟ = 94−9.81(2+1)= 64.6 kPa
Example 4.2
A 5 m deep deposit of silty sand lies above a 4 m deep deposit of gravel. The gravel is
underlain by a deep layer of stiff clay. The ground water table is found 2 m below the ground
surface. The soil properties are:
ρb sand above GWT = 1.7 Mg/m3
ρsat sand below GWT = 1.95 Mg/m3
ρsat gravel = 2.05 Mg/m3
Draw the distributions of vertical total stress, pore water pressure, and vertical effective
stress.
Sand
Gravel
Figure 4.8. Soil layer
108
Solution:
The values of total stress, pore pressure and effective stress are calculated at the salient
points through the soil profile. These points are where changes in conditions occur, such as
the horizon between two soils.
Depth = 0 m σT = 0; u = 0; σ′ = 0
Depth = 2 m σT = 1.70 × 9.81 × 2 = 33.4 kPa; u = 0; σ‟= 33.4−0 = 33.4 kPa
Depth = 5 m σT = 33.4 + (1.95 × 9.81 × 3) = 90.8 kPa
u = 9.81 × 3 = 29.4 kPa
σ‟= 90.8−29.4 = 61.4 kPa
Depth = 9 m σT = 90.8 + (2.05 × 9.81 × 4) = 171.2 kPa
u = 9.81 × 7 = 68.7 kPa
σ‟ =171.2−68.7=102.5 kPa
Figure 4.9 The distributions stress plot
Example 4.3
For the site shown in Figure 4.9. water table elevation was at −7 m originally, and lowered
to 6 m to −13 m due to heavy industrial water use. Calculate the change of the effective
overburden stress at point A. What is a consequence of the lowering water table elevation?
109
Figure 4.9 Lowering water table
Solution:
Assume that, for soil 2, γt values above and below the water table are the same.
Before lowering the water table using the result in Exercise 7.1,
σ ′A = Σ(Hiγi) + Σ(Hjγ ′j) = 4 × 18.2 + 3 × 19.0 + 6 × (19.0 − 9.81) + 4 × (18.5 − 9.81)
+ 9 × (19.2 − 9.81)
= 304.2 kPa
After lowered water table to −13 m,
σ ′A = Σ(Hiγi) + Σ(Hjγ ′j) = 4 × 18.2 + 9 × 19.0 + 4 × (18.5 − 9.81) + 9 × (19.2 − 9.81)
= 363.1 kPa
Thus the change in σ′; Δσ′ = 363.1 − 304.2 = +58.9 kPa increase.
This increase in effective stress would cause ground settlement in the near future.
4.6 Vertical Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads
Soils are stable under the existing effective overburden stresses. However, when additional
loads are placed on ground surface, such as by footings, traffic loads, etc., those additional
loads increase the stresses in the soil mass. Those extra stresses are major sources of the
settlement of soils. In this chapter equations for the vertical stress increments in soil mass
110
due to various types of load on the ground surface are discussed. The distribution of surface
stresses within a soil is determined by assuming that the soil is a semi-infinite, homogeneous,
linear, isotropic, elastic material. Equations and tables for several types of surface loads
based on the above assumptions are presented.
4.6.1 Vertical Stress due to a Point Load
Boussinesq (1885) developed an elastic solution for stresses in an isotropic homogeneous

elastic media due to a point load on the ground surface as shown in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10 Point load and vertical load distribution with depth and radial
distance
( ( )
) 4.7
4.8
Where I is an influence factor, and
111
( ( )
) 4.9
Table 4.1. Influence Factor I1 by Equation 4.9 (Boussinesq‟s Point Load)
4.6.2 Vertical Stress due to a Line Load
The rest of the solutions are all from the integrations of Boussinesq‟s point load solution
(Equation 8.2) over the area (or line) where the load is applied on the ground surface. As
seen in Figure 4.11, line load q is applied on an infinitively long line on the ground, and σv
is obtained in a soil mass at (z, r), where distance r is measured perpendicular to the line of
load.
112
Figure 4.11 Vertical stress increment due to a line load
= 4.10
[( ⁄ ) ]
4.11
[( ⁄ ) ]
Table 4.2. Influence Factor I2 by Equation 8.5 (Line Load)
113
4.6.3 Vertical Stress due to a Strip Load
Uniformly distributed strip load q is applied on the ground with footing width B as seen in
Figure 4.12. Δσv at point (x, z) can be obtained by an integration of Equation 4.12 over x
from B/2 to +B/2 and y from −∞ to +∞. A strip load is the load transmitted by a structure of
finite width and infinite length on a soil surface.
Figure 4.12 Vertical stress increment due to a strip load
[ ( )] 4.12
[( ) ( ) ]
{* ( ) ( )+ } 4.13
* {( ) ( ) } ( ) +
4.14
114
[( ) ( ) ]
{* ( ) ( )+ } 4.15
* {( ) ( ) } ( ) +
115
Table 4.15 Influence factor I3 by Eq. 8.6 (strip load)
116
4.6.4 Vertical Stress under a Circular Footing
A popular footing shape is circular one, and Boussinesq‟s solution is integrated for a
uniformly loaded circular area as seen in Figure 4.13. Equation 8.8 is the solution for Δσv
directly under the center of circular footing.
Figure 4.13 Δσv under the center of circular footing
[ ( ( ⁄ )
) ] 4.15
Where
[ ( ( ⁄ )
) ] 4.16
117
Table 4.4 Influence Factor I4 by Equation 8.9 (Circular Load)
4.6.5 Vertical Stress under an Embankment Load
Another frequently encountered loading pattern is due to embankments. Figure 4.14 shows a
half section of embankment load. The integrated solution is given by:
* ( ) + 4.17
* ( ) + 4.18
( ) ( ) 4.19
( ) 4.20
118
Figure 4.14 Vertical stress increment under a half embankment load
119
Table 4.5. Influence Factor I5 by Equation 8.11 (Half Embankment Load)
120
4.6.6 Vertical Stress under Corner of Rectangular Footing
Newmark (1935) integrated Boussinesq‟s equation over a rectangular loading area (Figure
4.15), and the solution under a corner of the footing is given by:Many structural foundations
are rectangular or approximately rectangular in shape. The increase in stresses below the
corner of a rectangular area of width B and length L are
4.21
where I denotes the influence factor. The influence factor for the vertical stress is
  
1  2mn m 2  n 2  1  m 2  n 2  2  1  2mn m  n  1 
2 2
Iz   tan 4.22
4  m 2  n 2  m 2 n 2  1  m 2  n 2  1   m 2  n 2  m 2 n 2  1 
  
where m  B z and n  L z .
Figure 4.15 Δσv under the corner of rectangular footing
121
Table 4.6. Influence Factor I6 by Equation 4.21 (Under Corner of
Rectangular Footing)
The solution in Equation 8.14 is the one under a corner of rectangular footing. However, the
solution can be used to compute Δσv under any point of rectangular footing using the
principle of superposition. By bringing the point of computation to a corner of footing,
including imaginary sections, the following procedures are used.
Case (a): Loaded area = I, Equation 8.14 is directly used.
Case (b): Loaded areas = I + II + II + IV,
Δσv (I + II + III + IV) = Δσv (I) + Δσv (II) + Δσv (III) + Δσv (IV)
Case (c): Loaded areas = I + II,
Δσv (I + II) = Δσv (I + III) + Δσv (II + IV) − Δσv (III) − Δσv (IV)
Case (d): Loaded areas = I,
Δσv (I) = Δσv (I + II + III + IV) - Δσv (II + IV) − Δσv (III + IV) + Δσv (IV)
122
Figure 4.16 Δσv computations under various points of footings
4.6.7 Vertical Stress below Arbitrarily Shaped Area
Newmark (1942) developed a chart to determine the increase in vertical stress due to a
uniformly loaded area of any shape. The chart consists of concentric circles divided by radial
lines (Fig. 4.17).
The area of each segment represents an equal proportion of the applied surface stress at depth
z below the surface. If there are 10 concentric circles (only 9 are shown because the 10 th
extends to infinity) and 20 radial lines, the stress on each circle is q s 10 and on each
segment is q s (10  20) . The radius to depth ratio of the first (inner) circle is found by setting
 z  0.1q s in Eq. (4.23), that is,
  1  
32
0.1q s  q s 1   2
 4.23
 1  (r0 z )  
from which r z  0.27 . For the other circles, substitute the appropriate value for  z ; for
example, for the second circle,  z  0.2q s , and find r z . The chart is normalized to the
depth; that is, all dimensions are scaled by a factor initially determined for the depth. Every
123
chart should show a scale and an influence factor IN, which for our case is
1 (10  20)  0.005.
Figure 4.17. Newmark’s chart for increase in vertical stress
The procedure for using Newmark‟s chart is as follows
1. Set the scale, shown on the chart, equal to the depth at which the increase in vertical
stress is required. We will call this the depth scale.
2. Identify the point on the loaded area below which the stress is required. Let us say this
point is point A.
3. Plot the loaded area using the depth scale with point A at the center of the chart.
4. Count the number of segments (Ns) covered by the scaled loaded area. If certain
segments are not fully covered, you can estimate what fraction is covered.
5. Calculate the increase in vertical stress as  z  q s I N N s .
124
Example 4.4
A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground surface. Compute the vertical
pressure (i) at a depth of 4 m below the load, (ii) at a distance of 3 m at the same depth. Use
Boussinesq's
equation.
Solution
The equation is
( )
( )
(i) When r/z = 0, I1 = 3/2 π = 0.48,
= 30 kN/m2
(ii) When r/z = 3/4 = 0.75
( )
( )
= 0.156
= 9.8 k N / m2
Example 4.5
Figure below shows an embankment load for a silty clay soil layer. Determine the vertical
stress increase at point A, B, and C
125
Solution
q=12(18.37)=226.44
Point A
=0.5
=4
I=0.47=I2
=q(I1+ I2)=226.44(0.47+0.47)=212.85 kN/m2
Point B
=1
=4 =4
I1=0.48 I2=0.42
=q(I1+ I2)=226.44(0.48+0.42)=203.796 kN/m2
Point C
126
Shape 1 Shape 2
=5 =0
=4 =4
=q(I1+ I2)=226.44(0.5-0.42)=18.12 kN/m2
Example 4.5
The plan of a flexible rectangular loaded area is shown in Figure below. The uniformly
distributed load on the flexible area, q, is 100 kN/m2, Determine the increase in the vertical
stress, , at a depth of z=2 m below
a. Point A
b. Point B
c. Point C
q= 100 kN/m2 z=2 m =?
127
Point A
=1
=2
I=0.196
=qI=100(0.198)=19.8 kN/m2
Point B
Shape 1 Shape 2 Shape 3 Shape 4
=0.6 =0.6 =0.4 =0.4
=1.2 =0.8 =1.2 =0.8
I1=0.149 I2=0.124 I3=0.106 I4=0.092
=q(I1+ I2+ I3+ I4)=100(0.474)=47.4 kN/m2
Point C
Shape 1 Shape 2
=1 =1
=2.6 =0.6
I1=0.208 I2=0.135
=q(I1- I2)=100(0.073)=7.3 kN/m2
128
Assessment
Subjective type questions
1. The depth of water in a lake is 3 m. The soil properties as obtained from soil exploration
below the bed of the lake are as given below.
Depth from
Type of Void
bed of lake Sp. gr.
soil ratio e
(m) G,
0.0 - 4.0 Clay 0.9 2.7
4.0 - 9.0 Sand 0.75 2.64
9.0 - 15 Clay 0.6 2.7
Calculate the following pressures at a depth of 12 m below the bed level of the lake,
(i) The total pressure, (ii) the pore pressure and (iii) the intergranular pressure.
2. The water table in a certain deposit of soil is at a depth of 6.5 m below the ground
surface. The soil consists of clay up to a depth of 13 m from the ground and below which
lies sand. The clay stratum is saturated above the water table.
Given: Clay stratum: w = 30 percent, Gs = 2.72; Sandy stratum: w = 26 percent, Gs =
2.64.
Required:
(i) The total pressure, pore pressure and effective pressure at a depth of 26 m below the
ground surface.
(ii) The change in the effective pressure if the water table is brought down to a level of
13 m below the ground surface by pumping.
3. In order to excavate a trench for the foundation of a structure, the water table level was
lowered from a depth of 4 m to a depth of 15m in a silty sand deposit. Assuming that the
129
soil above the water table remained saturated at a moisture content of 28 percent,
estimate the increase in effective stress at a depth of 16 m. Given Gs = 2.68
4. column of a building transfers a concentrated load of 225 kips to the soil in contact with the footing.
Estimate the vertical pressure at the following points by making use of the Boussinesq and
Westergaard equations.
(i) Vertically below the column load at depths of 5, 10, and 15 ft

(ii) (ii) At radial distances of 5, 10 and 20 ft and at a depth of 10 ft.6.2
5. Three footings are placed at locations forming an equilateral triangle of 13 ft sides. Each
of the footings carries a vertical load of 112.4 kips. Estimate the vertical pressures by
means of the Boussinesq equation at a depth of 9 ft at the following locations : (i)
Vertically below the centers of the footings, (ii) Below the center of the triangle.
6. A long masonry wall footing carries a uniformly distributed load of 200 kN/m2. If the
width of the footing is 4 m, determine the vertical pressures at a depth of 3 m below the
(i) center, and (ii) edge of the footing.
7. A long foundation 0.6 m wide carries a line load of 100 kN/m. Calculate the vertical
stress at a point P, the coordinates of which are x = 2.75 m, and z = 1.5 m, where the X
coordinate is normal to the line load from the central line of the footing.
8. A strip footing 10 m wide is loaded on the ground surface with a pressure equal to 4177
kN/m2. Calculate vertical stresses at depths of 3, 6, and 12 m under the center of the
footing.
9. A rectangular footing 6 x 3 m carries a uniform pressure of 300 kN/m2 on the surface of

a soil mass. Determine the vertical stress at a depth of 4.5 m below the surface on the
center line 1.0 m inside the long edge of the foundation.
10. An embankment for road traffic is required to be constructed with the following
dimensions : Top width = 8 m, height = 4 m, side slopes= 1V : 1.5 Hor The unit weight
130
of soil under the worst condition is 21 kN/m3. The surcharge load on the road surface
may be taken as 50 kN/m2. Compute the vertical pressure at a depth of 6 m below the
ground surface at the following locations: (i) On the central longitudinal plane of the
embankment, (ii) Below the toes of the embankment.
131
References:
Pearson (2014)
132
Chapter 5 Compaction of soil
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define compaction of soil
• Be able to conduct proctor test
• Be able to conduct sand cone method
• BE able to explain factor affects compaction of soil
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction of soil c
ompaction.
 Define the terminologies, differentiate and explain of soil compaction
 Can conduct proctor test and san cone method.
4. Equipment
• Standard proctor test
• Modified proctor test
• Sand cone apparatus
• BStandard proctor test
• Modified proctor test
 Sand cone apparatus Always remind students of safety precautions.
6. Assessments
• Defining soil compaction.
• What Standard proctor test?
• What is Modified proctor test?
• What is Sand cone apparatus?
•
133
7. Clean-up

inions.
134
5 Compaction of Soil
5.1 General Principles of Compaction
Soil compaction is commonly used in the construction of embankments and the

strengthening of road and runway subgrades. The solid particles are held together by the
expulsion of air when mechanical energy is applied to the soil. As a result, the void ratio
decreases and the soil density increase. In general, compaction is the densification of soil
through the removal of air, which requires mechanical energy. The maximum dry weight of
soil is used to determine its degree of compaction.
The dry density of soil indicates its degree of compaction. The degree of compaction is
determined by the moisture content, the quantity of compaction effort or energy exerted, and
the soil type. A change in density is caused by a change in moisture content or compaction
effort. Thus, a particular amount of water and a set amount of rolling are required for soil
compaction.
The following are some of the most significant advantages of compaction:

 Improved soil strength.
 Enhanced load-bearing capability.
 A decrease in settlement (lower compressibility).
 A decrease in the flow of water (water seepage).
 Less soil swelling (expansion) and collapse (soil contraction).
 Improved soil stability.
 Frost damage is reduced.
135
5.2 Role of moisture in compaction
The addition of water to a dry soil helps in bringing the solid particles together by coating
them with thin films of water. At low water content, the soil is stiff and it is difficult to pack
it together. As the water content is increased, water starts acting as a lubricant, the particles
start coming closer due to increased workability and under a given amount of compaction
effort, the soil-water-air mixture starts occupying less volume, thus effecting gradual
increase in dry density. As more and more water is added, a stage is reached when the air
content of the soil attains a minimum volume, thus making the dry density a maximum. The
dry unit weight at the peak of the compaction curve is called the maximum dry unit weight, γd-
max. The water content corresponding to this maximum dry density is called the „optimum
moisture content‟. Addition of water beyond the optimum reduces the dry density because
the extra water starts occupying the space which the soil could have occupied.
The curve with the peak shown in Fig. 5.1 is known as the „moisture-content maximum dry
density curve‟ or the „compaction curve‟. The state at the peak is said to be that of 100%
compaction at the particular compaction effort; the curve is usually of a hyperbolic form,
when the points obtained from tests are smoothly joined.
5.1
Where:
ρd = dry density, ρt= wet (bulk) density, and w = water content, expressed as a fraction.
136
Figure 5.1 Moisture content versus dry density at a particular compaction
effort
5.3 Compaction effort
The concept of compaction effort is used in both field and laboratory compactions. For
laboratory conditions, compaction effort is defined as the application of a given amount of
energy per unit volume of compacted soil. For field conditions, compaction effort is defined
as the compaction obtained by allowing a piece of equipment to pass a given number of
times on a given thickness of lift. Compaction effort can be varied in the laboratory tests by
changing the weight of the compacting hammer, height of fall, number of blows per layer,
and number of layers. If a vibratory method is used, the compaction effort can be changed by
changing the frequency, amplitude, and time of vibration. In the field, the compaction effort
can be increased by increasing the number of passes of a roller. For all soils, both in the
laboratory and in field compaction, an increase in compaction effort results in an increase in
the dry density and decrease in the optimum moisture content illustrated in Fig. 5.2.
137
Figure 5.2 Effect of compaction effort on compaction characteristics
5.4 Saturation (Zero-Air-Voids) Line
A line showing the relation between water content and dry density at a constant degree of
saturation S may be established from the equation:
5.2
( )
Substituting S = 95%, 90%, and so on, one can arrive at -values for different values of
water content in %. The lines thus obtained on a plot of versus w are called 95%
saturation line, 90% saturation line and so on. If one substitutes S = 100% and plots the
corresponding line, one obtains the theoretical saturation line, relating dry density with water
content for a soil containing no air voids. It is said to be „theoretical‟ because it can never be
reached in practice as it is impossible to expel the pore air completely by compaction.
Gρ
wG For this situation 5.3
( 100
)
138
Figure 5.3 Saturation lines superimposed on compaction curves
The saturation lines when superimposed on compaction curves give an indication of the air
voids present at different points on these curves; this is shown in Fig. 5.3.
Example 5.1
Given Gs=2.75, Calculate the zero-air-void unit weight for a soil in kN/m3 at =5%, 8%,
10%
Solution
When w= 5% → = = 23.75 kN/m3
When w= 8% → = =22.11 kN/m3
When w= 10% → = = 21.16 kN/m3
139
5.5 Laboratory compaction tests / Proctor compaction
The Proctor compaction test fixes the energy per unit volume and the type of compaction.
This test was developed by R.R. Proctor (1933) in connection with the construction of earth
dams in California (U.S.A.). The compaction characteristics, viz., maximum dry density and
the optimum moisture content, are first determined in the laboratory. It is then specified that
the unit weight achieved through compaction in the field should be a certain high percentage
of the laboratory value, for quality control of the construction. There are two different
standards for the Proctor test. The two standards are essentially the same except for the
compaction energy used.
• The Standard Proctor Test
• The Modified Proctor Test
Table 5.1 Standard Proctror Vs Modified Proctror
Item / Test Method Standard Proctor Modified Proctor

Mold volume 944 cm (1/30 ft3) 944 cm (1/30 ft3)
Diameter 101.6 mm (4.000 in.) 101.6 mm (4.000 in.)
Height 116.4 mm (4.584 in.) 116.4 mm (4.584 in.)
Mass of the manual rammer 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) 4.5 kg (10 lb)
Height of drop 305 mm (1 ft) 457 mm (1.5 ft)
Number of layers/lifts 3 5
Number of stocks per
25 25
layer/lift
2,700 kN-m/m3 (56,000 ft- 600-m/m3 (12,400 ft-
Effort
lb/ft3) lb/ft3)
140
5.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the specified unit
weight has been achieved is useful. The maximum dry density sought to be achieved in-situ
is specified usually as a certain percentage of the value obtainable in the laboratory
compaction test. Thus control of compaction in the field requires the determination of in-situ
unit weight of the compacted fill and also the moisture content There are three common
methods to measure the dry density of soils in field, these are as follows:
o Sand cone method
o Rubber balloon method
o Nuclear method
5.6.1 Sand Cone Method
The Sand Replacement Method is also employed to measure the unit weight of soils
in situ. In Sand Replacement Method, a small cylindrical pit is excavated and the
weight of the soil excavated from the pit is measured. Sand whose density is known is
filled into the pit. By measuring the weight of sand required to fill the pit and knowing its
density, the volume of the pit is calculated. Knowing the weight of soil excavated from the
pit and the volume of pit, the density of soil is calculated. As shown in Fig. 5.4, the method
uses free-flowing sand to fill a field-excavated hole to measure its volume and thus calculate
the field total unit weight as well as the dry unit weight with the measured water content of
the excavated soil.
141
Figure 5.4 Sand replacement
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
In the foregoing computation of γd, the volume of the cone Vcone and ρd,sand shall be
calibrated with the sand used. The values of Msand,cone+hole, Mt,soil, and w are field measured
properties.
The measured ρd value is compared with the specified ρd,field.
Exercise 5.2
The following data are obtained from a field sand cone test. Determine γd,field and the relative
compaction R.C. The γd,max value from the standard Proctor test for the soil was 18.8 kN/m3.
γd,sand = 15.5 kN/m3 (calibrated dry unit weight of sand)
Wsand,cone = 1.539 kgf (weight of sand to fill sand cone only)
Weight of jar + cone + sand (before the test) = 7.394 kgf
142
Weight of jar + cone + sand (after the test) = 2.812 kgf
Wt, hole = 3.512 kgf (wet weight of soil obtained from the hole)
w = 10.6% (water content of in-situ soil after laboratory determination)
Solution
Vcone = Wsand,cone/γd,sand = 1.539 × 9.81 × 10−3/15.5 = 0.974 × 10−3 m3

Wsand,cone+hole = 7.394 − 2.812 = 4.582 kgf
Vsand,cone+hole = Wsand,cone+hole /γd,sand = 4.582 × 9.81 × 10−3/15.5 = 2.900 × 10−3m3
Vsand,hole = Vsand,cone+hole − Vcone = 2.900 × 10−3 − 0.974 × 10−3 m3 = 1.926 × 10−3 m3
γt,hole = γt = Wt, hole/Vsand,hole = 3.512 × 9.81 × 10−3/1.926 × 10−3 = 17.89 kN/m3
γd = γt/(1+w) = 17.89/(1 + 0.106) = 16.18 kN/m3
R.C. = γd /γd,max = 16.18/18.8 = 0.860 = 86.0%
5.6.2 Rubber balloon method
The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone method; a
test hole is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and its moisture content
are determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a
rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel, Fig. 5.4 Glass jar filled with
Ottawa sand with sand cone attached from which the volume can be read directly. The dry
unit weight of the compacted soil can be determined by using Eq. 5.8.
5.6.3 Nuclear method
Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight of soil.
The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. It uses a
radioactive isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that radiate back to the meter‟s
detector. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil. The instrument measures the
weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil.
143
The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be determined by subtracting the weight of water
from the moist unit weight of soil.
5.7 Control of Compaction
During compaction in the field, it is necessary to check the dry density and the water content
in order to get proper results. Compaction can be controlled by measuring the dry density
and the water content of the compacted soil. The sample of the compacted soil should be
taken and the dry density is determined. For the same sample the water content is also
determined. If the water content is less than the optimum moisture content (OMC) some
more water is added and compacted again. When OMC is attained and a dry density nearly
maximum dry density is obtained, the compaction is satisfactory.
After the compaction curve for a given soil is obtained from laboratory tests, the
specification of compaction in the field is made. Relative compaction (R.C.) is defined as
5.9
( )
About 95% relative compaction can be attained by sheep toot refers or pneumatic tyred
rollers. For cohesion less soils, relative compaction of about 100 % can be achieved using
pneumatic typed rollers & vibratory rollers.
Example 5.3
The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table. Determine the
maximum dry density (kg/m3) of compaction and the optimum moisture content.
144
Volume of Mass of Moisture
Proctor mold Wet soil Content
(cm3) in the mold (%)
(kg)
943.3 1.68 9.9
943.3 1.71 10.6
943.3 1.77 12.1
943.3 1.83 13.8
943.3 1.86 15.1
943.3 1.88 17.4
943.3 1.87 19.4
943.3 1.85 21.2
Solution
Volume of Mass of Moisture Moist unit Dry unit

Proctor mold Wet soil Content weight weight
(cm3) in the mold (%) (kg/m3)
(kg)
943.3 1.68 9.9 1780.98 1620.55
943.3 1.71 10.6 1812.78 1639.04
943.3 1.77 12.1 1876.39 1673.85
943.3 1.83 13.8 1939.99 1704.74
943.3 1.86 15.1 1971.80 1713.12
943.3 1.88 17.4 1993.00 1697.61
943.3 1.87 19.4 1982.40 1660.30
943.3 1.85 21.2 1961.20 1618.15
145
( ) =1713.12 kg/m3
Woptimum=15.1 %
Example 5.4
A field unit weight determination test for the soil described in above example yielded the
following data: moisture content=10.5% and moist density=1705 kg/m3. Determine the
relative compaction.
Solution
=1542.9 kg/m3
( )
R=
( )
R= = 90%
146
5.8 Factors Affecting Compaction
The increase in dry density of the soil achieved as a result of compaction depends upon the
following factors.
 Water content: At water content lower than O. M. C, the soil is stiff and is not
workable offering resistance to compaction. As the water content increases, the particles
become lubricated and are easier to expel air from the voids. Thus the dry density
increases till the optimum amount of water is applied. With further increase in moisture
content the water starts to occupy more pore spaces and results in an increase of the total
voids (air and water). This results in an increase in the total volume of the soil. Hence
this in turn will bring about reduction in the dry density of soil.
ii. Amount of Compaction: At moisture content less than the optimum, increasing the
compaction effort brings about an increase in the dry density. But at water content more
than the optimum, the volume of air voids is almost constant & thus increasing the
compaction effort has no effect on the dry density. Even at moisture content less than the
optimum, the dry density will not go on increasing with an increase in compaction effort.
With an increase in compaction the increase in dry becomes smaller and smaller and
finally no change in dry will be observed with an increase in compaction effort.
iii. Type of Soil: Generally coals grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density then
fine gained soils for the some compaction effort. When some fines are added to the coarse
grained soils to file the voids, the maximum dry density further increases, but it the amount
of fines is too much, more than required to fill the voids, it results in reduction of dry
density, well graded soils can attain higher dry density then poxes graded soils. High
plasticity cays attain much less dry density than low plasticity clays for the some
completive effort.
iv. Method of compaction: the increase in dry density for a given compaction effort
depends also on method of compaction i-e whether the method of compaction utilizes
kneading action static action or dynamic.
147
5.9 In-Situ Soil Compaction Techniques
There are a no of methods for compacting soils in the field. The type of compaction method
depends on the soil type, the d required and economic consideration of the method.
1. Tampers: May be hand- operated or operated by compressed air gasoline power.

The hand operated tamper (rammer) consists of an iron or stone block of 3 to 5 kg in
mass attached to a wooden rod. The soils are compacted by lifting and dropping the
rammer. Mechanical rammer operated by compressed air of power is heavier having
of mass of 30 to 150 kgs.
2. Rollers: different types of rollers are used for soil compaction.
A. Smooth –Wheel Rollers: May consist of either two drums (wheels) or
three. The mass varies from 2000 to 15000 kgs. Suitable for compacting fills for
finishing operations or for compaction of granular base courses of highways.
They are not effective for compaction of deep layers of soils as the compacting
pressure produced is low.
B. Pneumatic – Tyred Rollers: These are rollers that use compressed air for the
inflation pressure required. The pneumatic types are fixed on two axles and the
types are spaled such that complete coverage is obtained in each pass. The mass
varies b/n 5000kgs to 200,000kgs. Used for both cohesive and cohesion less
soils.
C. Sheep foot rollers: consists of a hollow drum with a number of small
projections (feet) on the surface. These feet penetrate the soil during rolling and
cause compaction. These are suited for compaction of cohesive soils. The depth
of soil that can be compacted depends on the length of the projections & weight
of the drum. The depth is generally 15.30 cm.
3. Vibratory compactors: In these compactors vibrations are induced during
compaction. When the vibrator is mounted to a drum it is called a vibratory roller.
Vibratory rollers can compact deep layers up to 1m thickness for coarse-grained soils.
148
Assessment
1. What is compaction?
2. What are the factors that affect compaction of soils? Discuss in brief.
3. What are the advantages & application of soil compaction in soil engineering?
4. A sample of soil was prepared by mixing a quantity of dry soil with 10% by mass of
water. Find the mass of this wet mixture required to produce a cylindrical, compacted
specimen of 15 cm diameter and 12.5 cm deep and having 6% air content. Find also the
void ratio & the dry density of the specimen if G=2.68.
5. The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test on a sample of soil.
The volume of the mould used was 950ml.make necessary calculations & plot the
compaction curve & obtain the maximum dry density & the optimum water content. Also
calculate the void ratio and the degree of saturation (G=2.7).
Water content (%) 12 14 16 18 20 22

Mass of wet soil(kg) 1.68 1.85 1.91 1.87 1.87 1.85
6. A cylindrical specimen of a cohesive soil of 10cm in diameter and20cm length was

prepared by compaction in a mould. If the wet mass of the specimen was 3.25 kg and its
water content was 15%, determine the dry density and the void ratio. If the specific
gravity of the particles was 2.7, find the degree of saturation.
7. The following are the results of a standard compaction test performed on a sample of
soil. If the volume of the mould used was 950 c.c. and the specific gravity of soil grains
was 2.65, make necessary calculations & plot water content-dry density curve & obtain
the maximum dry density & the optimum water content.
Water content (%) 7.7 11.5 14.6 17.5 19.7 21.2

Mass of wet soil(kg) 1.7 1.89 2.03 1.99 1.96 1.92
149
8. An earthen embankment of 106 m3 volume is to be constructed with a soil having a void
ratio of 0.80 after compaction. There are three borrowing pits marked A, B and C having
soils with void ratios of 0.90, 1.50, and 1.80 respectively. The cost of excavation and
transporting the soil is birr 0.25, 0.23, 0.18 per m3, respectively. Calculate the volume of
soil to be excavated from each pit. Which borrow pit is the most economical?
9. Differentiate between consolidation and compaction. give examples
10. Describe Standard Proctor test and the Modified Proctor test. How would you decide the
type of the test to be conducted in the laboratory?
11. What is compaction curve? Give its salient features. What is zero-air void line?
12. What are the different methods of compaction adopted in the field? How would you
select the type of roller to be used?
Determination No. Obs.1 Obs.2 Obs.3 Obs.4

Wt. of mold + base + compacted
soil,… gm 5.5714 5.6698 5.7329 5.6903
Wt. of mold + base,
……………………gm 3.3762 3.3762 3.3762 3.3762
Wt. of container,………………………
gm 9.8 9.3 9.8 9.7
Wt. of container + wet
soil,…………… gm 101.9 103 103.4 103.3
Wt. of container + dry soil,
……………gm 92.59 91.03 88.64 87
13. The following are the results of a standard compaction laboratory test performed on a
sample of soil. If the volume of the mold used was 944 cc, make necessary calculations
& plot water content-dry density curve & obtain the maximum dry density & the
optimum water content.
Wt. of wet soil from hole (Ww)…gm 1.218

Wt. of sand before pouring (W1)..gm 6.519
Wt. of sand after pouring (W4)…gm 5.146
Wt. of dried soil…………………gm 1.1344
150
14. A Field test by sand replacement method was conducted on site for the determination of
the soil field conditions, the following observations were recorded. Compute the field dry
density and natural moisture content ,the internal diameter and depth of calibration
apparatus are 10cm and 15 cm respectively, weight of sand to fill the calibration
container is 1700 gm, weight of sand in the cone of pouring cylinder =465 gm,
15. In a compaction test a bulk unit weight of 16 kN/m3 was measured at a moisture content of
8%. What would the moisture content have been if the soil had been fully saturated.
Assume Gs = 2.70.
16. In a compaction test the optimum moisture content (OMC) = 11.0%, and the maximum dry
density = 1.98 t/m3. At the OMC the degree of saturation = 91%. Determine the greatest
dry density that it is possible for this soil to have when the moisture content is 11%.
17. On the application of the standard compaction test to a soil, the results tabulated below
were obtained. Obtain an estimate of the optimum moisture content, maximum dry unit
weight and draw the line of zero air voids relating dry unit weight and moisture content.
Assume the specific gravity is 2.75.
Moisture content (%) Bulk unit weight (kN/m3)

7.4 18.5
8.8 19.9
10.0 20.9
12.2 21.2
15.2 20.6
17.2 20.3
151
References:
Pearson (2014)
152
Chapter 6 Shear strength of soil
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define shear strength of soil
• Be able to compute shear strength of soil
• Be able to conduct direct shear test
• Be able to conduct triaxial test
• Be able to conduct UCS test
• Be able to conduct direct shear test
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction of the m
icroprocessor and microcontroller and its architecture; individual internet search.
 Define the terminologies, differentiate and explain shear strength of soil
 Conduct tests to determine shear parameters.
4. Equipment
• Direct shear test.
• Triaxial
• UCS
 Direct shear test.
 Triaxial
 UCS
 Always remind students of safety precautions.
6. Assessments
• Define shear strength of soil.
• What are the parameters which are used to determine shear strength?
• Conducting laboratory test.
153
7. Clean-up

inions.
154
6 Shear Strength of Soil
6.1 Basic Concept of Shearing Resistance and Shearing Strength
The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil. If the soil
fails, a structure founded on it can collapse, endangering lives and causing economic
damages. Soils fail either in tension or in shear. However, in the majority of soil mechanics
problems (such as bearing capacity, lateral pressure against retaining walls, slope stability,
etc.), only failure in shear requires consideration. The shear strength of soils is, therefore, of
paramount importance to geotechnical engineers. The shear strength along any plane is
mobilized by cohesion and frictional resistance to sliding between soil particles. The
cohesion c and angle of friction  of a soil are collectively known as shear strength
parameters.
In this chapter we will define, describe, and determine the shear strength of soils. When you
complete this chapter, you should be able to:
 Determine the shear strength of soils.

 Understand the difference between drained and undrained shear strength.
 Determine the type of shear test that best simulates field conditions.
 Interpret laboratory and field test results to obtain shear strength
parameters.
Sample Practical Situation: You are the geotechnical engineer in charge of a soil exploration
program for a dam and a housing project. You are expected to specify laboratory and field
tests to determine the shear strength of the soil and to recommend soil strength parameters
for the design of the dam.
155
6.2 The Coulomb Equation Methods of Determining Shear
Strength Parameters
You may recall Coulomb‟s frictional law from your courses in statics and physics. If a block
of weight W is pushed horizontally on a plane (Fig. 1.1a), the horizontal force (H) required to
initiating movement is:
H  W 1
where  is the coefficient of static friction between the block and the horizontal plane. The
coefficient of friction  is independent of the area of contact. It is, however, strongly
dependent on the nature of the surface in contact – the type of material, the condition of the
surface, and so on. Furthermore, in most materials the coefficient of static friction is larger
than the kinetic coefficient. The angle between the resultant force R and the normal force N
(Fig. 6.1) is called the friction angle,   tan 1  .
Figure 6.1: (a) Slip plane of a block. (b) A slip plane in a soil mass.
156
In terms of stresses, Coulomb‟s law is expressed as:
 f   n tan  (2)
where  f (= T/A, where T is the shear force at impending slip and A is the area of the
plane parallel to T) is the shear stress when slip is initiated, and  n (= N/A) is the normal
stress on the plane on which slip is initiated. Coulomb‟s law requires the existence or the
development of a critical sliding plane, also called slip plane or failure plane. In the case
of the block the slip plane is at the interface between the block and the horizontal plane.
6.3 Stress Condition at a Point in a Soil Mass
The stress states at a point within a soil mass can be represented graphically by a very useful
and widely used devise known as Mohr‟s circle for stress. The stress state at a point is the set
of stress vectors corresponding to all planes passing through that point. For simplicity, we
will consider a two-dimensional element with stresses as shown in Fig. 1.2a. Let‟s draw
Mohr‟s circle. First, we have to choose a sign convention. In soil mechanics, compressive
stresses and clockwise shear are generally assumed to be positive. We will also assume that
z x.
Figure 6.2: Stresses on a two-dimensional element and Mohr’s circle.
157
The two coordinates of the circle are (  z , zx ) and (  x , zx ). Recall from your strength of
materials course that, for equilibrium  xz   zx . Plot these two coordinates on a graph of
shear stress (ordinate) and normal stress (abscissa) as shown by A and B in Fig. 1.2b. Draw a
circle with AB as the diameter. The circle crosses the normal stress axis at 1 and 3, where
shear stresses are equal to zero. The stresses at these points are the major principal stress,  1 ,
and the minor principal stress,  3 .
The principal stresses are related to the stresses  x ,  z and  zx by the following relations:
 z  x   x 
2
1    z    zx
2
(3)
2  2 
 z  x   x 
2
3    z    zx
2
(4)
2  2 
The angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal plane ( ) is:
 zx
tan  (5)
1   x
The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle  to the major principal stress plane are:
1   3 1   3
   cos 2 (6)
2 2
1   3
  sin 2 (7)
2
In the above equations  is positive for clockwise orientation. The maximum shear stress is
at the top of the circle with magnitude:
1   3
 max  (8)
2
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The stress  z acts on the horizontal plane and the stress  x acts on the vertical plane. If we
draw these planes in Mohr‟s circle, they intersect at a point; P. Point P is called the pole of
the Mohr circle. It is a special point because any line passing through the pole will intersect
Mohr‟s circle at a point that represents the stresses on a plane parallel to the line. Let us see
how this works. Suppose we want to find the stresses on a plane inclined at angle  to the
horizontal plane as depicted by MN in Fig. 1.2a. Once we locate the pole, P, we can draw a
line parallel to MN through P as shown by M‟N‟ in Fig. 1.2b. The line M‟N‟ intersects the
circle at N‟ and the coordinates of N‟, (   ,  ) represent the normal and shear stresses on
MN.
6.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria Inclination of the Plane of

Failure Caused by Shear
Coulomb (1776) suggested that the shear strength of a soil along a failure plane could be
described by:
 f  c   n tan  (9)
where  f is the shear strength on the failure plane,  n is the stress normal to the plane, c is
the cohesion and  the angle of internal friction of the soil. The two parameters c and  are
called shear strength parameters.
To understand the concept behind Eq. (1.9), consider two blocks A and B (Fig. 1.3a) of unit
area that are in contact with each other and are subjected to the normal and shear stresses
shown. The interface between the blocks is not smooth and contains friction. Under a
constant normal stress, the shear stress is increased from zero to the maximum  f , forcing
the two blocks to slide along their contact area. When  n =0, the shear stress has to be
mobilized to a maximum value of c to make the sliding possible. If the friction angle
between blocks A and B is  then for the values of  >0,  has to be increased to overcome
159
the resistance to sliding   tan  caused by friction (Coulomb‟s frictional law).
Consequently, the summation of c and   tan  represents the maximum shear stress needed
to slide the two blocks on the plane of contact (slip or failure plane). In a real soil, if a
predetermined sliding plane is forced to occur, the soil below and the soil above the failure
plane will not act as rigid bodies but will deform, causing a volume change around the
sliding and forming a shear band (Fig. 1.3b).
Figure 6.3: (a) Mechanical concept of sliding. (b) Soil deformation and a
shear band.
In a coordinate system with  n plotted as abscissa and  as ordinate, Eq. (1.9) is represented
by the line shown in Fig. (1.4a). this equation was originally written in terms of total stress
and was only partially successful in predicting the shear strength of real soils. Coulomb‟s
failure criterion was subsequently redefined as:
 f  c '   n' tan  ' (10)
160
Figure 6.4: Coulomb’s failure criteria: (a) total stress (b) effective stress.
where  f is the shear strength,  n ‟ is the effective normal stress, c‟ is the effective
cohesion, and  ' the effective angle of internal friction of the soil. In both the total and
effective stress conditions, the shear stress is solely taken by the soil particles, since the
liquid in the voids – which is normally water – has no resistance to shear. The tensile
strength of soils is commonly ignored and therefore cohesion is the minimum shear strength
at zero normal stresses.
Figure 6.5: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.

161
Figure 1.5 shows the total and effective stress states at failure point represented by Mohr‟s
circles. It is apparent that the shear stress at every plane in the total stress Mohr‟s circle is the
same as in the effective stress Mohr‟s circle. The difference between normal stresses in two
perpendicular directions in the total and effective stress is equal to:
 z   x  ( z'  u )  ( x'  u )   z'   x' (11)
Thus, the radiuses of both the total and effective stresses are identical. The horizontal
distance of the two circles is equal to the pore water pressure u.
Any point F at the failure plane represents the normal and shear stresses on a failure plane at
a specified point in a soil. These stresses must also satisfy the equilibrium conditions at the
point, which is represented by Mohr‟s circle of stress. This implies that, at failure, Mohr‟s
circle of stress must be tangent to the line expressed by Eq. 4.9 (or 4.10). This condition
known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is shown in Fig. 1.5.
From geometry of Fig. 1.5, the theoretical angle between the failure plane and the major
principal plane is given by the following equation:
 90   '  '
 
 
  45  2
0
(12)
 2 
From figure 1.5, a relationship between the state of stress (  1' and  3' ) or (  x' ,  z' , or  zx )
and the shear strength parameters c‟ and  ' may be formulated by equating the radius of
Mohr‟s circle R to the distance of the center of the circle from the failure envelope, CF, in
which,
2
  z'   x' 
R  CF      zx2  OB cos '  OC sin  ' (13)
 2 
This equation can be written in terms of the principal stresses (  zx  0 ) as follows:
162
2
  1'   3' 
   OB cos '  OC sin  ' (14)
 2 
Considering OB = c‟ and OC = ( 1'   3' ) 2 , we have
 1'   3'  2c ' cos '  ( 1'   3' ) sin  ' (15)
Or,
1  sin  cos ' ' 1  sin 

'
' 1  sin 
'
 1'   3'  2c '   '
   2c (16)
1  sin  1  sin  ' 1  sin  ' 1  sin  '
1 3
1  sin  ' ' 1  sin 

'
  3'   1'  2c (1.17)
1  sin  ' 1  sin  '
Or using some trigonometry manipulations,
' '
 1'   3' tan 2 (45  )  2c ' tan( 45  ) 18)
2 2
' '
 3'   1' tan 2 (45  )  2c ' tan( 45  ) 19)
2 2
If the cohesion c‟, is small or zero, then Eqs. (1.15 to 1.19) can be rearranged as follows:
  '   3' 
sin  '   1' 
' 
(1.20)
  1   3 
 3' 1  sin  '  1' 1  sin  '

 or  (21)
 1' 1  sin  '  3' 1  sin  '
 3' '  1' '

 tan (45  ) or '  tan (45  )
2 2
(22)
 1' 2 3 2
163
6.5 Undrained and Drained Shear Strength
Drained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure developed during loading of a
soil dissipates, i.e. u  0 , resulting in volume changes in the soil. Loose sands, normally
consolidated clays and lightly overconsolidated clays tend to compress or contract, whilst
dense sands and heavily overconsolidated (OCR > 2) clays tend to expand during drained
condition.
Undrained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure cannot drain, at least
quickly from the soil, i.e. u  0 . During undrained shearing, the volume of the soil remains
constant. Consequently, the tendency towards volume change induces a pressure in the pore
water. If the specimen tends to compress or contract during shear, then the induced pore
water pressure is positive. It wants to contract and squeeze water out of the pores, but it
cannot. Positive pore water pressures occur in loose sands, normally consolidated clays and
lightly overconsolidated clays. If the specimen tends to expand and swell during shear, the
induced pore water pressure is negative. It wants to expand and draw water into the pores,
but it cannot. Negative pore water pressures occur in dense sands and heavily
overconsolidated (OCR > 2) clays.
During the life of the geotechnical structure, called the long-term condition, the excess pore
water pressure developed by a loading dissipates and drained condition applies. Clays
usually take many years to dissipate the excess pore water pressure. During construction, and
shortly after, called the short-term condition, soils with low permeability (fine-grained soils)
do not have sufficient time for the excess pore water pressure to dissipate and undrained
condition applies. The permeability of coarse-grained soils is sufficiently large that under
static loading conditions the excess pore water pressure dissipates quickly. Consequently
undrained condition does not apply to clean coarse-grained soils under static loading.
Dynamic loading, such as during an earthquake, is imposed so quickly that even coarse-
grained soils do not have sufficient time to dissipate the excess pore water pressure and
undrained condition applies.
164
The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under undrained condition is called the undrained
shear strength, Su. The undrained shear strength Su is the radius of Mohr‟s total stress circle;
that is:
1   3 ( 1'  u )  ( 3'  u )  1'   3'

Su    (23)
2 2 2
6.6 Laboratory Shear Strength Tests
Different methods are available for testing shear strength of soils in a laboratory. The
following are the more commonly used testing methods:
1. Direct shear test.

2. Triaxial compression test.
3. Unconfined compression test.
6.6.1 Direct Shear Test
The direct shear test is the oldest and the simplest type of shear test. It was first devised by
Coulomb (1776) for the study of shear strength. The test is performed in a shear box,
illustrated in Figure 1.6. The box consists of two parts, one part fixed and the other movable.
Usually the box is a square of sides equal to 5 cm. The soil sample is placed in the box. A
vertical normal force N is applied to the top of the sample through a metal platen resting on
the top part of the box. Porous stones may be placed on the top and bottom part of the sample
to facilitate drainage.
165
Figure 6.6: Schematic of direct shear apparatus.
The sample is subjected to shearing stress at the plane of separation AA (Fig. 1.6) by
applying horizontal forces T. The horizontal force can be applied either at a constant speed
(strain controlled test) or constant load (stress controlled test) until failure occurs in the soil.
In most routine soil tests the strain controlled test is used. Failure is determined when the soil
cannot resist any further increment of horizontal force.
The above procedure is repeated for several values (three or more) of normal forces. By
plotting the normal stresses and corresponding shear stresses from the results of such tests, a
failure envelope is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.7. Note that the normal stress  n  N A , and
the shear stress   T A , where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen. For
example, if the normal and horizontal forces for the second test are represented by N2 and
T2, respectively, the coordinate point for test 2 is given as (  2  N 2 A ,  2  T2 A ). The

corresponding Mohr‟s circle for this case is shown in Fig. 1.7 and the shear strength
parameters  and c could be measured directly from this figure. It is not possible to obtain
other deformation parameters such Young‟s modulus and Poisson‟s ratio from direct shear
test.
166
Figure 6.7: Plotted direct shear test results and a Mohr circle.
In direct shear test, drainage should be allowed throughout the test because there is no way of
sealing the specimen. Once the shear phase starts and one part of the specimen moves in
relation to the other part, a gap opens. Water can flow through this gap, and drainage control
becomes impossible. The only solution is, therefore, to allow full drainage throughout the
test, and keep excess pore water pressure equal to zero. In sands, due to their high
permeability, dissipation of excess pore water pressure is immediate, and the test can be
conducted quickly. In clayey soils full drainage may require long testing time to allow for
dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Some practical engineers still attempt to perform
undrained direct shear test in clayey soils by shearing the soil very quickly. However, this
may lead to totally erroneous results.
6.6.2 Triaxial Shear Test
A widely used apparatus to determine the shear strength parameters and the stress-strain
behavior of soils is the triaxial apparatus. The essential features of a triaxial test apparatus
together with a soil sample are shown in Fig. 1.8. The soil sample is protected by a thin
167
rubber membrane and is subjected to pressure from water that occupies the volume of the
chamber. This confining water pressure (also called radial pressure) enforces a condition of
equality on two of the total principal stresses, i.e.  2   3 . Vertical or axial stresses are
applied by a loading ram (plunger), and therefore, the total major principal stress,  1 is the
sum of the confining pressures and the deviatoric stress applied through the ram. In a
traditional triaxial compression test, the confining pressure  3 is kept constant whilst the
major principal stress  1 is increased incrementally by the loading ram until the sample fails.
Figure 6.8: Schematic diagram of a triaxial compression apparatus

(Budhu, pp. 225).
Facilities to measure the pore water pressure and the volume change at any stage of the test
are available. To eliminate any end constraint effects on the test results, the height of the
specimen is made to be twice the diameter. Specimen diameter are normally either 38 mm or
100 mm, however some cells have been manufactured to accommodate larger diameter.
168
Specimens are either undisturbed or remolded depending on the type of material. To
construct a failure envelope for a soil, a test has to be performed several times with different
confining pressures using ideally identical samples.
The triaxial apparatus is versatile because we can ① independently control the applied axial
and radial loads, ② conduct tests under drained and undrained conditions, and ③ control
the applied displacements or stresses. Recorded measurements include deviatoric stress at
different stages of the test, vertical displacement of the ram, volume change and pore water
pressure. The average stresses and strains on a soil sample in a triaxial compression
apparatus are as follows:
Pz
Axial stress :  1  3 24
A
Pz
Deviatoric stress :  1   3  25
A
z
Axial strain :  1  26
H0
r
Radial strain :  3  27
r0
V
Volumetric strain :  p    1  2 3 28
V0
Deviatoric strain :  q  23 ( 1   3 ) 29
where Pz is the axial load on the ram, A is the cross-sectional area of the soil sample, r0 is the
initial radius of the soil sample, r is the change in radius, V0 is the initial volume, V is the
change in volume, H0 is the initial height, and z is the change in height. The area of the
sample changes during loading, and at any given instance the area is:
169
 V 
V0 1  
V V0  V  V0  A0 (1   p )
A    30
H H 0  z  z  1  1
H 0 1  
 H0 
Where A0 (=   r02 ) is the initial cross-sectional area and H is the current height of the
sample.
A variety of stress paths can be applied to soil samples in the triaxial apparatus. However,
only a few stress paths are used in practice to mimic typical geotechnical problems. We will
discuss the tests most often used, why they are used, and typical results obtained.
6.6.3 Consolidated-Drained Test
The purpose of a CD test is to determine the drained shear strength parameters  ' and c‟.
The effective elastic moduli for drained condition E‟ is also obtained from this test. A CD
test is performed in two stages. The first stage is consolidating the soil to a desired effective
stress level appropriate to field conditions by pressurizing the water in the cell and allowing
the soil sample to drain until the excess pore water pressure dissipates. In the second stage,
the pressure in the cell (cell pressure or confining pressure) is kept constant and additional
axial loads or displacements are added very slowly until the soil sample fails. The
displacement rate (or stress rate) used must be slow enough to allow the excess pore water
pressure to dissipate. Because the permeability of fine-grained soils is much lower than
coarse-grained soils, the displacement rate for testing fine-grained soils is much lower than
for coarse-grained soils. Drainage of the excess pore water pressure is permitted throughout
the test and the amount of water expelled is measured. Since the CD test is a drained test, a
single test can take several days if the permeability of the soil is low (e.g. clays). The results
of CD tests are used to determine the long-term stability of slopes, foundations, retaining
walls, excavations, and other earthworks. For remolded and normally consolidated clays, the
cohesion c‟ parameter from a CD test is essentially very small and can be assumed to be zero
for all practical purposes.
170
6.6.4 Consolidated-Undrained Test
The purpose of a CU test is to determine both the undrained (cu, u ) and drained (c‟,  ' )
shear strength parameters. The undrained elastic moduli Eu and effective elastic moduli E‟
are also obtained from this test. The CU test is conducted in a similar manner to the CD test
except that after isotropic consolidation, the axial load is increased under undrained
condition and the excess pore water pressure is measured. As explained in section 1.5, the
excess pore pressure developed during shear can either be positive or negative. This happens
because the sample tries to either contract or expand during shear. Positive pore pressures
occur in loose sands and normally consolidated clays. Negative pore pressures occur in dense
sands and heavily overconsolidated clays.
The CU test is the most popular triaxial test because you can obtain both drained and
undrained shear strength parameters, and most tests can be completed within a few minutes
after consolidation compared with more than a day for a CD test. Fine-grained soils with low
permeability must be sheared slowly to allow the excess pore water pressure to equilibrate
throughout the test sample. The results from CU tests are used to analyze the stability of
slopes, foundations, retaining walls, excavations and other earthworks. For remolded and
normally consolidated clays, the cohesion c‟ parameter from a CU test is also essentially
very small and can be assumed to be zero.
6.6.5Unconsolidated-Undrained Test
The purpose of a UU test is to determine the undrained shear strength (Su) of a saturated soil.
The UU test consists of applying a cell pressure to the soil sample without drainage of pore
water followed by increments of axial stress. The cell pressure is kept constant and the test is
completed very quickly because in neither of the two stages – consolidation and shearing – is
the excess pore pressure allowed to drain. In the UU test, pore water pressures are usually
not measured.
171
Backpressure is a technique used for saturating soil specimens. It is accomplished by
applying water pressure u0 within the specimen, and at the same time changing the cell
pressure  ce ll of an equal amount. Therefore, the net confining pressure  c   cell  u0
remains unchanged. Back pressuring has no influence on the calculations. In most cases, a
backpressure of 300 kPa is sufficient to ensure specimen saturation and it should be applied
in steps as shown in the table below.
Table 6.1 back pressure and cell pressure
6.6.6 Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay
The UC test is the simplest and quickest test used to determine the shear strength of a
cohesive soil. An undisturbed or remolded sample of cylindrical shape, about 38 mm in
diameter and 76 mm in height is subjected to uniaxial compression until the soil fails. Since
the sample is laterally unconfined, only cohesive soils can be tested. The sample is tested
quickly and there is no drainage. Therefore, it is a special case of the UU test in which  3 =0.
However, rather than in a triaxial cell, the test is performed in a mechanical apparatus
specially manufactured from this purpose.
172
Example 6.1.
A soil element is shown in Figure below Determine the following:
a) Maximum and minimum principal stresses.
b) Normal and shear stresses on the plane AB
Solution
a)
√[ ]
√[ ]
√[ ] =129.244 kN/m2
√[ ] =30.756 kN/m2
b)
cos2θ + sin2θ
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sin2θ - cos2θ
cos2θ + sin2θ
cos 60 -45sin 60=51.029 kN/m2
sin2θ - cos2θ
sin60+ cos60=39.821 kN/m2
Example 6.1.
A soil element is shown in Figure below. Determine the following:
a) Maximum and minimum principal stresses.
b) Normal and shear stresses on the plane AB
Solution
a)
√[ ] =95 kN/m2
√[ ] =30 kN/m2
174
b)
cos2θ + sin2θ
cos 80 -30sin 80=94.215 kN/m2
sin2θ - cos2θ
sin80- cos80=7.1 kN/m2
175
Assessment
Objective type of questions
1. The shear strength of plastic undrained clay depends up on

a) Internal friction c) both (a) and (b)
b) Cohesion d) neither (a) and(b)
2. When drainage is permitted throughout the triaxial test, the test is known as
a) Quick test c) Consolidated undrained test
b) Drained test d) None of (a), (b) and (c)
3. The shear strength of a cohesionless soil is
a) Proportional to the angle of shearing resistance
b) Inversely Proportional to the angle of shearing resistance
c) Proportional to the tangent of the angle of shearing resistance
d) None of the above
4. Coulomb‟s equation for shear strength can be represented as
a) c = s+ tan  c) s = +c tan 
b) c = s- tan  d) s = c- tan 
5. Write true if the statement is correct or false if the statement is wrong
a) The Mohr circle for unconfined compression test passes through the origin.
b) On the failure plane, the shear stress is maximum.
c) The shear strength of a soil depends up on the total stresses.
d) Dense sands are liable to liquefaction.
e) Consolidated drained test is also known as slow test.
f) Vane shear test can be conducted on all types of soil.
g) The unconfined compression test can be conducted on cohesionless soil.
176
1. Describe direct shear test .what are its merits & demerits?
2. Describe triaxial shear test .what are the advantages of triaxial shear test over direct shear
test?
3. Discuss the shear characteristics of cohesion less soils & cohesive soils.
4. What is unconfined compression test? What is it‟s the advantage over a triaxial test?
5. A series of direct shear tests was conducted on a soil; each test was carried out till the
sample failed. The following results were obtained. Determine the cohesion intercept and
the angle of shearing resistance.
Sample No. Normal stress Shear stress (kN/m2)

(kN/m2)
1 15 18
2 30 25
3 45 32
6. The following results were obtained from a series of consolidated un-drained tests on a
soil, in which the pore water pressure was not determined. Determine the cohesion
intercept & the angle of shearing resistance.
Sample No. Confining pressure Deviator stress at

(kN/m2) failure (kN/m2)
1 100 600
2 200 750
3 300 870
7. A series of direct shear tests was conducted on a soil; each test was carried out till the
sample failed. The following results were obtained. Determine the cohesion intercept
and the angle of shearing resistance.
177
Sample No. Normal stress Shear stress
2
(kN/m ) (kN/m2)
1 15 18
2 30 25
3 45 32
8. The following results were obtained from a series of consolidated un-drained tests on a
soil, in which the pore water pressure was not determined. Determine the cohesion
intercept & the angle of shearing resistance.
Sample No. Confining pressure Deviator stress at

(kN/m2) failure (kN/m2)
1 100 600
2 200 750
3 300 870
9. the principal stress at a point in a material are 100kN/m2 and 60kN/m2.Determine the
normal ,shear and result stress on a plane inclined at 30o to the major principal plane.
Find also for this plane, the maximum value of obliquity.
10. In an undrained triaxial compression test, the sample failed at a deviator stress of 200
kN/m2 when the cell pressure was 100kN/m2.the cohesion intercept is
a) 200 kN/m2 c) 300 kN/m2
b) 100 kN/m2 d) 50 kN/m2
11. A dry sand specimen was tested in a triaxial machine with the cell pressure of 50 kPa. if
the deviator stress at failure was 100 kPa , the angle of shearing resistance is
a) 30o
b) 15o
c) 45o
d) 60o
178
References:
Pearson (2014)
179
180
Chapter 7 Bearing capacity of soils
Lesson Plan
• Be able to define the bearing capacity of the soil.
• Be able to compute the ultimate and allowable bearing capacity using Terzaghi theor
y.
• Be able to differentiate the shear failure mode of soil.
• Be able to compute bearing capacity with water effect
• Be able to conduct plate load test
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction of the be
aring capacity of the soil.
 Define the terminologies, differentiate and explain soil bearing capacity and its
parameter.
 Can perform field plate load test in order to determine ultimate and allowable bearing
capacity.
4. Equipment
• Plate load test
 Ultimate bearing capacity using plate load test.
6. Assessments
• Compute ultimate and allowable bearing capacity.
• Define bearing capacity of soil
• computes bearing capacity with water effect
• Determine ultimate bearing capacity of soil using plate load test
7. Clean-up
-
181
• Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure and previous reflected opi
nions.
182
7 Bearing capacity of soil
7.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity
The lowest part of a structure generally is referred to as the foundation. Its function is to
transfer the load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. A properly designed
foundation transfers the load throughout the soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing
the soil can result in either excessive settlement or shear failure of the soil, both of which
cause damage to the structure. Thus, geotechnical and structural engineers who design
foundations must evaluate the bearing capacity of soils.
The ultimate bearing capacity, qu, (in kPa) is the load that causes the shear failure of the soil
underneath and adjacent to the footing. In general, the Bearing capacity is the power of
foundation soil to hold the forces from the superstructure without undergoing shear failure or
excessive settlement.
7.2 Allowable Bearing Capacity
The allowable bearing capacity (qa) is the maximum bearing stress that can be applied to the
foundation such that it is safe against instability due to shear failure and the maximum
tolerable settlement is not exceeded. The allowable bearing capacity is normally calculated
from the ultimate bearing capacity using a factor of safety (Fs). There are two basic
definitions of the allowable bearing capacity of shallow footings. They are gross allowable
bearing capacity and net allowable bearing capacity.
The gross allowable bearing capacity (qall) can be calculated as
7.1
The net allowable bearing capacity (qnet) is the allowable load per unit area of the footing in
excess of the existing vertical effective stress at the level of the footing. The vertical effective
stress at the footing level is equal to q=γDf So, the net ultimate load is
183
7.2
7.3
7.3 Modes of bearing capacity or shear failure
Depending on the stiffness of the foundation soil and the depth of the foundation, the
following are the modes of shear failure experienced by the foundation soil.
1. General shear failure

2. Local shear failure
3. Punching shear failure
7.3.1 General Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are some characteristics of
general shear failure.
 Continuous, well-defined, and distinct failure surface develops between the edge
of footing and ground surface.
 Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
 Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
 Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.
 Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in pressure.
 The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
 State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads
gradually downwards and outwards.
184
Figure 7.1 Bearing capacity in general shear failures in soil.
7.3.2 Local Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
 A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of

plastic equilibrium is observed.
 Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
 Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and a slight bulging of soil
around the footing is observed.
 Failure surface is not well defined.
 Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.
 Well defined peak is absent in the pressure displacement curve.
Figure 7.2 Bearing capacity in local shear failures in soil

185
7.3.3 Punching Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The following are
some characteristics of general shear failure.
 This type of failure occurs in soil of very high compressibility.

 Failure pattern is not observed.
 Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
 Failure is characterized by a very large settlement.
 Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in the pressure
displacement curve.
Figure 7.3 Bearing capacity in punching shear failures in soil
7.4 Ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundation
7.4.1 General equation for bearing capacity
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity equation
Many of the present-day principles regarding bearing capacity equations appear to have had
their origin in a failure mechanism proposed by Prandtl in the early 1920s (refer to literature
for Prandtl‟s failure mechanism). Prandtl developed a bearing capacity
186
Figure 7.4 Failure mechanism for Terzhagi’s bearing capacity solution
equation assuming a smooth (frictionless) footing and ignoring the weight of the soil in the
failure zone. These assumptions are not true in practice and therefore Prandtl‟s equation is
never used in practical design, but it was a beginning.
Terzhagi (1943) improved the Prandtl equation to include the roughness of the footing and
the weight of the failure zone. The failure mechanism in a c‟, Ø‟ soil for Terzhagi‟s bearing
capacity solution is shown in Fig. 2.2. Terzhagi‟s ultimate bearing capacity equations are
given as follows:
Strip (or long) footing: qu  c' N c  DN q  0.5BN  7.4
Square footing: qu  1.3c' N c  DN q  0.4 BN  7.5
Circular footing: qu  1.3c' N c  DN q  0.3BN  7.6
where Nc, Nq, and Nγ are called the bearing capacity factors and are obtained as follows:
e (3 / 2 ') tan  '  K p 

Nq  , N c  cot ' ( N q  1) , N   12 tan  '   1 7.7
2 cos2 (45   ' / 2)  cos  ' 
2
187
Figure 7.5 Terzhagi’s bearing capacity coefficients.
Figure 2.3 shows the variation of the bearing capacity factors provided by Terzhagi. Based on
this figure, Aysen (2002) proposed the following equation to obtain the value of K in the
N equation:
K p  (8 ' 2 4 '3.8) tan 2 (600   ' / 2) 7.9
where  ' in the first term is in radians. In the undrained conditions (cu and u  0 ):
N q  1, N c  ( 32   1)  5.71 , N   0 7.10
188
7.5 Effect of water on the bearing capacity of soils
The basic theory of bearing capacity is derived by assuming the water table to be at great
depth below and not interfering with the foundation. However, the presence of water table at
foundation depth affects the strength of soil. Further, the unit weight of soil to be considered
in the presence of water table is submerged density and not dry density. Hence, the reduction
coefficients RW1 and RW2 are used in second and third terms of bearing capacity equation to
consider the effects of water table.
Ultimate bearing capacity with the effect of the water table is given by,
q f  cN c  DN q Rw1  0.5BN  Rw2 7.11
where Rwl = reduction factor for water table above the base level of the foundation,
Rw2 = reduction factor for water table below the base level of the foundation,
γ = γsat for all practical purposes
Two cases may be considered here.
Case 1: When the water table lies above the base level of the foundation or when Dwl/Df < 1
Figure below the equation for Rwl may be written as
* + 7.12
Figure 7.6 Water table above base level of foundation

189
For Dw1/Df= 0, we have Rw1 = 0.5, and for Dw1/Df= 1.0, we have Rw1 = 1.0
Case 2: When the water table lies below the base level or when Dw2/B < 1figure below the
equation for Rw is
* + 7.13
Figure 7.7 Water table below base level of foundation
For Dw2/B = 0, we have Rw2 = 0.5, and for Dw2/B = 1.0, we have Rw2 = 1.0
Example 7.1
1. A strip footing of width 3 m is founded at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface in a

soil having a cohesion c = 30 kN/m2 and angle of shearing resistance 0 = 35°. The water
table is at a depth of 5 m below ground level. The moist weight of soil above the water
table is 17.25 kN/m3. Determine (a) the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil, (b) the net
bearing capacity for a factor of safety of 3. Use the theory of Terzaghi.
190
Solution
For 0 = 35°, Nc = 57.8, Nq =41.4, and Nγ = 42.4
qu  c' N c  DN q  0.5BN 
qu= 30 x 57.8 + 17.25 x 2 x 41.4 + 0.5 x 17.25 x 3 x 42.4 = 4259 kN/m2

qall= qu /Fs = 4259 kN/m2 / 3 =1419.667 kN/m2
Example 7.2
A square footing and a circular footing are to be designed to carry a load of 120 kN at a depth
of 2m below GL in a soil with the following data. γsoil = 18 kN/m3, c = 10 kN/m2, Ø=20o (Nc
=17.69, Nq = 7.44 and Nγ =3.64). Calculate their dimensions.
Solution
γsoil = 18 kN/m3, c = 10 kN/m2, Ø=20o , Nc =17.69, Nq = 7.44, Nγ =3.64 , Df =2 m ,
qall = 120 kN
Fs = Qu / Qall , Qu = Fs x Qall = 3*120= 360 kN
For square footing
qu = Qu/Area =360/B2
191
Example 7.3
strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kPa at a depth of 1.2 m in sand. The
saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5 kN/m3 and unit weight above water table is 16.8 kN/m3.
If c = 0 and ϕ = 35o, determine the factor of safety with respect to shear failure for the
following locations of water table.
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level
d. Water table is at Ground Level.
Using Terzaghi‟s equation, take Nq = 41.4 and Nγ = 42.4.
Solution
C = 0, ϕ = 35o, B = 2 m, D = 1.2 m, γb = 19.5 kN/m3 (bottom), γt = 16.8 kN/m3

(top)
Nc = 0, Nq = 41.4, Nγ = 42.4
Safe load intensity = 400 kPa

q s  400  cN c  D ( N q  1) RW 1  0.5BN  RW 2  F1  D
a. Water table is 4 m below Ground Level
RW1 = RW2 = 1
192
γ = 16.8 kN/m3
F = 4.02
b. Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level

RW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5
400  16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1  0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5

1
 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.227
c. Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level

RW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825
16.8 X 1.3  19.5 X 0.7

 eff   17.745 kN/m3
2
400  16.8 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 1  0.5 X 17.745X 2 X 42.4 X 0.825

1
 16.8 X 1.2
F
F = 3.779
d. Water table is at Ground Level

RW1 = RW2 = 0.5
γ = 19.5 kN/m3
400  19.5 X 1.2 X 40.4 X 0.5  0.5 X 19.5 X 2 X 42.4 X 0.5

1
 19.5 X 1.2
F
F = 2.353
193
Assessment
Subjective type of question
1. List the advantages and disadvantages of plate load test

2. Distinguish general shear failure from local shear failure
3. List the assumptions of Terzaghi‟s bearing capacity theory
4. Mention the limitations of Terzaghi‟s bearing capacity theory
5. Explain the effect of the shape of footing on bearing capacity
6. How does groundwater table influence bearing capacity? Explain
7. Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of a 2 m wide square footing resting on the
ground surface of a sand deposit with the following properties; unit weight 18.6
kN/m3, angle of internal friction 35o Also calculate the ultimate bearing capacity if
the same footing is placed at a depth of 1 m below ground surface.
8. Determine the safe bearing capacity of a square footing 2.1 m X 2.1 m placed at a
depth of 1.5 m in a soil with a moist unit weight of 17.5 kN/m3, c = 15 kPa and ϕ =
20o. What is the change in safe bearing capacity if the water table rises to 0.5 m above
footing base if F = 3.
9. What will be the gross net bearing capacity of sand having ϕ = 36o and dry unit
weight of 19 kN/m3 for the following cases
a. 1.5 m wide strip foundation
b. 1.5 m X 1.5 m square footing
c. 0.75 m radius circular footing
The footings are placed at a depth of 1.5 m from the ground surface. Assume a
factor of safety of 1.5 and use Terzaghi‟s bearing capacity equations
10. Design a square footing to carry a load of 1500 kN. Assume cohesionless soil and
adopt γ = 19 kN/m3, ϕ = 38o, and D = 1.5 m, F =3.
11. A square footing 1.4 m X 1.4 m rests at a depth of 1 m in a saturated clay layer 3 m
deep. Take γsat = 17.8 kN/m3. Determine the safe load if the unconfined compressive
strength is 50 kPa.
194
12. A square footing 2m X 2m in plan and 1.5 m below ground level is eccentrically
loaded. The resultant is 0.2 m outside of centroid in one direction. If c = 10 kPa, ϕ =
40o, γ=16kN/m3, find the safe load carried by footing. What would have been the
increase in load carried, if the load was concentric.
13. A 3 m X 4 m rectangular footing and 1.5 m below ground level is eccentrically
loaded. The resultant is 0.2 m outside of centroid widthwise, and 0.3 m outside of
centroid lengthwise. If c = 10 kPa, ϕ = 40o, γ=16kN/m3, find the safe load carried by
footing. What would have been the increase in load carried, if the load was
concentric.
14. The following are the results of plate load test on granular soil.
P (kN) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
Δ (mm) 0.15 0.3 0.62 0.91 1.22 3.85 7.67
Find the allowable bearing pressure if B = 2 m, Bp = 0.3 m, and permissible settlement in

field = 12 mm.
15. The following are the results of plate load test on cohesive soil.
P (kN) 7 17 25 35 45 55 65
Δ (mm) 1 1.5 2 4 8 16 28
Find the allowable bearing pressure if B = 2 m, Bp = 0.3 m, and permissible settlement in

field = 12 mm.
195
References:
Pearson (2014)
196
PART-II PRACTICAL PART
197
WEEK-1
Test-1. Measurement of Water Content
Introduction
Water content may be defined as the quantity of water contained in a soil. It is commonly
known as moisture content. However, percent water content of a soil is the ratio of the weight
of free water present either on the soil surface or in the voids between soil particles to the
weight of dry solids of that soil.
( )
( )
Mw
w 100
Ms
Objective
The test is used to determine the water content of soil solids by oven drying method.
Equipment and Materials
 Sensitive balance with an accuracy of 0.01 gram.

 Drying oven controlled to 105 - 110 ˚C.
 Metal container (can).
 Spatula and gloves.
 Plastic stack.
 Soil sample
198
Procedure
1. Clean the container dries it and weighs it (W1).

2. Take a specimen of the sample in the container and weigh (W2).
3. Keep the container in the oven. Dry the specimen to constant weight maintaining the
temperature between105˚C to 110˚C for a period varying with the type of soil but in
most cases 24 hours.
4. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample.
5. Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the moisture can
using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature.
6. Determine and record the mass of the moisture can.
7. Empty the moisture can and cleans the can.
Observation and Data analysis
 Computing the mass of water

 Computing mass of dry soil
 Computing water content
Table 1.1 Water content analysis format
Observation 1 2 3
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry can (W1)
Mass of the can and wet soil (W2)
Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3)
Mass of water (W4) W4 = W2 - W3
Mass of Dry soil (W5) W5 = W3 – W1
Water content w = (W4 / W5)*100%
Average Water content wav= (w1+ w2+ w3)/3
199
Example 1.1
Determine the water content of the data obtained from laboratory
Observation 1 2 3
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry (W1) 12 12.5 12.8
Mass of the can and wet soil (W2) 30 32 28
Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 27 29 25.5
Solution
Observation 1 2 3
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry (W1) 12 12.5 12.8
Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 27 29 25.5
Mass of water (W4) W4 = W2 - W3 3 3 2.5
Mass of Dry soil (W5) W5 = W3 – W1 15 16.5 12.7
Water content w = (W4 / W5)*100% 20 % 18.18 % 19.67 %
Average Water content wav= (w1+ w2+ w3)/3 19.29 %
200
Evaluation sheet
Out of
Evaluation Score* Remark
5
Working Principle
End result of water

content of a
particular soil
Result sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
201
WEEK-2
Test-2. Measurement of Unit Weight or Density of Soil
Introduction
The bulk density is the ratio of mass of moist soil to the volume of the soil sample, and the
dry density is the ratio of the mass of the dry soil to the volume the soil sample. Core cutter
method of determining the field density of soil is only suitable for fine grained soil.
( )
Objective
The test is used to determine the in place density of soils by core cutter method. This test can
also be used to determine density of compacted soils used in the construction of structural
fills, highway embankments, or earth dams.
 Cylindrical core cutter

 Steel rammer
 Steel dolly
 Balance
 Spade or pickaxe
 Straight edge
 Moisture can
 Drying oven
202
Procedure
1. Measure the volume of the core cutter and apply grease to the inside of the core cutter
2. Weigh the empty core cutter (W1)
3. Clean and level the place where density is to be determined.
4. Drive the core cutter, with a steel dolly on its top, into the soil to its full depth with the
help of a steel rammer.
5. Excavate the soil around the cutter with a crow bar and gently lift the cutter without
disturbing the soil in it.
6. Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample and clean the outside surface of the
cutter.
7. Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2)
8. Remove the soil from the core cutter, using a sample ejector and take representative soil
sample from it to determine the moisture content.
 Determine the volume of the soil sample

 Determine weight of moist soil
 Calculate bulk density of soil
 Calculate dry density of soil
Table 2.1 Soil unit weight or density analysis format
Observation 1 2 3
Measure the volume of the core cutter (V)

Weigh the empty core cutter (W1)
Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2)

Weight of moist soil = (W2-W1)
γ bulk = (W2-W1)/V
Water content (w)
γ dry = γ bulk / (1+w)
203
Example 2.1
Determine the water content of the data obtained from laboratory.
Observation 1 2 3
Measure the volume of the core cutter (V) 0.001 0.001 0.001
Weigh the empty core cutter (W1) 17 17 17

Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2) 35 37 34.8
Solution
Observation 1 2 3
Measure the volume of the core cutter (V) 0.001 0.001 0.001
Weigh the empty core cutter (W1) 17 17 17

Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2) 35 37 34.8
Weight of moist soil = (W2-W1) 18 20 17.8
γ bulk = (W2-W1)/V 18055.1 20061.2 17854.5
Water content (w) 0.25 0.22 0.28

γ bulk = (W2-W1)/V 14444.1 16443.6 13948.8
204
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measuremrnt unit
weight or density
of a particular soil
Result
sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
205
WEEK-3
Test-3. Measurement of Specific Gravity
Introduction
The specific gravity of a substance, designated as Gs, is defined as the ratio of the density of
that substance to the density of distilled water at a specified temperature. Since it is a ratio,
the value of Gs does not depend on the system of units used and is a numerical value having
no units. In soil mechanics, the specific gravity of soil solids is an important a factor in many
equations involving weight-volume relationships.
( )
( )
Where, W = mass of soil solids (g)

V = volume of soil solids (cm3)
ρw = density of water (g/cm3)
Objective
To determination of specific gravity of soil solids by pycnometer method
 500-ml Pycnometer
 Sieve of 4.75 mm opening
 Vacuum pump, which is used to employ suction in pycnometers
 Balance sensitive to an accuracy of 0.01 gm, equipped with holder for weighing
samples in water
 Funnel
 Spoon
206
 Soil sample
 distilled or demineralized water;
Procedure
1. Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry flask, W1.
2. Place 100 gm of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 4) in the flask.
3. Determine and record the weight of the flask containing the dry soil, W2.
4. Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the flask. Soak or shake the
sample for 10 to 20 minutes.
5. Apply a partial vacuum to the contents for 10 minutes, to remove the entrapped air.
6. Fill the flask with distilled water to the mark and clean the exterior surface of the flask
with a clean dry cloth.
7. Determine the weight of the flask and contents, W3.
8. Empty the flask and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only to the mark. Clean
the exterior surface of the flask with a clean dry cloth.
9. Determine the weight of the flask and distilled water, W4.
 Computing the weight of dry soil, Compute specific gravity
Table 3.1 Specific gravity analysis format
Observation 1 2 3
W1 = Weight of the empty flask

W2 = Weight of flask filled with dry soil
W3 = Weight of flask filled with water and soil
W4 = Weight of flask filled with water
Ws = Weight of the dry soil =
( )
207
Example 3.1
Determine the specific gravity of the given soil data
Observation 1 2 3
W1 = Weight of the empty flask 100 100 100

W2 = Weight of flask filled with dry soil 200 203 197
W3 = Weight of flask filled with water and soil 306 302 308
W4 = Weight of flask filled with water 244 238 248
Solution
Observation 1 2 3
W1 = Weight of the empty flask 100 100 100

W2 = Weight of flask filled with dry soil 200 203 197
W3 = Weight of flask filled with water and soil 306 302 308
W4 = Weight of flask filled with water 244 238 248
Ws = Weight of the dry soil = 100 103 97
2.63 2.64 2.62
( )
208
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
specific gravity
particular soil
Result sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
209
WEEK-4
Test-4. Sieve Analysis
The grain size analysis test is performed to determine the percentage of each size of grain that
is contained within a soil sample, and the results of the test can be used to produce the grain
size distribution curve. This information is used to classify the soil and to predict its behavior.
The two methods generally used to find the grain size distribution are:
 Sieve analysis which is used for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter and
 Hydrometer analysis which is used for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in
diameter
Introduction
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves. Sieves are made by weaving
two sets of wires at right angles to one another. The square holes thus formed between the
wires provide the limit which determines the size of the particles retained on a particular
sieve. It is usually performed for sand and gravel but cannot be used as the sole method for
determining the grain size distribution of finer soil.
Objective
Sieve analysis is a method that is used to determine the grain size distribution of soils that
are greater than 0.075 mm in diameter.
 Stack of sieves including a pan at the bottom and cover (cap) at the top.
 Sieves used are: No. 4, 10, 16, 30, 40, 50, 100 and 200.
 Balance with an accuracy to 0.01 gram.
 Rubber pestle and mortar (for crushing the soil if lumped or conglomerated).
 Mechanical sieve shaker, if any (shaking by hands could be employed).
 Drying oven.
210
Procedure
1. Prepare a representative sample of soil from the field, where soil is to be tested.
2. If soil particles are lumped or conglomerated, the soil should crush the lumped, not
the particles using a pestle and mortar.
3. Accurately, measure the mass of soil sample in grams.
4. Prepare a stack of sieves. Sieves having larger opening sizes (i.e. lower numbers) are
placed above the ones having smaller opening sizes (i.e. higher numbers). The very
last sieve is No. 200 sieve and a pan is placed under it to collect the portion of soil
passing No. 200 sieve (No. 4 and No. 200 sieves should be always included).
5. Carefully, pour the soil sample onto the top sieve and place the cap over it.
6. Place the stack of sieves in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes (shaking
by hands can be appropriate).
7. Remove the stack of sieves from the shaker and, carefully, weigh and record the
weight of each sieve containing its retained soil. At the end, weigh and record the
weight of the bottom pan containing its retained fine soil.
 Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the
empty sieve from the weight of the sieve containing its retained soil and
record this mass as the weight retained onto the data sheet supported. The sum
of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the
soil sample used in the experiment. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
of soil retained
 Percentage retained on any sieve=
 Cumulative percentage = Sum of percentages retained on all coarser sieves

retained on any sieve.
 Percentage finer than any sieve size, P = 100 per cent minus cumulative
percentage retained.
211
Table 4.1 Sieve analysis format
Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Retained Percentage Cumulative Percentage

No Diameter Mass Mass + Soil of Soil Percentage of Finer
(mm) (gm) Soil Mass Mass of Soil Soil Mass
Mass (gm) Retained Mass (%)
(gm) (%) Retained
(%)
(3/4) 19.00
(1/2) 12.50
(3/8) 9.50
# 4 4.75
# 8 2.38
# 16 1.18
# 30 0.60
# 50 0.30
# 100 0.15
# 200 0.075
Pan
Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution graph
212
Example 4.1
Draw the particle size distribution of the given data. Total mass of sample,
(gm) =3555.2
Sieve Sieve Mass of Mass of sieve +

No Opening Sieve Retained soil
(mm) (gm) (gm)
3'' 75.0 1057.0 1057.0
2'' 50.0 1199.0 1250.0
1.5" 37.5 1084.0 1200.0
1" 25.0 1187.0 1400.0
3/4'' 19.0 716.0 1000.0
1/2" 12.5 584.0 1150.0
3.8" 9.5 586.0 800.0
No 4 4.75 568.0 1200.0
No 8 2.36 530.0 950.0
No 10 2 521.0 625.0
No 16 1.18 538.2 800.0
No 30 0.6 517.0 850.0
No 50 0.3 488.2 700.0
No 100 0.15 482.1 600.0
No 200 0.075 459.3 490.0
pan --- 424.0 424.0
213
Solution
Sieve Sieve Mass Mass of Mass of Percentage Cum. Perc.

No Opening of sieve + Retained Retained Percentage Passing
Sieve Retained soil Retained
soil
(mm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (%) (%) (%)
3'' 75.0 1057.0 1057.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
2'' 50.0 1199.0 1250.0 51.0 1.4 1.4 98.6
1.5" 37.5 1084.0 1200.0 116.0 3.3 4.7 95.3
1" 25.0 1187.0 1400.0 213.0 6.0 10.7 89.3
3/4'' 19.0 716.0 1000.0 284.0 8.0 18.7 81.3
1/2" 12.5 584.0 1150.0 566.0 15.9 34.6 65.4
3.8" 9.5 586.0 800.0 214.0 6.0 40.6 59.4
No 4 4.75 568.0 1200.0 632.0 17.8 58.4 41.6
No 8 2.36 530.0 950.0 420.0 11.8 70.2 29.8
No 10 2 521.0 625.0 104.0 2.9 73.1 26.9
No 16 1.18 538.2 800.0 261.8 7.4 80.5 19.5
No 30 0.6 517.0 850.0 333.0 9.4 89.9 10.1
No 50 0.3 488.2 700.0 211.8 6.0 95.8 4.2
No 100 0.15 482.1 600.0 117.9 3.3 99.1 0.9
No 200 0.075 459.3 490.0 30.7 0.9 100.0 0.0
pan --- 424.0 424.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 -------
214
215
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of the

sieve analysis and
greading of a
particular soil
Result
sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
216
WEEK-5
Test-5. Hydrometer Method of Analysis
Introduction
The hydrometer analysis is the procedure generally adopted for determining the particle-size
distribution in a soil for the fraction that is finer than No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm) size. This
method depends upon variations in the density of a soil suspension contained in a 1000 mL
graduated cylinder. In hydrometer analysis, a soil specimen is dispersed in water. In a
dispersed state in water, the soil particles will settle, individually. The density of the
suspension is measured with a hydrometer at determined time intervals; then the coarsest
diameter of particles in suspension at a given time and the percentage of particles finer than
that coarsest (suspended) diameter are computed. These computations are based on Stokes'
formula which is described below.
Table 5.1 Values of K for several specific gravity of solids and temperature
combinations
Specific Gravity of Soil Particles

Temp.
T (˚C) 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 2.7 2.75 2.80 2.85
16 0.0151 0.0148 0.0146 0.0144 0.0141 0.0139 0.0139 0.0136
17 0.0149 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
18 0.0148 0.0144 0.0142 0.014 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132
19 0.0145 0.0143 0.014 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.0131
20 0.0143 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0134 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129
21 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127
22 0.014 0.0137 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0128 0.0126
23 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.013 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124
217
24 0.0137 0.0134 0.0132 0.013 0.0128 0.0126 0.0125 0.0123
25 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0122
26 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0124 0.0122 0.012
27 0.0132 0.013 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0122 0.012 0.0119
28 0.013 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0123 0.0121 0.0119 0.0117
29 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0121 0.012 0.0118 0.0116
30 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0122 0.012 0.0118 0.0117 0.0115
Table 5.2 Values of L (effective depth) for use in Stokes' formula for diameters of
particles for ASTM soil hydrometer 152H
Hydrometer Hydrometer Hydrometer

L (cm) L (cm) L (cm)
Reading, R Reading, R Reading, R
0 16.3 21 12.9 42 9.4
1 16.1 22 12.7 43 9.2
2 16 23 12.5 44 9.1
3 15.8 24 12.4 45 8.9
4 15.6 25 12.2 46 8.8
5 15.5 26 12 47 8.6
6 15.3 27 11.9 48 8.4
7 15.2 28 11.7 49 8.3
8 15 29 11.5 50 8.1
9 14.8 30 11.4 51 7.9
10 14.7 31 11.2 52 7.8
11 14.5 32 11.1 53 7.6
12 14.3 33 10.9 54 7.4
13 14.2 34 10.7 55 7.3
14 14 35 10.6 56 7.1
15 13.8 36 10.4 57 7
16 13.7 37 10.2 58 6.8
218
17 13.5 38 10.1 59 6.6
18 13.3 39 9.9 60 6.5
19 13.2 40 9.7
20 13 41 9.6
Table 5.3 Temperature correction factors CT
Temperature, Factor, Temperature, Factor,

T (˚C) CT T (˚C) CT
15 -1.10 23 0.70
16 -0.90 24 1.00
17 -0.70 25 1.30
18 -0.50 26 1.65
19 -0.30 27 2.00
20  28 2.50
21 0.20 29 3.05
22 0.40 30 3.80
Table 5.4 Correction factors C for unit weight of solids
Unit Weight of Correction

Soil Solids Factor, a
3
(gm/cm ) (Csg)
2.85 0.96
2.8 0.97
2.75 0.98
2.7 0.99
2.65 1
2.6 1.01
2.55 1.02
2.5 1.04
219
Objective
The hydrometer method is used to determine the grain size distribution of the finer soils.
 Balance
 Mixer (blender)
 Hydrometer (152H model)
 Sedimentation cylinder (1000 mL cylinder)
 Graduated 1000 mL cylinder for control jar
 Dispersing agent
 Control cylinder
 Thermometer
 Beaker
 Timing device
 75 µ Sieve
 Soil sample
Procedure
1. Take 60 gm or less dry sample from the soil passing through the No. 200 sieve
2. Prepare two graduated cylinders (vessels), put in each one 125 ml of water and 5 gm
(4% of 125 ml of water) of a dispersing agent, mix this sample with 125 ml of a
4% of NaPO3 (Calgon) solution .
3. Allow the soil mixture to stand for about 1 hour. At the end of the soaking period
transfer the mixture to a dispersion cup and add distilled water until the cup is about
two-thirds full. Mix for about 2 min.
4. Put the 60 gm fine soil in one of the two cylinders and stir the mixture, let the soil
soak for one hour.
5. Transfer water and Calgon from the second cylinder into the control jar. Then add the
distilled water up to the (1000-ml) mark and then take the reading at the top of the
meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control solution. A reading
220
less than zero is recorded as a negative (─) correction and a reading between zero and
sixty is recorded as a positive (+) correction. This reading is called the zero
correction. The meniscus correction is the difference between the top of the meniscus
and the level of the solution in the control jar (usually about +1). Shake the control
cylinder in a way such that the contents are mixed, thoroughly. Insert the hydrometer
and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero correction and
temperature, respectively.
6. Transfer the soil slurry from the first cylinder into a mixer by adding more distilled
water, if necessary, until mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a
period of 3 - 5 minutes.
7. After mixing, transfer all the contents of the dispersion cup to the sedimentation
cylinder, being careful not to lose any material. Now add temperature-stabilized water
to fill the cylinder to the 1000 ml mark.
8. Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and mix the suspension well by
placing the palm of the hand over the open end and turning the cylinder upside down
and back for a period of 1 min. The cylinder should be inverted approximately 30
times during the minute. Set the cylinder down on a table.
9. Start the timer immediately after setting the cylinder. Insert the hydrometer very
slowly and carefully into the suspension just about 20 seconds before the elapsed time
of 2 min. and take the first reading at 2 min. Take the temperature reading. Remove
the hydrometer and the thermometer and place both of them in the control jar.
10. The control jar contains 1000 ml of temperature-stabilized distilled water mixed with
125 mL of the same 4% solution of NaPO3.
11. The hydrometer readings are taken at the top level of the meniscus in both the
sedimentation and control jars.
12. Take the hydrometer and temperature readings at times 1, 2, 3, 4 minutes, if there is
a difference of 1 between these readings and the previous four readings,
continue to take readings for 8, 16, 30, 60 minutes and then for 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 hours.
13. Necessary computations can be made with the data collected to obtain the grain-
distribution curve.
221
 Apply meniscus correction to the actual hydrometer reading, which is usually

done by adding a unit to the original hydrometer reading.
(R corrected) meniscus = R actual + 1.0
 From Table 2.2, obtain the effective hydrometer depth L in cm (for meniscus
corrected reading) for known specific gravity of soil. If not known, assume the
value of 2.65 for the specific gravity for laboratory testing purposes and obtain
the value of K from Table 2.1.
 Calculate the equivalent particle diameter using the following equation:
D= √
 Determine the temperature correction (C T) from Table 2.3.

 Determine correction factor (Csg) a from Table 2.4 using the value of
specific gravity.
 Calculate the corrected hydrometer reading as following:
Rc=Ractual-Co+CT
 Calculate the percent finer as following:

Csg Rc
p'  100
Ms
where Rc = grams of soil in suspension at some elapsed time t
Ms = mass of soil used in the suspension in gms (not more than 60 gm for 152 H hydrometer)
 Adjusted percent finer as following: gives the percentage of particles finer

than a particle diameter D in the mass of soil Ms used in the suspension. If Mp
is the mass of soil particles passing through 75 micron sieve (greater than M)
and M the total mass taken for the combined sieve and hydrometer analysis,
the percent finer for the entire sample may be expressed as
MP
Percent finer (combined), p  p '% 
M
222
Table 5.5 Hydrometer analysis format
T Temp Ra Ra,corr L K D CT a Rc % % Finer

(min) (°C) (mm) (Csg) Finer Combined
Table Table Table Table (P’) (P)
5.2 5.1 5.3 5.4
0
1
2
4
8
16
30
60
120
240
480
960
1440
2160
Example 5.1
Carry out a grain size distribution of a given soil sample. The total mass of the soil used in
the analysis was 4000 gm.
223
Sieve analysis
Sieve No 9.5 No 4 No 8 No 10 No 16 No 30 No 50 No 100 No 200 pan

Mass of 580 560 540 520 500 490 480 470 460 450
Sieve (g)
Mass of 600 860 840 580 850 810 900 750 790 2070
sieve +
Retained
soil (g)
Hydrometer Readings
Sample mass = 50 gm Zero Correction=8 Meniscus Correction= 1 Gs=2.65
T (min) 0 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 120 240 480 1440

Temp 20 21 20 20 20 21 20 21 22 20 21 20
(°C)
Ra 50 45 40 35 30 28 25 23 21 19 17 15
Solution
Sieve analysis
Sieve Mass of Mass of sieve + Mass of Percentage Cum. Perc.

No Sieve Retained soil Retained Retained Percentage Passing
(g) (g) soil (g) (%) Retained (%) (%)
9.5 580 600 20 0.5 0.5 99.5
No 4 560 860 300 7.5 8 92
No 8 540 840 300 7.5 15.5 84.5
No 10 520 580 60 1.5 17 83
No 16 500 850 350 8.75 25.75 74.25
No 30 490 810 320 8 33.75 66.25
No 50 480 900 420 10.5 44.25 55.75
224
No 100 470 750 280 7 51.25 48.75
No 200 460 790 330 8.25 59.5 40.5
pan 450 2070 1620 40.5 100 0
Hydrometer analysis
T Tem Ra Ra,co L K D CT a Rc % %
(min (°C r (mm) (Csg) Finer Finer
) ) (P’) Comb
Table Table Table Table ined
2.2 2.1 2.3 2.4 (P)
0 20 50 51 8.1 0.0139 0.03956 0 42 1.01 84.84 34.36
1 21 45 46 9.1 0.0137 0.02922 0.2 37.2 1.01 75.144 30.433
2 20 40 41 9.9 0.0139 0.02187 0 32 1.01 64.64 26.179
4 20 35 36 10.7 0.0139 0.01608 0 27 1.01 54.54 22.089
8 20 30 31 11.2 0.0139 0.01201 0 22 1.01 44.44 17.998
15 21 28 29 11.7 0.0137 0.00856 0.2 20.2 1.01 40.804 16.526
30 20 25 26 12 0.0139 0.00622 0 17 1.01 34.34 13.908
60 21 23 24 12.2 0.0137 0.00618 0.2 15.2 1.01 30.704 12.435
120 22 21 22 12.5 0.0135 0.00436 0.4 13.4 1.01 27.068 10.963
240 20 19 20 12.7 0.0139 0.0032 0 11 1.01 22.22 8.9991
480 21 17 18 12.9 0.0137 0.00225 0.2 9.2 1.01 18.584 7.5265
144 20 15 16 12.4 0.0139 0.00129 0 7 1.01 14.14 5.7267
225
Combined results of sieve and hydrometer analysis
Analysis Grain size % finer

9.5 99.5
4.75 92
2.36 84.5
2 83
Sieve 1.18 74.25

0.6 66.25
0.3 55.75
0.15 48.75
0.075 40.5
0.039560094 34.3602
0.029223099 30.43332
0.021867664 26.1792
0.016075397 22.0887
0.012010973 17.9982
Hydrometer 0.008555647 16.52562

0.006177672 12.43512
0.004357106 10.96254
0.003197504 8.9991
0.002245923 7.52652
0.001289865 5.7267
226
227
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
hydrometer
analysis of a
particular fineer
Result
soil sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
228
WEEK-6
Test-6. Measurement of Liquid Limit
Introduction
Liquid Limit is defined as the minimum water content in percent at which the soil changes its
state from Liquid to Plastic State. This is the upper limit of plastic limit. The liquid limit is
the moisture content at which the groove formed by a standard tool into the sample of soil
taken in the standard cup called Casagrande liquid limit device, closes for 13 mm on being
given 25 blows in a standard manner. At this limit, the soil possesses low shear strength.
Objective
The test is used to determine the liquid limit water content using Casagrande liquid limit
device.
Equipment
 Casagrande liquid limit device

 Grooving tool
 Moisture cans
 Porcelain evaporating dish
 Spatula
 Oven
 Balance sensitive up to 0.01 g
 Plastic squeeze bottle
 Paper towels
Procedure
2. Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil
was previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized.
229
Thoroughly mix the soil with a small amount of distilled water until it appears as a
smooth uniform paste. Cover the dish with cellophane to prevent moisture from
escaping.
3. Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective
weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
4. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point
on the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm. The
block on the end of the grooving tool is10 mm high and should be used as a gage.
Practice using the cup and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup
drops approximately two times per second.
5. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus
at the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air
pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The
soil pat should form an approximately horizontal surface.
6. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup.
The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being
made. Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup.
7. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup
are clean of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops
per second and count the number of drops, N; it takes to make the two halves of the
soil pat come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2
in.) If the number of drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not record
the number of drops, otherwise, record the number of drops on the data sheet.
8. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil
into a moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil,
record it‟s mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture
can in the oven for at least 16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the
porcelain dish. Clean and dry the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
9. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled
water to increase the water content so that the number of drops required closing the
groove decrease.
230
10. Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing
successively lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for
a closure requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure between 20 and 30 drops, and one
trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 drops. Determine the water content from each
trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same
balance for all weighing.
 Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they
have been in the oven for at least 16 hours.
 Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w).
Draw the best-fit straight line through the plotted points and determine the
liquid limit (LL) as the water content at 25 drops.
Table 6.1. Liquid limit analysis format
Observation 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows
231
Figure 6.1. Liquid limit analysis graph
Example 6.1
Determine the liquid limit of the following data.

Observation 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 34 27 22 17
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry can (W1) 17.33 17.41 17.45 17.36
Mass of the can and wet soil (W2) 48.61 55.53 5171 50.51
Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 41.19 46.05 42.98 41.54
Solution
Observation 1 2 3 4
Number of Blows 34 27 22 17
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry can (W1) 17.33 17.41 17.45 17.36
Mass of the can and wet soil (W2) 48.61 55.53 5171 50.51
Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 41.19 46.05 42.98 41.54
Mass of water (W4) W4 = W2 - W3 7.42 9.48 8.73 8.97
Mass of Dry soil (W5) W5 = W3 – W1 23.86 28.64 25.53 24.18
Water content w = (W4 / W5)*100% 31.1 33.1 34.2 37.1
232
From the graph the liquid limit is 33.6 %
Evaluation sheet
233
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of the

measurement of
liquid limit of a
particular soil
Result
sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
WEEK-7
Test-7. Determination of Plastic Limit
234
Introduction
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in percent, at which a soil changes with decreasing
wetness from the plastic to the semi- solid consistency or with increasing wetness from the
semi-solid to the plastic consistency. For plastic limit a sample of soil was taken and rolled
by hand on the glass plate with changing in water content until the soil crumble into small
pieces with 3 mm diameter for each piece then the soil reach the plastic limit, the water
content was obtained and that is the plastic limit of that soil.
Objective
This test is used to determine the plastic limit water content by rolling and crumbling the soil
with hand.
Equipment
 Porcelain evaporating dish

 Spatula
 Plastic squeeze bottle with water
 Moisture can
 Ground glass plate
 Balance sensitive up to 0.01 g
Procedure
1. Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective
weights and can numbers on the data sheet.
2. Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil
is at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
3. Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers
and the glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform
diameter by using about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of
the hand forward and back to the starting position.) The thread shall be deformed so
that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.
235
4. When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into
several pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them.
Continue this alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the
thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled
into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.
5. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into moisture
can, and then cover it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add soil to
the can from the next trial. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil,
record it‟s mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture
can in the oven for at least 16 hours.
6. Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content
from each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to
use the same balance for all weighing.
 Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after
they have been in the oven for at least 16 hours.
 Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL.
Check to see if the difference between the water contents is greater than the
acceptable range of two results (2.6 %).
Table 7.1. Plastic limit analysis format
Observation ` 1 2 3
236
Average Water content wav= (w1+ w2+ w3)/3
Example 7.1
Determine the plastic limit of the following data
Observation 1 2 3
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry (W1) 13 13 13

Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 42 46 40
Solution
Observation 1 2 3
Mass of an empty, clean, and dry (W1) 13 13 13

Mass of the can containing the burned soil (Dry soil) (W3) 42 46 40
Mass of water (W4) W4 = W2 - W3 8 9 7
Mass of Dry soil (W5) W5 = W3 – W1 29 33 27
Water content w = (W4 / W5)*100% 28% 27% 26%
Average Water content wav= (w1+ w2+ w3)/3 26.93%
Evaluation sheet
237
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
plastic limit of a
particular soil
Result
sample
Evaluation
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
WEEK-9
238
Test-8. Constant-Head Test
Introduction
This test method covers the measurement of the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic
conductivity) by a constant-head method for the laminar flow of water through granular soils.
The procedure is to establish representative values of the coefficient of permeability of
granular soils that may occur in natural deposits as placed in embankments or when used as
base courses under pavements. In order to limit consolidation influences during testing, this
procedure is limited to disturbed granular soils containing not more than 10 % soil passing
the 75-µm (No. 200) sieve.
qv QL
kz   8.1
Ai tAh
Where:
KT = coefficient of permeability at temperature T, cm/sec. L = length of specimen in
centimeters
t = time for discharge in seconds
Q = volume of discharge in cm3 (assume 1 mL = 1 cm3)
A = cross-sectional area of permeameter
h = hydraulic head difference across length L, in cm of water
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. The
experimental value (kT˚C) is corrected to a baseline temperature of 20˚C using
8.2
Where μ is the viscosity of water, T is the temperature in ˚C at which the measurement was
made, and RT =μT˚C /μ20˚C is the temperature correction factor that can be calculated from
RT = 2.42 – 0.475 ln (T) 8.3
Table 8.1. Properties of Distilled Water (η = absolute)

239
Temperature oC Viscosity (η)
4 0.01567
16 0.01111
17 0.01083
18 0.01056
19 0.0103
20 0.01005
21 0.00981
22 0.00958
23 0.00936
24 0.00914
25 0.00894
26 0.00874
27 0.00855
28 0.00836
29 0.00818
30 0.00801
Objective
To determine the permeability coefficient of granular grained soil by constant head.
 Constant-head apparatus, namely permeameter assembly.

 Manometer which is, generally, used for measuring the pressure acting on a
column of fluid.
 Cylindrical mold opened from both sides (of 15-cm height and 6-cm
diameter).
 Mold to collect water.
 Graduated cylinder (of 250-ml or 500-ml volume).
 Stopwatch.
 Thermometer.
 Sensitive balance to weigh up to 1.0 gram.
Procedure
240
1. Determine the mass of the plastic specimen tube, the porous stones, the spring, and
the two rubber stoppers ( 1).
2. Slip the bottom porous stone into the specimen tube, and then fix the bottom rubber
stopper to the specimen tube.
3. Collect oven-dry sand in a container. Use a spoon, pour the sand into the specimen
tube in small layers, and compact it by vibration and/or other compacting means.
Note: By changing the degree of compaction, a number of test specimens having
different void ratios can be prepared.
4. When the length of the specimen tube is about two-third the length of the tube, slip
the top porous stone into the tube to rest firmly on the specimen.
5. Place a spring on the top porous stone, if necessary.
6. Fix a rubber stopper to the top of the specimen tube.
Note: The spring in the assembled position will not allow any expansion of the
specimen volume, and thus the void ratio, during the test.
7. Determine the mass of the assembly (Step 6 - 2).
8. Measure the length (L) of the compacted specimen in the tube.

9. Assemble the permeameter near a sink.
10. Run water into the top of the large funnel fixed to the stand through a plastic tube
from the water inlet. The water will flow through the specimen to the constant head
chamber. After some time, the water will flow into the sink through the outlet in the
constant head chamber.
11. Adjust the supply of water to the funnel so that the water level in the funnel remains
constant. At the same time, allow the flow to continue for about 10 minutes in order to
saturate the specimen.
Note: Some air bubbles may appear in the plastic tube connecting the funnel to the
specimen tube. Remove the air bubbles.
12. After a steady flow is established (that is, once the head difference h is constant),
collect the water flowing out of the constant head chamber (Q) in a graduated
cylinder. Record the collection time (t) with a stop watch.
13. Repeat Step 12 three times. Keep the collection time (t) the same and determine Q.
Then find the average value of Q.
14. Change the head difference, h, and repeats Steps 11, 12 and 13 about three times.
241
15. Record the temperature, T, of the water to the nearest degree.
Note: This value is sufficiently accurate for this type of test.
 Calculate the rate of flow (in L/sec) during the period of each observation of
flow
 Calculate the hydraulic gradient between the uppermost and lowest
manometer
 Calculate the coefficient of permeability k
 Correct the permeability to that for 20 ˚C (68 ˚F)

Table 8.2. Constant head test analysis format
Observation Variable Units Trial Number
1 2 3
Head h cm
Length of Specimen L cm
Diameter D cm
Cross-sectional Area of Soil A cm2
Quantity of Water Discharged Q cm3
Time t sec
o
Temperature T c
Permeability kt cm/sec
viscosity for T η gm/cm.sec
Permeability k20 cm/sec
Average Permeability for 20 oc k20 av cm/sec
242
Example 8.1
Determine the coefficient of permeability for course grained soil of the given data in table
below
1 2 3
Head h cm 42 63 70
Length of Specimen L cm 20 20 20
Quantity of Water Discharged Q cm3 600 600 600
Time t sec 90 60 30
o
Temperature T c 28 28 28
Solution
Use η20= 0.1005

1 2 3
Head h cm 42 63 70
Length of Specimen L cm 20 20 20
Cross-sectional Area of Soil A cm2 32.1536 32.1536 32.1536
Quantity of Water Discharged Q cm3 600 600 600
Time t sec 90 60 30
o
Temperature T c 28 28 28
Permeability T kt cm/sec 0.0987 0.0987 0.1777
viscosity for T η gm/cm.sec 0.00836 0.00836 0.00836
Permeability for 20 oc k20 cm/sec 0.00821 0.00821 0.01478
Average Permeability for 20 oc k20 av cm/sec 0.031209
243
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
permeability of a
particular soil
sample by usimg
Result
constant head
Evaluation
method
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
244
WEEK-10
Test-9. Standard Proctor Test
Introduction
Compaction can be define as a densification of soil by applying energy or vibration for soil.
Standard proctor test conducted with compaction for soil by applying 593.7 kJ/m3 effort by a
standard piston with 24.5 N weight and from 0.305 m height on a 944 cm3 mold of soil
about 3 kg in three layers each layer take 25 drop. The soil tested on different water content
to get a relation between the dry density and water content to get the maximum density and
the optimum water content. It is the most common laboratory soil test and is the basis for
all engineered compact soil placements for embankments, pavements, and structural
foundation.
Objective
This test is used to determine the maximum dry density and the corresponding optimum
water content by standard proctor test.
 Mold of 944 cm 3 volume

 Balance sensitive to an accuracy of 0.01 gm.
 Hot plate.
 Manual rammer.
 Mixing pan.
 Extruder.
 Drying oven, trowel, No. 4 sieve and moisture cans.
 Graduated cylinder and mixing pan.
245
Procedure
1 About 30 N of air-dried soil passing 20 mm sieve is taken.

2 A reasonable amount of water is added to the soil and it is thoroughly mixed.
This test has been adopted as the standard test by the AASHO (American Association
of State Highway Officials) initially. For coarse-grained soils, an initial water content
of 4% and for fine-grained soils, a value of 10% are considered to be reasonable
values, since the optimum value is likely to be more for the latter than that for the
former.
3 The mold is filled with this moist soil in three equal layers to give a total compacted
depth of 130 mm. Each layer is compacted by giving 25 blows with the standard rammer,
pulling the rammer in the sleeve to the maximum height and then allowing it to fall
freely. The position of the rammer is changed each time to distribute the compaction
energy evenly to the soil. Each layer is raked with a spatula before placing fresh soil to
provide proper bond.
4 The collar is removed and the extra soil trimmed off to the top of the mold and the weight
of the mold obtained.
5 A representative sample of the wet soil is taken and the moisture content (w%)
determined in the standard manner through oven-drying.
6 The soil is broken with hand and remixed with increased water so that the moisture
content increases by 2 to 4% nearly.
7 The test is repeated with a least six different water contents. The wet weight of the soil
itself gives an indication whether the number of readings is adequate or not, because it
first increases with an increase in water content, up to a certain value, and thereafter
decreases. The test must be done such that this peak is established.
 The wet weight (W) of the soil is got by subtracting the weight of the empty
mold. The bulk unit weight (γ) of the soil is obtained by dividing the wet
weight of soil by the volume of the soil (V) which is the same as that of the
soil.
 calculate moisture content for each trial
246
 calculate dry density for each trial,
 Develop the entire compaction curve in virtue of drawing densities on y-axis
and water contents on x-axis.
 Determine the moisture content corresponding to the peak dry density on the
curve developed in the previous step and report this value as the optimum
moisture content.
 Calculate zero air void density
 Draw the graph of the zero air void density
Table 9.1. Format for Proctor test analysis
Standard/Modified Proctor Compaction Measurement

Water Content Measurement
Item / Trial Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm)
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm)
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm)
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm)
MW = Mass of pore water (gm)
w= Water content (percent)
Dry Density Measurement
MM = Mass of empty, Proctor mold (gm)
MMS = Mass of Proctor mold + wet soil
(gm)
V = Volume of Proctor mold (cm3)
MS = Mass of wet soil (gm)
ρ = Wet density of soil (gm/ cm3)
ρd = Dry density of soil (gm/ cm3)
Optimum Water Measurement
OMC = Optimum moisture content (%)
ρmax = MDD (gm/ cm3)
Zero-Air-Void Curve Measurement
Item / Trial Sample
Gs = Specific gravity of soil
ρ w = Density of water (gm/ cm3)
ρZAV = Zero-air-void density (gm/ cm3)
247
125
120
Dry Density (gd,max) (lb/ft3)
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
5 10 15 20 25
Water Content (w) (%)
Figure 9.1 Water content versus dry density graph
Example 9.1
Determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the soil using the
below laboratory data.

MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm) 29.38 29.14 29.80 25.16 25.25 24.21
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm) 162.00 121.80 150.00 153.50 177.00 161.00
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm) 155.00 115.60 140.00 140.00 158.50 143.00
MM = Mass of empty, clean Proctor mold 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0
(gm)
MMS = Mass of Proctor mold + wet soil 4600.0 5100.0 5400.0 5520.0 5250.0 4850.0
(gm)
V = Volume of Proctor mold (cm3) 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00
248
Solution

MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm) 29.38 29.14 29.80 25.16 25.25 24.21
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm) 162.00 121.80 150.00 153.50 177.00 161.00
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm) 155.00 115.60 140.00 140.00 158.50 143.00
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm) 125.62 86.46 110.20 114.84 133.25 118.79
MW = Mass of pore water (gm) 7.00 6.20 10.00 13.50 18.50 18.00
w= Water content (percent) 5.57% 7.17% 9.07% 11.75 13.88 15.15%
% %
MM = Mass of empty, clean Proctor 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0 3430.0
mold (gm)
MMS = Mass of Proctor mold + wet soil 4600.0 5100.0 5400.0 5520.0 5250.0 4850.0
(gm)
V = Volume of Proctor mold (cm3) 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00 944.00
MS = Mass of wet soil (gm) 1170.0 1670.0 1970.0 2090.0 1820.0 1420.0
ρ = Wet density of soil (gm/cm3) 1.23 1.75 2.09 2.21 1.93 1.50
ρd = Dry density of soil (gm/ cm3) 1.17 1.65 1.91 1.98 1.69 1.30
Optimum Water Measurement
OMC = Optimum moisture content (%) 11.00%
3
ρmax = MDD (gm/ cm ) 2.00
Zero-Air-Void Curve Measurement
Item / Trial Sample Data
Gs = Specific gravity of soil 2.7000
ρw = Density of water (gm/ cm3) 1.0000
ρZAV = Zero-air-void density (gm/ cm3) 2.35 2.26 2.17 2.05 1.96 1.92
249
250
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
densificatione of a
particular soil
sample by using
Result
standard proctor
Evaluation
test
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
251
WEEK-11
Test-10. Sand Cone Method
Introduction
The sand replacement test method is used to determine the in-place density of compacted
soil in order to compare it with the designated compaction degree, hence it specifies how
much the compaction of the soil is close to the designated compaction degree. Sand
Replacement Method is also known as Sand Cone Method. The sand pouring cylinder test is
used to determine the soil density in the field (in-situ density) and to control the results of the
field compaction in earth embankments, road fills and structural backfills etc. In this method,
the in-situ density is obtained by measuring the weight and the volume of soil obtained from
a hole, which is manually excavated at the place where the density is required.
11.1
Objective
This test is used to determine the field dry density of the soil.
 Calibrated sand/ Standard Ottawa sand

 Metal square plate of 30-cm dimension
 Jar connected to a cone of known volume
 Spoon
 Balance sensitive to an accuracy of 0.01 gm
 Cylindrical mold
Procedure
1. Prior to fieldwork, ρd, sand shall be calibrated. Several jars with identification
numbers for each are filled with the sand, and their total weights are recorded.
252
2. At a site selected for field density determination, the surface of the ground is flattened
and leveled by the edge of the rigid base plate. The surface level is typically located at
a certain depth since the compacted top surface does not necessarily represent the true
compaction result of the soil layer.
3. Through the circular opening at the center of the base plate, the ground is carefully
excavated by using a spoon, and all soil from the excavated hole shall be collected in
a plastic bag.
4. The jar filled with sand is placed upside down so that the top of the cone engages into
the inner edge of the opening in the base plate. At this stage, the valve in the jar is
kept closed.
5. After the jar with the cone is securely placed on the base plate, the valve is carefully
opened to allow free flow of sand into the excavated hole and the cone section of the
device.
6. After the observation of completion of sand flow into the space, the valve is carefully
closed. The total weight of the jar and the remaining sand is measured later. This
weight is subtracted from the original weight of the jar of sand, and then the weight
that filled the space of the hole and cone is obtained as Msand,cone+hole.
7. The field wet (total) specimens from the excavated holes are weighted and their water
contents are determined as wt,hole and w, respectively. These measurements could be
done either in the field by using a balance and a quick-drying microwave oven or in
the laboratory.
 Weigh the retained sand in the jar

 Calculate the mass of soil in the cone
 Calculate the mass of soil in the hole
 Calculate the volume of hole
 Calculate the field density, dry field density
 Calculate the field dry density of the soil sample taken
253
Table 10.1. Field dry density analysis format
Sand-Cone Measurement
Item / Trial Sample 1 2 3
M1 = Mass of Ottawa sand placed in the jar (gm)
M2 = Mass of Ottawa sand remained in the jar (gm)
M3 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the cone (gm)
M4 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the hole (gm)
ρOttawa = Dry density of Ottawa sand (gm/cm3)
Vhole = Volume of the in-field hole (gm/cm3)
Moisture can and lid number 1 2 3
MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm)
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm)
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm)
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm)
MW = Mass of pore water (gm)
w = Water content (gm)
In-Situ Dry Density Measurement
Mfield = Mass of wet soil removed from the in-field
hole (gm)
ρ = In situ wet density of soil (gm/cm3)
ρd = In situ dry density of soil (gm/cm3)
ρd avr = Average In situ dry density of soil (gm/cm3)
254
Example 10.1
Determine the field dry density of the soil for the road using the field data below. Use dry
density of Ottawa sand 1.5 gm/cm3.
Sand-Cone Measurement
M1 = Mass of Ottawa sand placed in the jar (gm) 4000.0 4000.0 4000.0
M2 = Mass of Ottawa sand remained in the jar (gm) 500.0 600.0 500.0
M3 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the cone (gm) 1500.0 1350.0 1450.0
M4 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the hole (gm) 2000.0 2050.0 2050.0
MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm) 25.0 25.0 25.0
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm) 152.0 147.0 135.0
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm) 145.0 135.0 125.0
Mfield = Mass of wet soil removed from the in-field 2800.0 3200.0 3400.0
hole (gm)
Solution
Sand Cone Measurement

M1 = Mass of Ottawa sand placed in the jar (gm) 4000.0 4000.0 4000.0
M2 = Mass of Ottawa sand remained in the jar (gm) 500.0 600.0 500.0
M3 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the cone (gm) 1500.0 1350.0 1450.0
M4 = Mass of Ottawa sand filling the hole (gm) 2000.0 2050.0 2050.0
ρOttawa = Dry density of Ottawa sand (gm/cm3) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Vhole = Volume of the in-field hole (gm/cm3) 1351.4 1385.1 1385.1
255
MC = Mass of empty, clean can (gm) 25.0 25.0 25.0
MWC = Mass of can + moist soil (gm) 152.0 147.0 135.0
MDC = Mass of can + dry soil (gm) 145.0 135.0 125.0
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm) 120.0 110.0 100.0
MW = Mass of pore water (gm) 7.0 12.0 10.0
w = Water content (gm) 0.1 0.1 0.1
Mfield = Mass of wet soil removed from the in-field 2800.0 3200.0 3400.0
hole (gm)
ρ = In situ wet density of soil (gm/cm3) 2.1 2.3 2.5
ρd = In situ dry density of soil (gm/cm3) 2.0 2.1 2.2
ρd avr = Average In situ dry density of soil (gm/cm3) 2.1
256
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
shearing strength
of compacted soil
Result by using sand cone
Evaluation method
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
257
Week-12
Test-11. Direct shear test
Introduction
Shear strength is a soil mechanics term describing the internal resistance per unit area that a
soil mass can develop to resist failure and sliding along any plane within or the magnitude of
shear stress a soil mass can withstand. Particle friction and interlocking and cementation or
bonding at particle contacts cause soil shear resistance. Soil strength is determined by its
resistance to shearing stresses. It consists primarily of the following two elements:
1. Angle of internal friction l, which is provided by particle friction.
2. Cohesive, which is provided as a result of soil particle adhesion.
The two components are then combined as follows in Mohr-shear Coulomb's strength
equation:
τf = c + σ tan ∅
Where:
τf = shearing resistance of soil at failure.
c = cohesion of soil.
σ = total normal stress on the failure plane.
∅ = angle of soil shearing resistance or angle of internal friction.
Objective
The direct shear test is used to determine the cohesionless soil's shear strength parameters,
which are:
 Cohesion, c
 Internal friction angle, ∅
 Direct shear test machine

 Large porcelain evaporating dish
 Balance, spoon and tamper
258
Procedure
1. Prepare soil samples from the field

2. Prepare the shear box by putting the porous stone and filter paper on its bottom, then
fill it with soil on 3 layers, each layer is compacted 20 blows, then put filter paper and
porous stone over the sample. The porous stone is used to allow water to drain, thus
sand is preferred in this test since it has a high coefficient of permeability.
3. connect the bolts that join the two parts of the box and make a little space of 0.6 mm
between the two parts.
4. Adjust the dials at zero reading.
5. Put vertical load, which causes vertical stress, σ, above the sample.
6. Turn on a motor, which generates horizontal force causing shear stress, τ, then take
readings from horizontal displacement and shear force dial gages.
7. Continue taking readings until the sample fails or the horizontal displacement
becomes equal to 15% of the box‟s dimension if the box is square, or of the box‟s
diameter if the box is circular in cross-section.
8. Prepare other samples from the same soil and expose them to other vertical stresses,
then make the same procedure and calculations.
 Take shear load and shear displacement readings from the proving ring
 Calculate the specimen's cross-sectional area.
 Calculate the shear stress using the dial readings obtained at each pressure
increment.
 Calculate the shear stress at the peak displacement by drawing the shear stress
on the y-axis and the corresponding displacement on the x-axis.
 Plot the normal stresses (pressure increments) against the corresponding shear
stresses, then develop the equation that defines these points using linear
regression.
 Equating the equation obtained in the previous step with the following
equation yields the values of soil internal friction, ∅ and cohesion, c.
259
Table 11.1 Direct shear test format
Normal Stress, σN =_____ Area of the box (mm2)=_____

Horizontal Dial Reading Horizontal shear force (N) Shear Stress(kN/m2)
(mm)
Example 11.1
Determine the shear strength parameters (cohesion and friction angle of the soil) of the data
result of the direct shear test listed in the table below for three normal forces. The area of the
shear box is 50.80 mm X 58.80 mm = 0.002581 m2.
For σN = 19.38 kPa For σN = 38.75 kPa For σN = 77.50 kPa

Horizontal Shear Horizontal Shear Horizontal Shear
Displacement Force Displacement Force Displacement Force
mm N mm N mm N
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 35.00 0.25 75.00 0.25 185.00
0.51 70.00 0.51 130.00 0.51 290.50
0.76 90.00 0.76 170.00 0.76 350.00
1.02 105.00 1.02 190.00 1.02 390.00
1.27 117.45 1.27 208.00 1.27 415.00
1.52 108.00 1.52 221.45 1.52 433.60
1.78 95.00 1.78 210.00 1.78 425.00
2.03 84.00 2.03 197.00 2.03 405.00
2.29 80.00 2.29 185.00 2.29 390.00
2.54 65.00 2.54 175.00 2.54 380.00
260
Solution
For σN = 19.38 kPa

Horizontal Shear Shear
Displacement Force stress
mm N kpa
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 35.00 13.56
0.51 70.00 27.12
0.76 90.00 34.87
1.02 105.00 40.68
1.27 117.45 45.51
1.52 108.00 41.84
1.78 95.00 36.81
2.03 84.00 32.55
2.29 80.00 31.00
2.54 65.00 25.18
For σN = 38.75 kPa

mm N kpa
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 75.00 29.06
0.51 130.00 50.37
0.76 170.00 65.87
1.02 190.00 73.61
1.27 208.00 80.59
1.52 221.45 85.80
1.78 210.00 81.36
2.03 197.00 76.33
2.29 185.00 71.68
2.54 175.00 67.80
261
For σN = 77.50 kPa
mm N kpa
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.25 185.00 71.68
0.51 290.50 112.55
0.76 350.00 135.61
1.02 390.00 151.10
1.27 415.00 160.79
1.52 433.60 168.00
1.78 425.00 164.66
2.03 405.00 156.92
2.29 390.00 151.10
2.54 380.00 147.23
Plot shear stress Vs horizontal displacement using the above three tables
262
From the above graph use the maximum stresses and normal stresses
Normal stress, kPa Maximum shear stress, kPa

19.375 45.5
38.75 85.8
77.5 168
Determine the shear strength parameters of soil using the above graph
Y 4.4 + 2.1095X
τ 4.4 + 2.1095σ
τ c + tanØ * σ
c 4.4
tanØ 2.1095
Ø tan-1(2.1095) = 64.63o
263
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
shearing strength
of particular soil
Result sample by using
Evaluation direct shear test
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
264
Week-13
Test-12. Triaxial Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test
Introduction
A UU test is carried out almost exclusively on cohesive soils. The isotropic confining
pressure is applied with the drainage valve closed. In the UU test, the soil specimen is not
consolidated and thus drainage is not allowed either during the application of cell pressure
(confining pressure) or shearing. UU triaxial test is the fastest triaxial test to obtain shear
strength parameters (c, Ø) of soil. A cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to three
compressive stresses in mutually perpendicular directions and one of these three stresses is
increased until the specimen fails in shear. Initially, a confining pressure (σ3) is applied
through the water around the specimen in an impermeable membrane. The vertical stress
becomes the major principal stress (σ1) while the confining pressure σ3 acts in the other two
principal directions. The intermediate principal and minor principal stresses are equal to each
other. Deviator stress (σd) is the difference between σ1 and σ3, which acts on the specimen
while it‟s shear deformation. During the test, there will be pore water pressure development,
which is not measured. Therefore, the effective stresses remain unknown. Mohr circles are
only drawn in terms of total stresses, which enables the failure envelope to be drawn in terms
of total stresses, giving shear strength parameters (cu & Øu) under undrained loading
conditions. Being relatively quick and inexpensive, UU triaxial tests are quite popular in
geotechnical engineering practice for obtaining the shear strength of cohesive soil.
The following sketch shows the three various phases of UU triaxial testing; sampling stage,
Isotropic loading stage (application of confining pressure, σ3), and Shear stage (application of
deviator stress, σd).
Figure 12.1 Load application system

265
Objective
This test is used to determine the shear strength parameters of soil by the Unconsolidated
Undrained Triaxial test. The shear strength parameters are c and Ø of soil.
 Loading frame of the capacity of 10 t, with a constant rate of movement.

 Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils.
 Frictionless end plates of 38 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease
coating).
 Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy)
 Soil specimen of 38 mm diameter & 76 mm length
 O-rings
 Latex membrane
Procedure
1. Trim the soil specimen (prepared from the sampling tube of an undisturbed sample
tube using a universal extractor frame or from a compacted soil specimen as per
standard proctors method, at optimum moisture content or any other moisture content
to suit the field situations). Using the trimming apparatus if necessary the trimmed
specimen should be 76.2 mm long and 38.1 mm in diameter. The diameter and the
length are measured at not less than 3 places and the average values are used for
computation. Note the weight of the specimen (W1).
2. The specimen is then enclosed in a 38.1 mm diameter and about 100 mm long rubber
membrane, using the membrane stretcher. Spreading back the ends of the membrane
over the ends of the stretcher and applying suction between the stretcher and the
rubber membranes does by inhalation. The membrane and stretcher are then easily
slid over the specimen, the suction is released and the membrane is unrolled from the
ends of the stretcher.
3. Use non-porous stones on either side of the specimen as neither any pressure is to be
measured nor any drainage of air or water is allowed.
266
4. Remove the porous cylinder from its base removing the bottom fly nuts.
5. The pedestal at the center of the base of the cylinder on which the specimen is to be
placed is cleaned and a 38.1 mm diameter rubber O-ring is rolled over to its bottom.
The specimen along with the non-porous plate on either side is centrally placed over
the pedestal and the bottom edge of the machine covering the specimen is sealed
against the pedestal by rolling back the O-ring over the membrane.
6. The cap is placed over the top plate of the specimen and the top of the rubber
membrane is sealed against the cap by carefully rolling over it another O-ring. This
arrangement of rubber O-rings forms the effective seal between the specimen with the
membrane and the water under pressure. The specimen is checked for its verticality
and co-axiality with the cylinder chamber.
7. The chamber along with the loading plunger is carefully placed over its base without
disturbing the soil specimen and taking care to see that the plunger rests on the cap of
the specimen centrally. The loading frame is then adjusted so that it just touches the
plunger top by the naked eye. The chamber is then rotated if necessary such that the
dial gauge, recording compression, rests centrally over the top of the screw which can
be locked at any level and which is attached to the top of the cylinder chamber
carrying the specimen. The cylinder is then attached to the base plate tightly by means
of tightening the nuts.
8. The valve to drain out the chamber and the valve to drain out the air and water from
the sample are closed and the airlock nut at the top of the cylinder is kept open to
facilitate the exit of air as water enters the chamber through another valve which
connects the chamber to the water storage cylinder subjected to pressure by a hand
pump or by any other means.
9. The water storage cylinder is filled with water completely and its top is then closed by
means of a valve. The necessary pressure is built up in the cylinder by working the
hand pump and the pressure is communicated to the cylinder where the specimen is
placed, by opening the connecting valve. The cylindrical chamber is allowed to be
filled up completely which is indicated by the emergence of water through the airlock
nut at the top of the chamber. Then the airlock nut is closed to develop necessary
confining pressure by using the hand pump (or by any other means) and the same is
maintained constant.
267
10. If necessary, bring the loading plunger down until it is in contact with the specimen
top cap by means of a hand-operated loading device. This is indicated by a spurt in
the reading of the proving ring dial gauge.
11. For this position, adjust the deformation dial gauge reading to zero.
12. Record the initial reading of the proving ring and compression dial gauge.
13. The vertical load is applied to the specimen by starting the motor at the loading frame.
The change in the proving ring dial gauge gives the measure of the applied load. The
deformation dial gauge gives the deformation in the soil specimen, which can be used
to compute strain in the soil.
14. Take readings of the proving ring dial gauge at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0% (or any other
smaller values) of strain and for every 1.0% strain thereafter up to failure or 20%
strain whichever is earlier.
15. Throughout the test, make sure that the chamber, containing pressure is kept constant
at the desired value as indicated by the pressure gauge on the water cylinder. If
necessary, the pressure can be made good for any possible losses by working the hand
pump.
16. After the specimen has failed or 20% strain is recorded, as the case may be (a) stop
the application of load (b) disconnect the chamber from the water storage cylinder by
closing the linger valve (c) open the airlock knob a little and (d) open the valve to
drain out the water in the cylinder. After a few seconds open the airlock nut
completely to facilitate quick draining out of water, by the entry of air at top of the
cylinder.
17. After the water is completely drained out, take out the cylinder from the loading
frame carefully, loosen the nuts and remove the Lucite cylinder from ts base, without
disturbing the sample.
18. Note the space of the failed specimen, the angle of the shear plane if any, and the
dimensions of the specimen.
19. Wipe the rubber membrane dry and find its weight W2 which should be the same as
W1.
20. Remove the membrane from the specimen and take a representative specimen
preferably from the sheared zone.
268
21. Repeat the test with three specimens of the same soil sample subjected to three
different lateral pressures (confining) of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 kg/cm2 (or 50, 100, and 150
kpa)
 Axial strain=ΔL/L=change in length/initial length. This is expressed as a % for

convenience.
 At any time when axial strain is ɛ. area = A0/(1-ɛ) where A0 is the initial cross-
sectional area of the sample.
 The intensity of stress = P/A. as the sample is enclosed in a rubber membrane
and is sealed at either end, its volume is constant as no air or water can escape.
 A graph is drawn between the deviator stress and strain. The deviator stress is
the difference between the stresses in axial and radial direction i.e. (σ1-σ3) and
is equal to the vertical stress P/A. σ3 is the lateral confining pressure at any
time, which is constant for a test. From the plot, determine the second result at
half the ultimate stress, which can be taken as the modulus of elasticity.
 The mohr‟s circle of stress to define the state of stress at failure is drawn for
each sample. The circle has for its center point (σ1+σ3)/2 and a radius equal to
(σ1-σ3)/2. An envelope, which approximates to a straight line, is drawn
touching the circle. The intercept made on the Y-axis and the slope of the
envelope gives the values of strength parameters of the soil C and Ø
respectively.
Example 12.1
UU tests have been performed on silty clay specimens at confining pressure of 1.0 kg/cm2,
2.0 kg/cm2, 3.0 kg/cm2. The specimen size was 38 mm in diameter & 76 mm in height. The
specimen was sheared at deformation rate of 0.4 mm/min (strain rate = 0.5% per min). It is
important to note that the soil sample in the UU test was unsaturated. If saturated soil samples
are used, it is mentioned in the analysis. The below graph and data are from the automated
triaxial machine.
269
Solution
Cohesion (c) = 57 kPa

Internal friction angle (Ø) = 38 deg
270
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
Triaxial
Unconsolidated
Undrained (UU)
Result
test of a particular
Evaluation
soil sample
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
271
Week-14
Test-13. Unconfined compression strength test (UCS)
Introduction
This test method covers the determination of the unconfined compression strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under
unconfined conditions. It is not always possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the
field. To select the best material for the embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the
samples selected. Under these conditions, it is easy to perform the unconfined compression
test on undisturbed and remolded soil samples. Furthermore, in this test method, the
unconfined compression strength is taken as the maximum load attained per unit area or the
load per unit area at 15% axial strain.
Objective
The objective of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength (qu) of the soil
and the cohesion of clay soil cu.
 Unconfined compression device.

 Load and deformation dial gauges.
 Trimming equipment.
 Balance
 Oven and moisture can.
Procedure
1. Cut a soil specimen such that the ratio L/d is approximately between 2 and 2.5. where
L = length of the soil specimen and d = diameter of the soil specimen.
272
2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations and then
make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Take the average of the
measurements and record it as the diameter.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations and then take the average
of the measurements and record it as the length.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass.
5. Calculate the deformation, ΔL, corresponding to 15% strain, ε.
ε= ΔL/Lo Where: Lo = average length of the soil specimen.
6. Carefully, place the specimen in the unconfined compression device and center it on
the bottom plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the
specimen and set the load and deformation dials to zero.
7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per
minute and then record the load and deformation dial readings onto the data sheet at
every 20 to 50 divisions on the deformation of the dial.
8. Keep applying the load until either (1) the load (i.e. load dial) decreases on the
specimen significantly or (2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial
readings; the deformation is significantly past the 15% strain.
9. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
10. Remove the sample from the unconfined compression device. Obtain a sample for
water content measurement and measure the water content.
 Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units and record
these values onto the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns.
 Compute the cross-sectional area of the specimen Ao
 Compute the strain, ε:
 Compute the corrected area, A′
 Compute the specimen stress:
273
 Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress or as the stress at 15%
strain of the test. The strain is plotted on the abscissa.
 Draw Mohr-Coulomb‟s circle using qu from obtained the last step and compute
the undrained shear strength, cu.
Table 13.1. Unconfined compression test format
Deformation Dial Load Dial Sample Strain, %Strain Corrected Load Stress
reading reading Deformation, ɛ Area, A' (kN) (kPa)
ΔL(mm)
274
Example 14.1
Determine the unconfined compressive strength (qu) of the soil and the cohesion of clay soil
cu using the following laboratory test data.
Diameter, D = 7.3 cm
Length, L = 14.5 cm
Mass of sample = 1221.4 gm
Percent water content = 35 %
Deformation-dial readings: each reading = 0.01 mm
Load-dial readings: each reading = 1.403 N
Deformation Dial reading Load Dial reading

0 0
20 4
60 12
100 21
140 26
180 33
250 45
350 64
450 84
550 102
650 120
750 138
850 152
950 166
1100 182
1300 202
1500 217
1700 229
1900 240
2200 250
2600 255
3000 254
275
Solution
AO=π/4*D2= π/4*7.32 = 41.8540 cm2
Load = Load Dial reading X Load-dial readings each reading
Sample Deformation = Deformation Dial reading X Deformation-dial reading
each reading
Deformation Load D Sample Strain, ɛ %Strain Correcte Load Stress

Dial reading ial Deformat d Area, (kN) (kPa)
reading ion, A'
ΔL(mm)
0 0 0 0.0000 0.0000 41.8540 0.0000 0.0000

20 4 0.2 0.0014 0.1379 41.9118 0.0056 1.3390
60 12 0.6 0.0041 0.4138 42.0279 0.0168 4.0059
100 21 1 0.0069 0.6897 42.1447 0.0295 6.9909
140 26 1.4 0.0097 0.9655 42.2620 0.0365 8.6314
180 33 1.8 0.0124 1.2414 42.3801 0.0463 10.9247
250 45 2.5 0.0172 1.7241 42.5883 0.0631 14.8245
350 64 3.5 0.0241 2.4138 42.8893 0.0898 20.9358
450 84 4.5 0.0310 3.1034 43.1945 0.1179 27.2840
550 102 5.5 0.0379 3.7931 43.5042 0.1431 32.8948
650 120 6.5 0.0448 4.4828 43.8183 0.1684 38.4223
750 138 7.5 0.0517 5.1724 44.1369 0.1936 43.8667
850 152 8.5 0.0586 5.8621 44.4603 0.2133 47.9655
950 166 9.5 0.0655 6.5517 44.7884 0.2329 51.9996
1100 182 11 0.0759 7.5862 45.2898 0.2553 56.3805
1300 202 13 0.0897 8.9655 45.9760 0.2834 61.6422
1500 217 15 0.1034 10.3448 46.6833 0.3045 65.2162
1700 229 17 0.1172 11.7241 47.4127 0.3213 67.7639
1900 240 19 0.1310 13.1034 48.1653 0.3367 69.9092
2200 250 22 0.1517 15.1724 49.3401 0.3508 71.0882
2600 255 26 0.1793 17.9310 50.9986 0.3578 70.1520
3000 254 30 0.2069 20.6897 52.7724 0.3564 67.5281
276
Therefore the unconfined shear strength of the soil is 71kPa @ 15% strain
And
=71/2 = 35.5 kPa
277
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
Unconfined
compression
strength test of a
Result
particular soil
Evaluation
sample
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
278
Week-15
Test-14. Plate load test
Introduction
The plate load test is a field test, which is performed to determine the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil and the probable settlement under a given load. This test is very popular
for the selection and design of shallow foundations. For performing this test, the plate is
placed at the desired depth, then the load is applied gradually and the settlement for each
increment of the load is recorded. At one point a settlement occurs at a rapid rate, the total
load up to that point is calculated and divided by the area of the plate to determine
the ultimate bearing capacity of soil at that depth.
Objective
This filed test is used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
 Cad A steel plate is at least 500 mm square and 6 mm thick.

 Hydraulic jack & pump
 A set of steel shims, at least 6 mm thick.
 Reaction beam or reaction truss
 A dial gauge
 A loading frame
 Necessary equipment for the loading platform.
 A steel rule or tape measure
 Tripod, Plumb bob, spirit level, etc.
 Hammer and set of wrenches.
279
Procedure
1. Excavate the test pit up to the desired depth. The pit size should be at least 5 times
the size of the test plate (Bp).
2. At the center of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. The size of the hole
is the same as the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole should
correspond to the level of the actual foundation. The depth of the hole is created
such that the ratio of the depth to the width of the hole is equal to the ratio of the
actual depth to the actual width of the foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as a load-bearing plate whose thickness should be at
least 25 mm thickness and whose size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The
plate can be square or circular. Generally, a square plate is used for square footing
and a circular plate is used for circular footing.
4. A column is placed at the center of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate
through the centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by
truss method.
6. For the gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load
is applied to the platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads. The
hydraulic jack is placed in between the column and loading platform for the
application of gradual loading. This type of loading is called reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record
the settlement. The gauges are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with
the plate.
8. Apply a seating load of .7 T/m2 and release it before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. The load is then applied through the hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The
increment is generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-tenth
of the ultimate bearing capacity or any other smaller value. The applied load is
noted from the pressure gauge.
11. The settlement is observed for each increment and from the dial gauge. After
increasing the load-settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, and 60
280
minutes and then at hourly intervals until the rate of settlement is less than .02 mm
per hour. The readings are noted in tabular form.
12. After completing the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load
increment is applied and readings are noted under the new load. This increment
and data collection is repeated until the maximum load is applied. The maximum
load is generally 1.5 times the expected ultimate load or 3 times the expected
allowable bearing pressure.
 Dial gauges arranged at the bottom of the pit record are used to record
settlement at every 5 minutes for the first 30 minutes and every 10 minutes for
the rest 30 minutes.
 The observation is made until 25 mm settlement is observed which can take a
few hours for clayey and soft soil or even up to a couple of days for hard
strata.
 The results obtained through the test are plotted over the logarithmic graph
with loads over the x-axis and settlement over the y-axis.
 Ultimate load for the plate can be determined through plots on the graph,
which is quite similar to the settlement of plate by 1/5th of width.
 The point at which the graph curve obtained through plots breaks can be used
to determine the ultimate load of the plate, which on later can be utilized to
determine ultimate bearing and safe bearing capacity of the soil.
281
Example 14.1
Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil using the following plate load test reading
data.
Plate area is 600 mm x 600 mm = 0.36 m2
No. Mass Settlement

Applied in reading
reading
Tonne mm
0 0
1 2 1
2 4 1.1
3 6 1.5
4 8 3
5 10 7
6 12 12
7 14 20
8 16 27.5
9 18 32
Solution
282
No. Mass Pressure Settlement Cumulative
Applied load in reading Settlement
reading
Tonne kPa mm mm
0 0 0 0
1 2 55.55556 1 1
2 4 111.1111 1.1 2.1
3 6 166.6667 1.5 3.6
4 8 222.2222 3 6.6
5 10 277.7778 7 13.6
6 12 333.3333 12 25.6
7 14 388.8889 20 45.6
8 16 444.4444 27.5 73.1
9 18 500 32 105.1
Plot the graph using Pressure Vs Cumulative Settlement from the above table results and
determine the ultimate bearing capacity qu
Therefore qu =330 kPa
283
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working Principle
End result of
measurement of
Unconfined
compression
strength test of a
Result
particular soil
Evaluation
sample
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and storage

Work
of the tools and
Evaluation
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
284
References:
Pearson (2014)
285
Technical and Vocational Training Instiyute (TVTI)
Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@etu.edu.et, Website: http://www.etu.edu.et

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This textbook was developed by TVTI faculties through KOICA

project “PMC Service for Capacity Development for TVET

Fundamental of Soil Mechanics

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Dejen Gebresilassie (Ms.C.)

Road Construction Technology Department

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

COURSE Fundamental of Soil Mechanics

3 (Particle Size Analysis, 5.1.3  Standard test sieves 30

Chapter Three : Soil Permeability and Seepage

Chapter Six: : Shear Strength of Soil

12 (Stress Condition at a (Undrained and 5.1.8

13 (Triaxial Shear Test, 5.1.8  Fully automatic

• Be able to explain formation of soils and the types of soil

• Be able to explain composition of clay minerals

• Be able to interpreted clay particle-water relations

1.1. Definition of Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is described as the application of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering

Geotechnical engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that involves natural

Geotechnical operations are of importance with respect to soil sampling, investigating

Geotechnical operations are of importance with respect to soil sampling, investigating

1.3 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Foundation engineering is a branch of geotechnical engineering which applies soil

1.4 Formation of Soils

Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or without organic

Mechanical weathering of rocks to smaller particles is due to the action of such

1.5 General Types of Soils

Residual and Transported Soils

Organic and Inorganic Soils

1.6 Soil Particle Size and Shape

Table1.1: Particle size classification by various systems

The word `clay' is generally understood to refer to a material composed of a mass of

1.8 Structure of Clay Minerals

Fig 1.3: Basic structural units in octahedral sheet (Grim, 1959)

Montmorillonite is the most common mineral of the montmorillonite group. The

Figure 1.5: Structure of montmorillonite layer

Fig 1.6: Structure of Illite Layer

Objective Type Question

1. Soil are basically

2. Discuss the composition of soil in the context of civil engineering.

3. What are the fundamental problems of soil Mechanics in civil engineering

4. Discuss in detail about clay mineral structure.

5. Differentiate soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering.

7. Classify soil based on their size.

1. Das, Braja, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th ed., Brooks/Cole, 2002.

2. Arora, D. K. (n.d.). Soil mechanics and Foundaion Engineering, 2003

6. Helwany, S., The Mechanics of Soils and Foundations, 2nd ed..

7. McCarthy, David F. - Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations _ basic geotechnics-

• Be able to interpret the phase diagram

• Be able to compute terms in mass-volume relationships

• Be able to conduct test for particle size analysis

• Be able to conduct test for consistency of clay soil

• Be able to classify soils

• Sieve sets, sieve shaker

• Liquid limit service

• Shrinkage limit device

• Learning through assignment, laboratory project

2.1 The phase diagram