Final Edited Draft Text Book On Road Construction Material

This textbook was developed by TVTI faculties through KOICA
project “PMC Service for Capacity Development for TVET

Leaders and Trainers in Ethiopia”
Road Construction Materials and

Testing
August 2022
Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Road Construction Materials and
Testing
Editor’s Name :- Aklilu Tefera (M.Sc. in Road and

Railway Engineering)
Road Construction Technology Department

August 2022
Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@etu.edu.et, Website: http://www.etu.edu.et
Contents
Course Profile......................................................................................................II
Detail Course Outline.........................................................................................IV
Chapter 1. Classification of construction materials.............................................1
Introduction.....................................................................................................1
1.1 Basic classification of construction materials.............................................1
1.2 Nature and performance of materials under load..................................10
Assessments......................................................................................................20
Objective type questions................................................................................20
Subjective Type question...............................................................................22
References.........................................................................................................25
Chapter 2. Cementing materials........................................................................27
2.1 Use of lime, gypsum, and cement............................................................27
2.2 Types and properties of cement...............................................................34
2.3 Chemical reaction of cement in water and its results..............................41
2.4 Production of cementing materials..........................................................44
Assessments......................................................................................................47
Objective type questions................................................................................47
Subjective Type question...............................................................................50
References.........................................................................................................53
Chapter 3 Mortar, concrete, concrete making materials, and mix design..........55
3.1Cement and lime mortar...........................................................................55
3.1.1Deferent types of mortal.....................................................................55
3.1.2 Use of cement mortal.........................................................................69
3.1.3 Composition of mortar.......................................................................70
3.1.4 Characteristics of cement mortar.......................................................72
3.2 Concrete...................................................................................................75
3.2.1 Constituents materials for concrete...................................................75
3.2.2 Concrete admixtures..........................................................................90
3.2.3 Fresh and hardened concrete properties...........................................98
3.2.4 Curing of concrete............................................................................121
3.2.5 Concrete mix design.........................................................................145
Assessment......................................................................................................172
Objective type questions..............................................................................172
Subjective type questions............................................................................176
References.......................................................................................................177
Chapter Four: Metals in constructions...........................................................179
4.1 Classification of Metals...........................................................................179
4.2. Properties of steel and aluminum alloys................................................190
4.3. Properties and uses of metals...............................................................196
Assessment......................................................................................................200
References.......................................................................................................203
Chapter Five: Soil as road construction material.............................................205
5.1 Soil formation and types of soil..............................................................205
5.2 Soil profiles.............................................................................................215
5.3 Soil particles...........................................................................................220
5.4 Soil water................................................................................................222
5.5 Soil phase relationships..........................................................................227
5.6 Frost action in soils.................................................................................245
5.7 Identification and description of soils in the field..................................257
5.8 Soil classification...................................................................................277
5.9 Basic soil tests........................................................................................290
Assessment......................................................................................................300
Chapter Six: Bitumen or asphalt......................................................................311
6.1 Asphalt cement......................................................................................326
6.2. Cutback asphalt.....................................................................................329
6.3. Emulsified asphalt.................................................................................332
6.4. Asphalt concert mix-design...................................................................336
Assessment......................................................................................................345
Objective type question................................................................................345
Chapter Seven: Stabilizing agent for subgrade soil.........................................351
7.1. Lime stabilization..................................................................................356
7.2. Cement as stabilization..........................................................................362
7.3. Bitumenious stabilization......................................................................368
7.4 Mechanical stabilization.........................................................................369
References.......................................................................................................374
Part II Laboratories and Practical works..........................................................375
Week 1............................................................................................................ 375
Session Plan 1.............................................................................................375
Lab 1............................................................................................................377
Week 2............................................................................................................384
Session Plan 2...............................................................................................384
Lab 2............................................................................................................386
Evaluation sheet..............................................................................................390
Week 3............................................................................................................ 391
Session Plan 3..........................................................................................391
Lab 3........................................................................................................393
Week 4............................................................................................................397
Session Plan 4............................................................................................397
Lab 4.........................................................................................................399
Week 5............................................................................................................ 405
Session Plan 5..........................................................................................405
Lab 5.........................................................................................................407
Week 6............................................................................................................ 413
Session Plan 6..........................................................................................413
Lab 6.........................................................................................................415
Week 7............................................................................................................ 419
Session Plan 7..........................................................................................419
Lab 7...........................................................................................................421
Week 9............................................................................................................426
Session Plan 9..............................................................................................426
Lab 9............................................................................................................428
Week 10.......................................................................................................... 433
Session Plan 10...........................................................................................433
Lab 10..........................................................................................................435
Week 11.......................................................................................................... 439
Session Plan 11...........................................................................................439
Lab 11...........................................................................................................441
Week 12..........................................................................................................445
Session Plan 12...........................................................................................445
Lab 12..........................................................................................................447
Week 13..........................................................................................................452
Session Plan 13...........................................................................................452
Lab 13..........................................................................................................454
Week 14 & 15.................................................................................................459
Session Plan 14...........................................................................................459
Lab 14..........................................................................................................461
I
Course Profile
Department Road Construction Technology
Course title Road Construction Materials and Testing

Road Construction Material and Testing will cover designed for road
construction technology students for providing knowledge and skill
Course regarding to road construction materials and it includes about stone,
description aggregate, selected material, asphalt (bitumen) the overall course is
provided with theoretical as well as practical (Lecture and laboratory )
works on material tests.
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
 understand the property of road construction materials under different
conditions
 •now the production process of some construction materials
Course
 perform laboratory tests in soil, concert, aggregate and asphalt materials
objective
 to perform asphalt concert mix-design and cement concert mix-design
 identify appropriate type and quality of stone, aggregate, asphalt and any
other road construction related material
Learning Knowledge: - After the completion of this course the student will be able
outcomes to:
1.1 understand the property of road construction materials under different
conditions
1.2. identify appropriate type and quality of stone, aggregate, asphalt and
any other road construction related material
1.3 Understand the Classification of construction materials
1.4 Know about Soil as road construction material
1.5 Understand the Mortar, concrete, concrete making materials and mix
design
1.6 understand the Stabilizing agent for subgrade soil
1.5 know the production process of bitumen’s materials
1.8 Know about the properties of hardened concrete
Practical skill : After the completion of this course the student will be
II
able to perform:
1.1 laboratory tests in soil, concert, aggregate and asphalt materials
Attitude
1.1 Develop professional ethics for teaching /Training requirement
Pre-requisite  None
Target group  3rd year Road Construction Technology
III
Detail Course Outline
6. Detail Course Outline
Topics to be covered Topics to be covered Outcome Required materials
Week
(2 lecture hours) (3 lab hours) s /equipment/devices
Chapter One: Classification of construction materials
1.1 Introduction  Introducing the laboratory -
1.2 Mechanical properties of
1 construction materials
1.3 Nature and performance of
materials under load
Chapter Two: Cementing materials
2.1. Use of lime, gypsum and  Determination of tensile 5.1.1, Universal compression
cement strength of deformed and 5.1.3, / tension testing
2.2. Types and properties of cement plain reinforcement bar 5.2.1 machine motorized.
5.3.1
2 2.3 Chemical reaction of cement in
water and its results
2.3 production of cementing
materials
Chapter Three: Mortar, concrete, concrete making materials and mix design
3 3.1Cement mortar  Determination of the initial 5.1.2, standard Vicat
3.1.1Deferent types of mortal and final setting time of 5.1.5, apparatus .
3.1.2 Use of cement mortal cement 5.2.1
5.3.1
3.1.3 Constituents materials in
mortal
3.1.4 Properties of cement mortal
4 3.2 Concrete  Particle Size Distribution 5.1.2, a) Balance, of
3.2.1 Constituents materials in of Aggregates 5.1.5, appropriate capacity
Concrete Dry sieving test 5.2.1 for the size of sample
5.3.1 and capable of
3.2.2Concrete admixtures
3.2.3Fresh and hardened accuracy to
concrete properties 0.1% of the mass of
3.2.4Curing concrete the sample.
b) Sets of sieves for
aggregate.
c) Mechanical shaker.
d) Oven, of
appropriate size
capable of
maintaining a uniform
temperature of 110ºC
plus or minus 5ºC.
e) Trays and
containers
5 3.2.4 Concrete Mix design  Determination of Flaky or 5.1.1, a) A sample divider,.
elongated materials 5.1.3 b) A ventilated oven
5.2.1 thermostatically
5.3.1 controlled to maintain
a temperature of
1050C plus or minus
50C.
c) A balance of
suitable capacity
d) Test sieves.
e) A mechanical sieve
shaker .
IV
f) Trays of adequate
size,
g) A metal thickness
gauge, of the pattern
or or special sieves
having elongated
apertures
Chapter Four: Metals in constructions
6 4.1. Classification of metals  Determination of the bulk 5.1.1, a) Balance, of capacity
4.2. Properties of steel and specific gravity of 5.1.3 not less than 3 kg,
aluminum alloys aggregate 5.3.1 accurate to 0.5g.
4.3. uses of metals b) Ventilated oven
thermostatically
controlled to maintain
the temperature at 105
ºC plus or minus 5 ºC.
c) Pycnometer
d) Metal mould, in the
form of a frustum of a
cone
e) Container,
f) 75 micron test sieve
and a nesting sieve to
protect the 75 micron
sieve.
g) A metal tamper, of
340 g plus or minus 15
g and having a flat
circular tamping face
25 mm plus or minus
in 3mm diameter.
h) A plain glass funnel
i) A wide-mouthed
glass vessel.
Chapter Five: Soil as road construction material
7 5.1 Soil formation and types of soil  Determination of the 5.1.2, a) Balance, of capacity
5.2 Soil profiles density and absorption test 5.1.4, not less than 3 kg,
5.3 Soil particles of aggregate 5.2.1 accurate to 0.5 g .
5.3.1 b) Ventilated oven,
thermostatically
controlled...
c) A 4.75 mm test
sieve and other sizes as
needed.
d) A sample container,
such as a wire basket
of 3.35 mm or finer
mesh
e) Water tank,
8 Mid semester Exam period
9 5.4 Soil water  Determination of 5.1.2, Impact testing
5.5 Soil phase relationships aggregate impact value 5.1.4, machine.
5.2.1
5.3.1
10 5.6 Frost action in soils  Determination of 5.1.2, a) Steel cylinder, open-
5.7 Identification and description of aggregate crushing value 5.1.4, ended, of nominal
soils in the field 5.2.1 150mm internal
5.3.1 diameter with plunger
and base-plate of the
general form and
b) A cylindrical metal
V
measure of sufficient
rigidity to retain its
form under rough
usage and with an
internal diameter of
115 mm plus or minus
1 mm and an internal
depth of 180 mm plus
or minus 1 mm.
c) A tamping rod,
d) A balance, of
capacity not less than 3
kg and accurate to 1 g.
e)A ventilated oven,
thermostatically
controlled.
f) A rubber mallet,.
g) Square-hole
perforated plate test
sieves, of sizes 14.0
mm and 10.0 mm and
an ovenware 2.36 mm
test sieve.
h) A compression
testing machine,
11 5.8 Soil classification  Slump Test 5.1.2, Slump test Mould with
5.9 Basic soil tests 5.1.4, all accessories.
5.2.1
5.3.1
Chapter Six: Bitumen or asphalt
12 6.1 Asphalt cement  Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 5.1.2, Ultrasonic pulse velocity
6.2. Cutback asphalt 5.1.7, test apparatus with its all
6.3. Emulsified asphalt 5.2.1 accessories.
5.3.1
13 6.4. Asphalt concert mix-design  Rebound hammer test 5.1.2, Rebound hammers test
(Schmidt hammer test) 5.1.7, (Schmidt hammer test)
5.2.1 apparatus
5.3.1
Chapter Seven : Stabilizing agent for subgrade soil
14 & 7.1. Lime as stabilizing agent  Crushing Strength of 5.1.8, Universal Testing
15 7.2. Cement as stabilizing agent Concrete 5.2.1 Machine
7.3. Bitumen as stabilizing agent 5.3.1
7.4 Mechanical stabilization
16 Final exam period
7. Suggested texts and reference materials
Text Book 1. Illston J. M. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behavior, Taylor & Francis;
3rd Edition, 2001
Reference Books 1. References:

2. Marotta, Theodore, W. Basic Construction Materials. (2005). Pearson Prentice Hall.
3. William P. Spencer. (2006). Construction Materials, Methods and Techniques.
Thomson Delmar Learning, 2nd Edition
4. Parbinsingh, Civil Engineering Materials
5. Don a. Watson, Construction Materials and Processes
6. A.M. Neville and J.J.Brooks, Concrete Technology
8. Assessment methods
Type Weight Behavior and Criteria/ Assessment for Learning
Mid Semester Exam 20%
VI
Active Participation 5%
Question paper which includes information such as due date, to whom to
Individual Assignment 5%
submit and place along with questions shall be given.
Different final course projects shall be given earlier immediately after
Group assignment
10% three weeks of mid exam and students will work on and present before
or mini project applicable
final exam and evaluated on group.
Students report shall be evaluated carefully and feedback shall be given
Lab Practice report, and/or with
20% on time. A practical exam shall be organized which the learner shall
Practical Exam
demonstrate individually and assessed accordingly
Final semester Exam 40%
Total 100%
9. Academic Honesty
In all cases i.e. …
10. Submitting Date
All assignments, project works and laboratory reports should be submitted to the instructor or laboratory assistance
according to the timetable and information provided. All assignments, project works and laboratory results will be
invalid if they are not submitted on time and will be reported to the concerned body as miss conduct of the student.
11. Classroom Behavior
Classroom …
12. Approval
Name Signature Date
Instructor:
Section Head:
Department Head:
VII
Part I Theory
Chapter 1. Classification of construction materials

Introduction
Most road construction materials are exposed to forces (loads) when they are used. And this
topic will discuss the components of the materials that are used to build road construction, the
structural arrangements of the materials, and the effects of the composition of the materials on
the physical and mechanical properties. In any Civil engineering work including road
construction, construction materials play an important role, for this reason their physical and
mechanical properties should be examined to assure the appropriateness of the materials
regarding their strength and durability. Every Structural material which is used as a Civil
engineering material should require good mechanical properties. In this topic, attention will be
given and discussed to the mechanical properties of construction materials since most road
construction materials are structural materials. Mechanical properties directly determine the
quality and the standard of construction materials.
1.1 Basic classification of construction materials
 Major properties used for the classification of construction materials
The material should be selected based on its properties of the materials. The responsible
person should decide on the required properties of materials to use as a construction
material. There are large numbers of properties that are measured in laboratories to
compare materials, but the most common ones are chemical, physical, mechanical, and
dimensional properties. The chemical composition of any material can be determined by
applying analytical chemistry. In the selection of construction material, chemical
composition is the most important consideration.
1
 Chemical Properties:
Chemical properties are material characteristics that are related to the structure of
a material and its formation.
The important chemical properties are:
a. Composition,
b. Structure,
c. Corrosion Resistance.
o Composition:
The chemical composition of any material can be determined by applying

analytical chemistry. In the selection of construction material, chemical
composition is a most important consideration.
o Structure:
To get necessary information regarding the structure of construction

materials, one of the most important tools in chemical properties. The
structure of material usually states to its microstructure, i.e. the
constituents perceived when the material is inspected under a microscope.
The microstructure is an inimitable instrument for the materials engineer
to resolve problems and get an understanding of the structure of
materials. Microstructure studies can also be used as an important
instrument in examining why a part failed in service.
o Corrosion Resistance:
Corrosion of metals is a gradual chemical reaction or electrochemical

attack on a metal by air and water from the atmosphere, such that the
metal is changed into an oxide, salt, or another compound.
2
 Physical Properties:
The definite physical features that reduce the use of construction materials for a
specific purpose and their selection for specific use are governed by these properties.
Physical properties of materials are properties of materials that are determined by
their nature.
Among the many properties the followings are a few significant physical properties
of materials:
o Density:
Density is defined as the measure of an object's physical property in terms of

its mass and volume and which is equal to the mass of the object per unit
volume and can be deduced in various ways as:
a. Crystallographic density—the density that can be measured from

the defect-free crystal frame of the material,
b. Bulk density—the measured density of a material which includes

all frame defects, phases, and fabrication porosity.
o Specific Heat:
Specific heat of a material is the amount of heat required to increase the

temperature of 1 gm of material by one degree centigrade. Different materials
have different specific heats. Water has the highest specific heat.
o Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is the proportion of the mass of a certain volume of a

material when related to the mass of the same volume of water. Eventually, it
is the relative densities of the material to that of water.
o Porosity:
Porosity is the ratio of the volume occupied by air to the volume of a

material. If the porosity becomes high the mass of the material becomes light
and its insulating property becomes better; for this reason, the heat
3
conductivity of a material of porous materials decreased with increasing
porosity.
o Refractoriness:
Refractoriness is the property of a material that has the capability to resist

high temperature without combining with other chemicals e.g. silica,
alumina, and fired clay.
o Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is the capability of a material to transfer heat from the

hot material to the cold material, silver is the highest conductor of heat. A
material that has low heat conductivity is called a heat insulator. The
insulating materials are often used to avoid the loss of heat.
o Electrical Conductivity:
Electrical conductivity is the capability of a material to conduct electricity.

A good conductor of electricity is a material that has the capability of
transferring electric current easily. Silver and copper are among the best
electrical conductor. Insulators or dielectrics are materials that have high
resistance to the flow of current.
o Magnetic Property:
Magnetic materials are those materials that are in nature attracted by the
magnet, e.g. Fe, Ni, Co, Cr, Mn, Gd. Diamagnetic materials are those
materials repelled by the magnet e.g. Cu, Zn, Pb, Sb, Bi, etc.
In addition to the above properties melting point, boiling point and linear
coefficient of expansion are some other physical properties.
 Dimensional Properties:
Dimensional properties are one of the important selection factors for materials. Size
and shape are very important for selecting a material to be used as a construction
4
material. Additional dimensional properties that are included in selecting material are
surface roughness and unevenness.
A profilometer is a device used to measure the surface profile i.e. a device used to
measure the roughness and unevenness of the materials electronically.
 Mechanical Properties:
The characteristics of a material that are observed when a force is applied to the
material are known as Mechanical properties. They usually relate to the elastic and
plastic behavior of the material. The followings are important mechanical properties:
1. Hardness,
2. Modulus of elasticity,
3. Yield strength,
4. Tensile strength,
5. Percent elongation,
6. Deduction in area,
7. Impact,
8. Fatigue and
9. Creep strengths and wear resistance.
 Compositions and Structures of Construction Materials and their influence on the

Properties of construction materials
Since one of the most important considerations in the classification of construction

materials is the chemical and mineralogy composition, in this text the compositions of
materials are described in terms of chemical compositions and mineralogical
compositions.
o Chemical Composition
The other name for chemical composition is chemical constituents. The chemical
constituent of the materials is one of the key factors which affect the different
properties of the material including physical and mechanical properties. For
5
example, the carbon content of steel will affect strength, hardness, toughness, and
brittleness. If the carbon content of steel increases the strength, hardness,
toughness, and brittleness become increase. Since carbon steel is easy to rust, it is
necessary to add chromium, nickel, and other chemical components into steel to
reduce the rusting effect of carbon steel and this process is known as alloying of
steel.
o Mineral Composition
Almost all inorganic nonmetallic materials consist of different mineralogical

components and have different structures. Minerals are relatively light, simple
organic molecules that can join in long chains with other molecules to form a
more complex molecule or polymer and compounds with a certain chemical.
As has been mentioned above mineral composition is one of the key factors that
affect the properties of construction materials like (natural stone, limestone, and
naturally occurring construction materials).
Fabricated materials like cement and different types of steel can have different
characteristics depending upon the amount and types of different mineral
contents.
 Structures of Constructions of Materials
The structures of construction materials are the key factor that may affect the properties
directly. The structures of materials are classified into three classes as follows:
i. Macro-structure,
ii. Meso-structure and
iii. Micro-structure,
 Macro-structure
A structure of materials that can be identified by the magnifying glass or with

necked eyes is classified as Macro-structure. And Microstructures are further
classified into six categories:
6
i. Dense structure,
ii. porous structure,
iii. micro-porous structure,
iv. fibrous structure,
v. laminated structure and
vi. granular structure and
o Dense structure
The arrangement of the particles of the material that left any porous or void inside is
classified as a dense structure (like ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, glass, plastic,
and others).
o Porous structure
The arrangement of particles of the material that forms very tiny porous or void
which cannot be visible with necked eyes is classified as Porous structure (like foam
plastic, air-entrained concrete, manufactured lightweight materials).
o Micro-porous structure
The material with a micro-porous inside which is formed by using plenty of water for
mixing during the production of the material is classified as a Micro-porous structure
(like fired brick, decorative gypsum products, concrete and moratr).
o Fibrous Structure
The arrangement of internal parts of the material is organized with direction are
classified as fibrous Structure (like wood, bamboo, asbestos, and other similarly
structured materials).
o Laminated or Layered Structure
A material composed of the same material or different materials arranged in layers

formed by adhering to different sheets are classified as a Laminated or Layered
Structure (like plywood).
7
o Granular Structure
The materials whose particles are found in loose form and visible with necked eyes
can be classified as Granular Structure (like sand, natural gravel, and artificial
gravel).
 Meso-structure
The structure of the material which cannot be observed by the necked eye but by optical
microscope is called Meso-structure or sub-micron structures. In this case, the evaluation of
the structure is related to the size and shape of particles, the shape, and interface of grains
particles, and the size, shape and the distribution of pores and micro-cracks.
It is very important to understand the influence of microstructures on the mechanical

properties and durability of construction materials. The modification of the arrangement of
grain can improve the strength of the materials. For example, alloying of steel with other
elements will alter or improve the property of steel by refining grains and significantly
increasing intensity.
 Microstructure
The particles of materials that cannot be observed with necked eyes and microscope but
identified by electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometer, and other means are classified as
microstructure. This type of structure is further classified into crystal and non-crystal.
o Crystal
A solid material whose particles are arranged and packed regularly and repeat the
same pattern in the entire three dimensions is called crystals. Crystals are identified
and categorized by the fixed geometric shape of packed particles and physical
properties that are different in different directions. Crystal is further classified into the
following four categories:
i. Atomic Crystal,
ii. Ionic Crystal,
8
iii. Molecular Crystal and
iv. Metal Crystal.
a) Atomic Crystal
The formation of the crystal is formed by neutral atoms which are connected by a
covalent bond (a chemical bond in which the attractive force between atoms is
created by the sharing of electrons). The bonding force in the atomic crystal is very
strong. In this type of crystal the strength, hardness, melting point, and density of
atomic crystal are high.
b) Ionic Crystal
The formation of crystal is formed by anions and cations exchange. The ions are
bonded together by electrostatic attraction. In this type of crystal the strength,
hardness, and melting point are high but unstable; some of them are soluble in water
example gypsum and limestone.
c) Molecular Crystal
In this case, the formation of the crystal is formed by molecular attraction. In this
type of crystal, the bonding between molecules is weak and due to this reason, the
strength, hardness, and melting point are small. Most of the materials with this type
of crystal are soluble in liquid example organic compounds.
d) Metal Crystal
The formation of crystal in the metal crystal is formed by metal cation and bonded
or connected by a metallic bond. In this type of crystal, the strength and hardness
are unstable and the density is high. Some materials may have one combination
bond and some of the materials have complex crystal materials with more than two
types of combination bonds.
o Non-Crystal
The material with a certain chemical composition is formed due to large heat and
becomes liquid and then solidified. During the solidification process, the liquid
material becomes cool down rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere and the particles
9
cannot be packed into a regular pattern and changed to solid matter this is known as a
non-crystal or amorphous body.
Non-crystalized structured materials are identified and categorized by their non-fixed

geometric shape and their physical property which don’t vary with direction. During
solidification a large number of different chemicals cannot be released due to rapid
cooling, for this reason, non-crystal materials are chemically unstable and able to react
with other substances (good examples are volcanic ash and fly ash). Fly ash and
volcanic ash will react with lime and soil that is why they are important materials to be
used as stabilizing materials for week subgrade soil.
1.2 Nature and performance of materials under load
 Mechanical properties of construction materials

Since most road construction materials are structural materials studying the mechanical
properties of construction materials is crucial. Necessary design information regarding the
strength of the material can be found from mechanical property tests. Results from the
tests depend on the size and shape of the material to be tested (specimen), how it is held,
and the way and how to perform the test. In most cases tension test is common but also
other tests are important like the compression test, shear test, and flexural test.
During the tensile strength test, a sample is subjected to an increasing uniaxial tensile load,
in the main time observations are made simultaneous on the elongation of the specimen.
The tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation, and reduction of
area are the parameter used to describe the stress-strain curve of metal. The tensile
strength and yield strengths are strength parameters and the percent elongation, and
reduction of the area indicates ductility.
The tensile test is the easiest and most widely used test to describe the mechanical
properties of a material. The design parameters are derived from the result of the tensile
test of materials.
10
Numerous common structural elements are designed to achieve tensile strength. A truss is
the most usual illustration of a structure whose members are designed to be stable in
tension and compression.
 Stress and Strain
Concept of Stress: When we introduce the concept of stress, it's known that the main
problem of engineering material is to address the internal resistance of the body, i.e. the
nature of forces set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied
forces.
These externally applied forces may be due to anyone or further of the entourages
i. Due to service conditions
ii. Due to the environment in which the element works
iii. Through contact with other members
iv. Due to fluid pressures
v. Due to graveness or indolence forces (Self-weight of the structure).
Simple stress can be expressed by the rate of the force applied perpendicular to the cross-
section divided by its original cross-sectional area, formally called engineering stress.
o The introductory description of stress
In tensile and compression tests, the applicable area is that perpendicular to the
force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is vertical to the axis of rotation. The stress is
attained by dividing the load or the force which is perpendicular to the cross-
sectional area by the original area of the cross-section.
Where Ϭ= is stress
F= Force perpendicular to the cross-sectional srea
11
A0 = Cross sectional area
The unit of stress is expressed in Mega Pascal (106 N /m2)
Figure 1-1 Tensile,Compressive and Shear stress
 The Concept of Strain
If it is considered a unit force to stretch a rubber band of a given length by a given

distance, the same force applied to two rubber bands joined end to end or a single band of
twice the length will affect twice the stretch. Resistance to stretching is thus equally
commensurable to the length of a sample. To determine the change in the shape of the
rubber as a material in general, and not just of that sample, the deviation of the sample
must accordingly be normalized by dividing by its original length. This gives a measure
of how much the material has stretched relative to its original length, which is known as
strain and which is generally represented by the symbol, ε,
∆L = Lo -Lf.
Where ∆L = dimensional change in length
Lo = original length
Lf = final length after the application of the load
12
The dimensional change can either be positive or negative depending on the type of the
load. If the load is in compression the dimensional change will be negative and if the load
is tensile the dimensional change will be positive.
ε = ∆L/L
Where ε = strain
∆L = dimensional change in length
L = original length of the specimen
The strain does not have unit. The stress-strain curve is going to be drawn from the data
obtained in the tension test.
 Determining material properties
o Stress-strain curve
Material that has been tested for a mechanical property is described by the stress-
strain curve. It's drawn by using the measures of stress and strain.
Tress-strain curve is produced from the results of the tensile property test and it
supports the mastermind by furnishing the required information on the
relationship between stress and strain of a particular structure. It's anticipated that
this information regarding the relationship between stress and strain will give a
given strain history for the particular sample and the state of stress. This
relationship can be complex indeed even for simple materials.
Besides, it provides measurable substantiation which is important for an

introductory relationship. A stress-strain curve can also be used to qualitatively
define and classify the materials
The followings parameters are typically observed in a stress-strain curve:
1. Elastic region
2. Yielding
13
3. Uniform elongation (deformation)
4. Necking and Failure
In the stress-strain curve, the plotting is necessary to made supposition that the strain
in the sample is monotonically adding no unloading occurs. It's also necessary to
accentuate that a lot of variation from what is shown is possible with real materials,
and each of the regions below won't always be so easily terminated. It's necessary to
give attention that the range of each region in stress-strain space is material dependent
and that not all materials parade all of the regions below. A stress-strain curve is a
graph deduced from measuring load (stress-σ) versus extension (strain-ε) for a sample
of a material.
The nature of the curve is different from one material to another material. The
following figure illustrates the stress-strain behavior of typical materials in terms of
the engineering stress and engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated
to deal with the original dimensions of the sample and not the immediate values. In
each case, the samples are loaded in compression, although in numerous cases
analogous behavior is observed in compression.
Figure 1-2 Schematic Diagram of tensile stressest
14
Figure 1-3 Stress strain curve
The first useful property that can be determined from the strain curve is the stiffness of
the material, and it is known as its Young’s modulus, which is designated by the
symbol E. Stiffness is equal to the initial slope of the stress-strain curve and so is given
mathematically by the expression . This in known as Hook’s law.
When the material is subjected to tension, for a certain range, stress and strain become
proportional through elastic range.
E=∆ Ϭ /∆ ε
Constant E is represented as the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.
Where ∆Ϭ = stresses change
∆ ε = strain change
The stress-strain graph indicates that the association between stress and strain is linear
over some range of stress. Within the linear region, the material is essentially elastic in
that if the stress is removed, the deformation is also recoverable. By the time when
elastic limit is exceeded, permanent deformation will occur. The material may begin to
"neck" for some range and finally break. Within the elastic range, a certain type of
material will always show the same shape despite different physical dimensions. Thus,
15
it is possible to mention that the linearity and slope are constant. In the tension and
compression test, this constant which is the ratio of stress change to strain change is
called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (E).
The modulus of elasticity has the same unit with stress, that is, N/m2.
Table 1.1 Table shows the modulus of elasticity for different materias
o Brittleness and Ductility
Most metals including steel and aluminum usually found under the category of ductile
materials. Glass, ceramics, plain concrete and cast iron are found under the category
of brittle materials. These two categories can be identified by comparison of the
stress-strain curves, such as the ones shown in Figure.
Ductile materials have the capability of bearing large strain before the sample
becomes break but, brittle materials will break at lower strain. Ductile materials can
resist large strains before the specimen ruptures; brittle materials fracture at much
lower strains. The yielding region for ductile materials regularly takes up the majority
of the stress-strain curve, whereas for brittle materials it is nearly absent.
16
Figure 1-4 Ductile and brittle material behavior
Brittle materials frequently have relatively large Young's moduli and ultimate stresses
in comparison to ductile materials.
These differences are a major design consideration. Ductile materials reveal large
strains and yield before they fail. On the other side, brittle materials fail suddenly and
without much warning. Since steel is ductile and it is a material with high tensile
strength, it is preferable to be used as a structural member in civil engineering
construction as it provides a warning before the structure fails. By comparing the
curves shown in the above figure, it is possible to be perceived that ductile materials
are capable of absorbing much larger quantities of energy before failure.
Generally, it should be accentuated that not all materials can be easily classified as
either ductile or brittle. The material response also depends on the operating
environment; many ductile materials become brittle as the temperature is decreased.
Frequently in structural design, structural members are designed to be in service

below the yield stress. The reason is that once the load exceeds the yield limit, the
structural members will reveal large deformations that are undesirable. Thus it is
preferable to use materials with larger yield strength.
17
The stress-strain distribution differs from one material to another and could be in
different forms. Eventually, the type of material and the pattern fracture is going to be
defined and determined according to its stress-strain distribution diagram.
o Yield strength
The stress at which a material starts to deform plastically is defined as Yield strength.
Before the yield point, the material will deform elastically and will indicate that the
deformation returns to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. After the
yield point is exceeded beyond the limit, the deformation is non-reversible and will
remain deformed. Since it generally represents an upper limit to the load that can be
applied, getting good understanding of the yield point is very important when
designing a structural component.
Often it is difficult to define yield because of the wide variety of stress-strain

behaviors exhibited by real materials. In addition, there are different possible ways to
define the yield point of a given material.
o Elastic Limit –
The low stress at which permanent deformation can be measured is termed as elastic
limit. This requires a complex iterative load-unload procedure and is dependent on the
accuracy of the equipment and the skill of the laboratory technician.
o Yield point.
If the stress becomes too large, the strain deviates from becoming proportional to the
stress. The point at which this happens is the yield point because at this point the
material yields, which means the material starts deforming permanently (plastically).
o Yield stress.
Hooke's law is not applicable after the stress reaches the yield point. The stress that
occurred at the yield point is called yield stress and is used as a significant measure of
the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the yield stress is selected as that
resulting from a permanent strain of 0.002, which is called proof stress. The yield
stress measures the resistance of the material to plastic deformation.
18
The yield strength is the stress required to create a small amount of plastic
deformation. The standard definition of this property is the balance yield strength
which is determined by the stress conforming to the intersection of the stress-strain
curve and a line that is parallel to the elastic part of the curve counterbalanced by a
specified strain.
19
Assessments
Objective type questions
1. Which one of the following properties are not the most common property that are measured in
laboratories for the purpose of comparing materials,
A) Chemical,
B) Physical,
C) mechanical
D) Dimensional
E) None
2. The property of material characteristics that relate to the structure of a material and its formation from
the elements is ____________________.
A) Chemical,
B) Physical,
C) Mechanical
D) Dimensional
E) All
3. _________________________________ are the characteristics of a material that are displayed when a

force is applied to the material
A) Physical properties
B) Chemical properties
C) Mechanical properties
D) Dimensional properties
E) None
4. A structure of materials which can be identified by magnifying glass or with necked eyes is
classified as ______________________.
A) Macro-structure,
20
B) Meso-structure and
C) Micro-structure
D) All
E) None
5. The lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be measured is termed as ___________
A) Yield point
B) Elastic range
C) Elastic limit
D) Plastic range.
E) Yield strength
6. The _______________________ is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at

which a material begins to plastically deform.
A) Yield point
B) Elastic range
C) Elastic limit
D) Plastic range.
E) Yield strength
7. ___________________________ is the range at which stress is proportional to stress.
A) Yield point
B) Elastic range
C) Elastic limit
D) Plastic range.
E) Yield strength
8. Which one of the following is ductile material?
A) Glass, B) Ceramics, C) Plain concrete D) Steel E) Cast iron
21
Subjective Type question
1. Write at least five physical properties and define them
a) ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b) ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c) ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
d) ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
e) ________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
1 Write the six types of Micro-structures and explain briefly.
a) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
b) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
c) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
d) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
22
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
e) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
f) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What are the two types of Microstructure? Explain them briefly
a) ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b) ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. State the difference between physical property and mechanical property of construction
materials.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. Give brief explanation about stress-strain curve
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
23
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
24
References
[1]. https://theconstructor.org/building/properties-of-building-materials-construction/14891/
[2]. https://theconstructor.org/building/properties-of-construction-materials/18/
[3]. https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/5/5_2020_04_18!06_56_28_PM.pdf
[4]. https://readcivil.com/physical-properties-of-building-materials-or-construction-materials/
[5]. https://silo.tips/download/the-basic-properties-of-building-materials
[6].https://www.joostdevree.nl/bouwkunde2/jpgp/pdf_008_materials_fysical_properties_volumi
eke_massa_enz_www_library_upt_ro.pdf
[7]. https://www.rgmcet.edu.in/assets/img/departments/CIVIL/materials/R19/2-2/BT/unit-2.pdf
[8]. https://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture1424085991.pdf
[9]. https://www.vssut.ac.in/lecture_notes/lecture1640072907.pdf
[10].https://www.academia.edu/24617423/
The_Structure_and_Properties_of_Civil_Engineering_Materials
[11]. https://civilengineeringpdf.com/civil-engineering-materials-pdf/
[12].http://worksaccounts.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Materials-for-Civil-and-
Construction-Engineering.pdf
[13]. https://www.scribd.com/document/389130753/Property-of-Civil-Engineering-Materials-
pdf
25
26
Chapter 2. Cementing materials
2.1 Use of lime, gypsum, and cement
 Lime
Lime is a cementing material used as a binding agent in construction works when it is
mixed with inert materials like sand. Lime is not found in a free state in nature but in the
form of a compound with other impurities. Lime is produced by burning limestone or
calcareous materials. Limestone seashells and chalk are the usual raw material for lime.
 Classification of lime
Lime is classified into three categories which are:
a. Fat lime
b. Hydraulic lime
c. Poor lime
a) Fat lime
The lime with high calcium content is classified as fat lime; it is also called high
calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime, and white lime. The volume of the fat line
increases two to three lime of its original volume after slaking.
The process of changing the quick lime to hydrated lime by adding water to
quicklime is called slaking.
CaCO3 + heat CaO + CO2
CaO + H2O (Ca (oH)2.
During the process of burning limestone, carbon dioxide will be driven off as a
gas, and calcium oxide (CaO) is left in the form of lumps and which is known as
quick limes and when water is added to quick lime it will be first crack, swell, and
27
turns into powder with cracking sound. This final product of powder produced is
called slaked lime or hydrated lime.
Properties of Fat lime
1. It hardness very slowly
2. It has a high degree of plasticity
3. It slakes strongly
4. The color of pure lime is white
5. If it is exposed to air, it tends to set very slowly.
b) Hydraulic lime: It is produced by burning clay limestone. Hydraulicity of

Hydraulic lime is due to the presence of clay materials.
It slakes very slowly without producing considerable heat or noise. It is not

perfectly white. The hydraulic lime is special type of lime has the capability of
setting underwater. It may also be used in powdered form for plasterwork. It can
be used for the preparation of mortar which is used for brickwork.
c) Poor lime: Poor lime is also defined as impure lime. It contains about 10 to 40 %
excess clay impurities. Poor lime forms a thin paste with a mortar and does not
dissolve in water. Its color may not be white and possesses inferior plasticity.
 Use of lime
In most civil engineering works like concrete construction, mortar preparation for
masonry work, and plastering works, cement and lime are important binding materials.
When cement is mixed with water chemical reaction will takes place and bind the
aggregate together and form stone-like material in the form of concrete and cement
mortar after the hydration process is completed.
Fat lime used in
i. Whitewashing,
ii. Plastering walls.
iii. As lime mortar with sand for pointing masonry works etc.
28
iv. Hydraulic lime is used
v. For works underwater
vi. for plasterwork
vii. Preparing mortar for brickwork.
 Production of Lime
A production of lime includes the burning of the raw limestone and then slaking.
Depending on the quantity of heat and the process of slaking, the product can be
classified as hydraulic or non-hydraulic lime. The raw material is burnt in a vertical kiln
like the one shown in the figure below.
o Quick lime/ Commercial lime
Quick lime is obtained by burning the limestone in vertical kilns to a temperature of

1000oC. The CO2 is liberated from the mix; leaving the CaO that is known as quick
lime or caustic lime. Quick lime is white and has a specific gravity of about 3.40.
Figure 2-1 Lime Kiln
29
o Hydrated/Slaked lime
Quick lime can never be used for construction purposes before hydrating to form
hydrated lime. This process of hydrating quick lime is termed slaking or hydration of
lime. The product of lime after hydration is called calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2] and
is called slacked or hydrated lime. Hydrated lime can easily be made into plaster or
mortar by mixing water and sand to form a temporary plastic mass. There are two
types of hydrating the quick.lime which are; Wet-slaking and Dry-slaking, depending
on the amount of water added.
I. Wet-slaking
Lime can be slaked or hydrated at the construction site by mixing quick lime
with an excess amount of water and the resulting slaked lime should be passed
through a fine sieve to remove slow hydrating particles and then left to mature
for several days.
This can be made by prepare dug under the ground or by using a watertight
box. The lime must be continually stirred by a shovel or a stick during the
slaking process to reduce all unhydrated particles which might hydrate later in
the construction and cause cracking, set against, and disintegration.
II. Dry-Slaking
Dry slaking is the process of slaking quick lime by adding sufficient water in a
controlled manner in a factory. Depending on the presence of impurities in dry
slaked lime, the specific gravity of hydrated lime varies from 2.08 to 2.40.
Preserving Quicklime
Quicklime has great demand for water and will rapidly absorb moisture from
the surrounding air and becomes air-slaked and loses its cementing qualities.
For this reason, quick lime must therefore be kept in a dry place and protected
carefully from dampness until it is used.
30
Setting and Hardening of Lime
Slaked lime becomes hardened or sets by gradually losing its water through
evaporation and absorbing CO2 from the air, thus changing back fromCa (OH) 2
to CaCO3 or limestone. The cycle of burning, hydrating, and hardening
becomes complete for changing the quicklime to hydrated lime and setting.
Burning
CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2
Slaking
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 +Heat
Setting
Ca(OH)2 +CO2 CaCO3 +H2O
Figure 2-2 Complete Cycle of Lime used as a Cementing Material
 Gypsum Plasters
It is used in arts and in building construction. Gypsum is found as a mixture of sulfate of
lime with water of crystallization.
31
It occurs naturally as either hydrous sulfate of lime (CaSO 4.2H2O) which is generally 75
% CaSO4 and 24% H2O or as anhydrate (CaSO4).
The gypsum rock typically comprises silica, alumina, lime carbonate, carbonate of
magnesia, iron oxide, and other impurities. A gypsum rock should contain at least 65% of
CaSO4.2H2O by weight of the total mass to be used as a row material to gypsum
production. Alabstor is the name given to pure gypsum it is a white glowing crystalline
mineral and is soft that it can be scratched with a fingernail. By heating pure gypsum, its
specific gravity becomes increased from 2.3 to approximately 2.95 due to the loss of water
of crystallization.
 Manufacture of Plasters
Gypsum plasters can be obtained by heating the raw material of gypsum at either
moderate or large temperatures, the final results being plaster of Paris or hard-finish
plaster
o Plaster of Paris (Stucco)
Gypsum that contains a high amount of water of crystallization (as much as

24% by wt.) is classified as Plaster of Paris (Stucco).
A semi- hydrated plaster is obtained if part of the water is driven off at a

temperature just above the boiling point of water-100oC, is classified as
plaster of Paris.
(CaSO4.2H2O) + Moderate heat CaSO4.½ H2O+ 1½ H2O
The color of the plaster of Paris is a white powder and has a specific
gravity of 2.57. This type of plaster is known as low-temperature gypsum
derivative or semi-hydrated plaster.
CaSO4.2 H2O
32
CaSO4½ H2O
Figure 2-3 Complete Cycle of Gypsum used as plaster
o Hard-finish plaster
If gypsum is burning to a significantly higher temperature, anhydrous sulfate

which is known as anhydrous plaster, or high-temperature gypsum products is
produced.
(CaSO4.2H2O)+High CaSO4+2H2O
Plaster of Paris sets very rapidly when mixed with water while hard-finish
plaster sets too slowly.
 Cement
The cement is a product obtained by mixing desired proportion of calcareous and
argillaceous materials and crushing the clinkers which are formed by burning at high
temperatures. When cement is combined with water and aggregate it forms a hardened
stone-like material, which is called concrete.
 Composition of Portland cement
Ordinary Portland cement contains the following chemical ingredients:
1. Lime (CaO)
2. Silica (SiO2)
3. Alumina or clay (Al2O3)
4. Ferrous oxide (Fe2O3).
5. Magnesium oxide
33
6. Alkalies (soda and potash)
7. Gypsum (CaSO4)
8. Sulphur trioxide
 Uses of cement
Cement is an important construction material in the construction industry and it has a

verity of uses, the followings are the most common uses among the many other uses:
 Preparation of mortar for all kinds of masonry plastering, pointing, and

ornament works, etc.
 Preparation of plain and reinforced concrete.
 For the construction of columns, beams, slabs, lintels, etc.
 It can also be used for the construction of engineering structures like bridges,
dams, docks, and highways,
 Construction of retaining structures, water reservoirs, swimming pools,
precast concrete elements, etc.
 For the preparation of artificial bricks floor tiles, repair works, etc.
 Used as whitewashing material in ceramic tiles construction
 Telephone cabins etc.
 Manufacture of pre-cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artificially designed
containers, flowerpots,
 Construction of different types of rigid pavement
2.2 Types and properties of cement
 Types of cement
As a construction material cement is classified into different types based on its composition
and its uses. The followings are the most common types of cement used in civil
engineering construction works:
 Ordinary Portland cement
 Rapid hardening Portland cement
34
 Low heat Portland cement
 Sulfate resisting Portland cement
 Pozzolanic cement
 White Portland cement
 Colored Portland
 High alumina cement
 Ordinary Portland cement
The most common type of cement used in construction now a day in the
world is ordinary Portland cement. This type of cement is manufactured by
burning or heating limestone (calcium carbonate) in combination with other
materials like (Silica SiO2, Alumina or clay Al2O3, Ferrous oxide Fe2O3,
Magnesium oxide, Alkalies, soda, potash, and Sulphur trioxide ) in small
quantities at about 1450°C in an inclined kiln, this process known is known
as calcination. The proportion of the ingredient materials is predetermined
before mixing and feeding into the kiln. In this process, water is liberated in
the form of evaporation and next carbon dioxide is liberated from calcium
carbonate to form calcium oxide this is known as quick lime and then
blended with other materials that have been comprised in the mix. As a
result, a small ball-like hard substance is formed and is known as a clinker
and then grounded by adding a small amount of gypsum (CaSO 4) to control
the flash setting of the cement. The final product is named ordinary Portland
cement.
In the manufacturing of concrete and mortar, Portland cement is the major

constituent with other ingredients like fine and coarse aggregate and
sometimes admixture is used. Concrete is a complex material containing
aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. Concrete can be formed in
almost any desired shape, and once it is hardened, can become a structural
(load-bearing) element.
35
Portland cement is grey or white. This type of cement should not be used in
the place where there is an exposure to sulfate,
Free lime exists in ordinary Portland cement resulting in unsoundness in the

cement.
The percentage of (AL2O3/Fe2O3) is limited to 0.66.
Insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.5%.
The percentage of SO3 is limited to 2.5% when C3A is less than 7% and not
more than 3% when C3A is greater than7%. Loss of ignition should not be
greater than 4%. The maximum percentage of Mg is 0-5%. The fineness of
cement particles should not be less than 2250 cm2/g.
 Rapid hardening Portland cement
Rapid hardening Portland cement differs from ordinary Portland cement by

the following physical, chemical, and mechanical properties:
i. Rapid hardening Portland cement is finer than ordinary Portland

Cement
ii. Rapid hardening Portland cement contains more C 3S are less C2S than
ordinary Portland cement.
iii. The 3 days strength of rapid hardening Portland cement is the same as
7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement.
 Low heat Portland cement
This type of Portland cement generates low heat as low as 50cal/gm of

cement, whereas heat generated in ordinary Portland cement is 80 cal/gm at
the end of the third day. Low heat Portland cement contains a small amount of
C3S and a larger amount of C2Swhen compared to ordinary Portland cement as
a result it will reduce the heat of hydration and delay setting.
36
 Sulfate resisting Portland cement
This type of Portland cement has maximum C 3A content of about 3.5% and is
finer than ordinary Portland cement. When ordinary Portland cement is used
underwater and with soil that contains sulfate, there will be a chemical
reaction between the ingredients in the cement, and the sulfate forms sulpha-
aluminates which have expansive properties and causes the disintegration of
concrete. To overcome this problem sulfate resisting Portland cement is the
best solution. For this cement, the slag obtained from a blast furnace is used.
During the production of this type of cement, the clinkers of cement are
ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag. Its strength in the early days is
little and as a result, it requires a longer curing period.
 Pozzolanic cement
This type of Portland cement is manufactured with the addition of pozzolanic

materials at about 10-20% by weight of the total weight of ingredient materials
and it has high resistance to chemical attack due to the reduced amount of lime.
It develops less amount of heat and exhibited less strength at an early age but it
will result in the same strength at 28 days and onwards when compared to
ordinary Portland cement. It has less resistance to weathering action.
 White Portland cement
The ordinary Portland cement is gray due to the presence of iron oxide. In
white cement, the amount of iron oxide is limited to 1%, and Sodium alumina
ferrite is added to use as flux in the absence of Iron-Oxide. It has rapid drying
property with sufficient strength and exhibits high aesthetic value. White
Cement is used where there is ceramic work and whitewashing.
 Colored Portland cement
In colored Portland cement, the desired color may be obtained by mixing

mineral pigments with ordinary cement. The quantity of coloring pigment may
vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage of the coloring pigment exceeds
10%, the strength of cement will be affected. Brown, red, or yellow color of
37
Portland cement is a result of iron oxide found in it in different proportions.
The colored Cement is widely used for finishing works.
 High alumina cement
High alumina cement is produced by penetrating clinkers formed by calcining

bauxite and lime. It can stand high temper applications. If develops great heat
during setting. For this reason, it is not affected by frost.
 Configuration of Cement clinker
Cement clinker is obtained by firing various constituents of cement-making substances

at a high temperature of bout1450 0C. Compounds of cement are formed during the
burning process and these compounds have the properties of setting and hardening in the
presence of water.
These Composites are as follows:
 Tricalcium silicate or C3S,
 Dicalcium silicate or C2S,
 Tricalciumalluminate or C3A and
 Tetracalcium alumino ferrite or C4AF
 Tricalcium silicate
In cement production to get good quality cement, it is necessary to burn the

cement-making materials at the required temperature. . In ordinary Portland
cement the content of tricalcium silicate is best cementing material. The
content of tricalcium silicates in Portland cement is about 25-50% (normally
about 40 percent) of the total cement by weight. It renders the clinker to be
easily grounded; tricalcium silicate also increases the resistance of freezing and
thawing, increase the hydration process, and generates high heat and resulting
in an early hardness and strength. However, increasing the amount of C 3S
content that exceeds the specified limits increases the heat of hydration and
solubility of cement in water. The hydration process contribution of C 3S is
mainly responsible for 7 days or early strength and hardness. The rate of
38
hydration of C3S and the character of a gel developed are the main causes of
the hardness and early strength of cement paste.
 Dicalcium silicate
Dicalcium silicate constitutes about 25-40% (normally about 32 percent) of the

total weight by weight of ordinary Portland cement. The rate of heat of
hydration of dicalcium silicate is slow when it is related to tricalcium silicate.
It takes a long time to contribute to the strength (after a year or more) due to its
properties related to slow hydration and hardens, the strength contribution of
dicalcium silicate at an early age is slow and not significant. It contributes
resistance to chemical attacks. Increasing the content of C 2S will result in
reducing clinker harder to grind, reducing early strength, decreasing resistance
to freezing, thawing at early ages, and decreasing heat of hydration. The
Hydration process of C2S is slow compared to tricalcium silicate. At an early
age, less than a month C 2S has little influence on strength and hardness. But
after a year, its contribution to the strength and hardness is proportionally
almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration of dicalcium silicate is 260 J/g.
 Tricalcium aluminate
The amount of tricalcium aluminate is about 5-11% (normally about 10 percent)

of the ordinary Portland cement. It reacts readily with water and has
responsibility for the flash set of cement. The flash setting action is controlled
by the addition of 2-3% of gypsum at the time of grinding clinker. The initial
setting is affected by tricalcium aluminate since it generates a high amount of
heat of hydration and has a greater tendency to volume changes and resulting in
cracking. Raising the amount of C3A content will minimize the setting time,
reduces the sulfate resistance, and reduce the ultimate strength, and contraction
during air hardening. The heat of hydration of tricalcium aluminate is 865 J/g.
 Tetracalcium alumino ferrite
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite contributes about 8–14% (normally about 9

percent) of ordinary Portland cement. The responsibility of Tetracalcium
39
alumino ferrite is signifante for flash setting but it generates less heat. It has the
poorest cementing values the strength slightly affected by raising the C 4AF
content. The generation of heat of hydration of C4AF is 420 J/g.
 Chemistry of Portland cement

In the chemistry of cement, the chemical formula for the compound which intricate the
calcination and hydration reactions are written in the capital letter these letters correspond
to the abbreviation of oxides. These standard symbols are listed in the table below.
Tricalcium silicate can be written as C 3S, dicalcium silicate as C2S, tricalcium aluminate
as S3A tetra calcium alumino ferrite asC3AF.
 Chemistry during the formation of clinker
Several chemical reactions can be identified during the processing of Portland

cement. During the calcination process, the calcium carbonate from the limestone and
sometimes from marl gives off carbon dioxide generating free calcium oxide or
quicklime (CaO).
CaCO3(s) + heat CaO+ CO2(g)↑
At the same time, clay materials and sand release silica (SiO 2), alumina (Al2O3), and
iron sesquioxide (Fe2O3) and lose their constitutive water (H2O). During melting,
these oxides produce four new definite stoichiometric synthetic minerals according to
the following chemical reactions listed below,
3CaO + SiO2 Ca3(SiO5) ≡ C3S
2CaO + SiO2 Ca2(SiO4) ≡ C2S
3CaO + Al2O3 Ca3Al2O6 ≡ C3A
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 Ca4Al2Fe2O10 ≡ C4AF
All types of Portland cement the cements contain the main five synthetic minerals
which are:
o Tricalcium silicate is named alite with the chemical formula [Ca 3(SiO5) ≡ C3S]
40
and has a rapid heat of hydration, for this reason, tricalcium silicate is
responsible for the initial set and early strength of the cement.
o Dicalcium silicate named belite or larnite with the chemical formula

[Ca2(SiO4) ≡ C2S] with slow heat of hydration and slow hardening process
and provides to the concrete its late strength beyond one week.
o Tricalcium aluminate with the chemical formula [Ca 3Al2O6 ≡ C3A] the
hydration and hardening of tricalcium aluminate is quick with a high
exothermic reaction which hydrates and hardens the quick set with a highly
exothermic reaction that produces a large amount of heat almost immediately
and hence it contributes to the early strength of the cement. In addition, it is
responsible for the workability of the mortar and acts as a fluxing agent
assisting the melting of the clinker during calcination.
o Gypsum [CaSO4.2H2O ≡ CSH2] is hindering too rapid setting (i.e., flash

setting). The hydration of C3A without gypsum would cause Portland cement
to set almost immediately after adding water that why it is necessary to add
gypsum from 3-4% during grinding of clinker.
o Tetracalcium aluminoferrite [Ca4Al2Fe2O10 = C4AF] has no major hydraulic

properties and remaining to its iron oxide content provides the gray color to
cement.
2.3 Chemical reaction of cement in water and its results
So far, we have discussed cement in powder form but the material of interest in practice is the
cement paste. This is the product of the chemical reaction when cement is brought in contact
with water. What happens is that in the presence of water the silicates and aluminates of Portland
cement form products of hydration and hydrates, which in time produce a firm and hard mass,
the hardened cement paste. As stated earlier, the two calcium silicates (C 3S and C2S) are the
main cementations compounds in cement, the former hydrating much more rapidly than the
latter. The product result of hydration of C3S is the microcrystalline hydrate C3S2H3 by separating
some lime as crystalline Ca(OH)2. C2S behaves similarly but contains less lime. Nowadays, the
41
calcium silicate hydrates are described as C-S-H (Previously referred to as tobermorite gel). The
estimated hydration reactions can be written as follows:
For C3S
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3 Ca(OH)2
[100] [24] [75] [49]
For C2S
2C2S + 4H C3S2H3 + Ca (OH)2
[100] [21] [99] [22]
The presence of Ca(OH)2 will make the cement pastes highly alkaline (pH 12.5). This is the
reason why ordinary Portland cement pastes are sensitive to acid attacks. The high pH index also
makes cement pastes provide good protection to embedded steel against corrosion. This will give
importance to reinforced concrete constructions.
The numbers shown in the square brackets are the equivalent masses, and on this basis, both
silicates require approximately the same amount of water for hydration, but C 3S produces more
than twice Ca(OH)2 is formed by C3S as is formed by the hydration of C2S.
In common with many chemical reactions, the hydration of cement compounds is exothermic,
and the quantity of heat (in Joules) per gram of unhydrated cement, evolved upon complete
hydration at a given temperature, is defined as the heat of hydration.
The temperature at which hydration starts significantly affects the rate of heat generation, which
for practical purposes is more important than the total heat of hydration, the same total heat will
be generated over a longer period can be dissipated to a greater degree with a consequent smaller
rise in temperature will be resulted in.
For the usual range of Portland cement, about one-half of the total heat is liberated between 1
and 3 days, about three-quarters in 7 days, and nearly 90% in 6 months.
42
The generated heat of hydration depends on the chemical composition of the cement and is
almost equal to the summation of the heat of hydration of the each pure compound when their
quantities by mass are hydrated distinctly.
Table 2.1. Typical values of generated heat of hydration of different

compounds of cement
Heat of hydration
Compound
J/g Cal/g
C3 S 502 120
C2 S 260 62
C3 A 867 207
C4 A 419 100
F
It follows that by reducing the proportions of C3A and C3A, the heat of hydration (and its rate) of
cement can be reduced.
The fineness of cement affects the rate of heat development but not the total amount of heat
which is liberated can be controlled in concrete by the amount of cement in the mix (richness).
It can be observed that there is no relation between the heat of hydration and the cementing
properties of the individual compounds.
As we have said, the two compounds primarily responsible for the strength of hydrated cement
are C3S and C2S, and the convenient rule assumes that C 3S contributes most to the strength
development during the first four weeks and C 2S influences the latter gain in strength. At the end
of about a year, the two compounds i.e. C 3S and C2S, mass to mass, contribute about equally to
the strength of the four pure compounds of cement.
However, in comparison to the forecast of the heat of hydration of cement from its essential
compounds, it has not been found possible to predict the strength of hydrated cement on the basis
of the compound composition.
43
Initial and final setting times are defined based on or characterized by observation and
experiment instead of theory by using a cement paste of standard consistency.
For ordinary Portland or rapid-hardening Portland cement, the initial setting time should not be
less than 45 minutes a period related to the time after mixing required for placing, compaction,
and finishing of concrete. And the final setting time should not be more than 10 hours.
2.4 Production of cementing materials
They are two grinding processes that are commonly used to manufacture Portland cement these
are dry process and wet process. The selection of the appropriate process is determined by the
composition of raw material available at the plant location, especially its moisture content. For
instance, the wet process is used for chalk or clay owing to their higher levels of moisture, while
the modern dry process is achieved for dry materials (i.e., less moisture content) such as
limestone. After the completion of grinding the raw material, the ground powder material is
heated to the temperature of 260 0calcination and is manufactured by heating at about 900 0C to
start the chemical reaction to takes place. During calcination, the maximum temperature can
reach 1450–1550°C, and in some regions, the charge is partially melted, and it emerges as a
vitreous (i.e., glassy) material, i.e., the clinker, mostly composed of calcium silicates and
aluminates is a small protruding knob, lump, or swelling product. After rapid cooling, the clinker
is mixed with 2–4 wt. % gypsum, [CaSO4 2H2O] to regulate the setting time, and the final
mixture is ground in a finish ball mill to a fine powder. The subsequent powder is known as
Portland cement. Manufacturing of cement is done by following processes.
44
Table 2.2. The average chemical composition of Portland cement
Common letter designation of cement oxide

components
Oxide (common name) common Formula
name) Symbol
Silicon dioxide (silica) SiO2 S
Aluminum sesquioxide Al2O3 A
(alumina)
Iron sesquioxide Fe2O3 F
(haematite)
Iron oxide (wustite) FeO f
Calcium oxide (calcia, CaO C
lime)
Magnesium oxide MgO M
(magnesia)
Sulfur trioxide SO3 S
Sodium oxide (soda) Na2O N
Potassium oxide (potash) K2O K
 Dry Process
1) In the production of the raw materials are crushed by grinding mill by proper
proportion
2) After crushing then the blended is sieved & fed into the rotating mill with 12% water
45
3) Then it is passed through the rotary kiln with presence of heat
4) Finally clinkers were obtained
5) After cooling the clinkers & mixed with 3-4% gypsum & then pulverized.
 Wet process
1) In wet mixing raw materials: At this stage, 10% of chalk and 30% of clay that contains
some amount of sand, ferric oxide, magnesia, etc. are crushed, grounded and then mixed
uniformly, and then it is thoroughly mixed with water. The water is then dried out in an
oven.
2) Burning of the above dried slurry is being brought to in a rotary kiln. Kiln will rotate
about its longitudinal axis.
3) Grinding: In this of process, the clinkers obtained from rotary kiln are ground to fine
powder in ball mills and tube mills. During grinding, about 3 to 4% of gypsum is added.
Gypsum acts as a retarder. The final product obtained is cement.
Figure 2-4 Typical schematic figure of kiln for the production of cement
46
Assessments
1. Which one of the following is true?
A) Fat lime is used for work under water
B) Fat lime is used for preparing mortar for brick work
C) Fat lime is used for white washing,
D) Fat lime is used for concrete preparation
E) Hydraulic lime used for concrete preparation
2. Which one of the following is used to control for flash setting of Portland cement during
the grinding of the clinker?
A) Ferrous oxide (Fe2O3)
B) Magnesium oxide
C) Alkalies (soda and potash)
D) Gypsum (CaSO4)
E) Sulphur trioxide
3 The process of changing of quick to a usable construction material called _____________.
A) Slaking
B) Burning
C) Hydration
D) A and C
47
E) Grinding
4. Which one of the following is not included as an impurity in gypsum?
A) silica,
B) Hydrous surphate of lime
C) alumina,
D) lime carbonate,
E) carbonate of magnesia,
5 Which one of the following constituent material of Portland cement is responsible for early
strength of concrete?
A) Tricalcium filicate C3S
B) Tricalcium alumino ferrit C3AF
C) Dicalcium silicate C2S
D) Tri calcium aluminate C3A
E) None
6. Which one of the following constituent material of Portland cement responsible for let
strength of co crete ?
A) Tricalcium filicate C3S
B) Tricalcium alumino ferrit C3AF
C) Dicalcium silicate C2S
D) Tri calcium aluminate C3A
E) None
48
7. Which one of the following chemical reaction takes place during slaking of lime?
A)CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2
B) CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 +Heat
C) Ca(OH)2 +CO2 CaCO3 +H2O
D) 2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3 Ca(OH)2
E) CaSO4.2H2O+High CaSO4+2H2O
8. Which one of the following compounds are responsible compounds for strength?
A) C3AF And C2S
B) C3A and C3AF
C) C3S and C2S
D) C2S and and C3A
E) C3AF C3S
49
Subjective Type question
1. What is cement ? Explain the function of ingredie.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
2. What are the various types of cement? Explain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. State the classification of lime and their uses
50
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
4. Differentiate between fat lime and Hydraulic lime
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. Differentiate between dry grinding processes and wet grinding process of raw material in the
manufacture Portland cement.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
6 State the difference between Plaster of Paris (Stucco) and hard finished plaster.
51
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
52
References
[1].https://www.cemnet.com/public/courses/srm01L1/story_content/external_files/Cement
%20Raw%20Materials.pdf
[2]. https://www.dot.state.mn.us/materials/manuals/concrete/Chapter1.pdf
[3]. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/pubs/013683.pdf
[4]. http://www.eng.cu.edu.eg/users/aelsayed/Cementing.pdf
[5].https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286381802_Cement_Manufacturing/link/
56684daa08ae9da364b86060/download
[6]. https://intrans.iastate.edu/app/uploads/2018/08/3aGee-CementManufacturingOverview.pdf
[7]. https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/old/ap42/ch11/s06/final/c11s06_1995.pdf
[8]. https://gaftp.epa.gov/ap42/ch11/s17/final/c11s17_1995.pdf
[9]. https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch11/final/c11s17.pdf
[10]. https://www.entrepreneurindia.co/Document/Download/pdfanddoc-247497-.pdf
[11]. https://www.ctc-n.org/sites/www.ctc-n.org/files/resources/4f76e68f-0c14-4488-92be-
1d6b0ae4f5bb.pdf
[12].https://www.ncshs.org/events/workshop/lectures/1.%20Classification%20of%20building
%20lime,%20properties%20of%20lime%20and%20comparative%20analysis.pdf
53
54
Chapter 3 Mortar, concrete, concrete making
materials, and mix design
3.1Cement and lime mortar
3.1.1Deferent types of mortal
The mixture of cementing material (i.e. Cement and Lime), sand, and water that forms a plastic
paste is defined as mortar. Mortar can be trowelled and becomes hard after the chemical reaction
takes place between the cementing material and the mixing water. It is used for bedding and
jointing masonry units as well as plastering. Mortar can also be used for other purposes and it
will be discussed letter. It was known that the function of a mortar is to bind or to stick masonry
units together and to be used as a plastering material for the plane surface like a wall, but this
was only a small part of its function. The joints between the masonry units should give a cushion
for spreading the loads uniformly, especially with soft bricks and stones. They should behave as
a wick to pull out moisture from a wall and make available a good surface for evaporation. In
this way, they will take unsafe soluble salts away from the masonry units and can act as a
sacrificial material.
For the mortar to meet its purpose, the mortar must be sufficiently soft, porous, and more
permeable material than masonry units.
In modem constructions, the application of impermeable mortars with large compressive strength
and better adhesions is more common, but in traditional construction, the building forms are such
that very little strength was required from the mortar.
This was due to their shape and thickness providing building forms that depend almost entirely
on compressive stresses. The use of soft mortars, made from pure or 'fat' limes is beyond direct.
The cement mortar harden in two ways, firstly by simple drying through losing their plasticity
and then by the process of carbonation of lime; some part of the calcium hydroxide reacts with
carbon dioxide from the air in the presence of moisture, to form a fine calcium carbonate matrix.
55
Mortar is a homogenous mixture and it is produced by mixing a binding material (cement or
lime) with fine aggregate (sand, etc.) and adding water for completing heat of hydration and to
make the paste workable.
Common properties of Good mortars
a. Good mortars should be readily workable.
b. Good mortars should develop sufficient strength in tension and compression.
c. Good mortar should be capable of evolving adequate designed stress.
d. Good mortar should set quickly.
e. After setting it should be hard and durable.
f. It must stick or bind the masonry units properly.
g. It should be economical.
h. Mortars should remain without any defect and good appearance for a long
period.
i. Mortar should accomplish the capability of resisting the entrance of rainwater

inside.
j. The surface plastered with mortars should have the capability of protecting the
masonry joints by forming an impermeable covering.
k. It should be uniform.
 Tests on mortar
The following test for mortar should be conducted when mortar is used as a bedding
material or masonry work, plastering work, and other construction works:
 Flow test
 Compressive strength test
 Air content test
 Setting time test
56
 Flow Test
The mortar flow test uses a specially designed table that is frequently raised
and falls down with a known quantity of mortar on it. Through the flow test,
the mortar will spread or flow over the table to form a circular mass, and the
diameter of the mass will be measured and compared to the initial size and the
increase in dimensions expressed as a percentage of the original size:
For common mortars, the essential flow is 110%. The flow test is conducted
recurrently, using a fresh batch of mortars each time until the desired flow is
achieved. The quantity of water demanded to attain flow record, and this
mortar then tests for compressive strength.
 Compressive strength Test
This is possibly the most related test to evaluate the performance of fly ash
since the concrete value is mainly for its high compressive strength, and the
presence of pozzolanic material in the mortar produced additional cement and
thus higher strengths.
After the mortar achieved proper flow the mortar was placed and compacted
into bronze cube-shaped molds for the test. By using a trowel the surface of
each cube should be finished, and then the molds placed into a curing cabinet.
The molds stripe from the cube specimens after 24 hours of curing. Finally, the
compressive strength tests are done at specified curing intervals, usually 1 or 3
days, 7 days, 28 days, and 56 days.
 Air Content test
For testing mortar, the preparation has a similar procedure as for compressive
strength. If the flow is within the expected range, then some parts of the mortar
are placed and compacted into a brass cup of predetermined volume, and the
mass of the cup mortars is determined.
After that subtracting the mass of the cup and determining the density of each
component, the air content of the mortars by calculation. The test result report
57
it is expected to get the quantity of Air Entraining Admixture to get a mortar
air content of 18%.
 Setting Time test
The taking time after mixing the mortar to the time at which the mortar begins
to harden is called set time. In most cases, this test is conducted on cement paste
but it can also be used in mortar. This test is accomplished by taking
measurements of the penetration of a steel needle into the paste or mortar over
several hours. Vicat apparatus is the equipment used to measure the setting
time of cement paste and fresh cement mortar.
The penetration value is measured in mm and if the penetration value of the

needle into the cement paste reaches 25mm or 10 mm for mortar, the material
has arrived at its “initial set”. The time required to attain this degree of hardness
is reported as the test result
Different types of mortars are used in masonry construction based on different

factors as follows:
o Based on Applications
o Based on Binding Materials
o Based on Bulk Density
o Based on Strength (ASTM C270)
58
Figure 3-1Type of mortar for masonry works
Based on Application
I. Mortar for Bricklaying or Stonemasonry Lying
Such type of mortar is used to lay bricks and stones masonry construction. The
mix proportions of ingredients materials for bricklaying or stone laying mortar
are decided based on the type and grade of cementing material used for a
particular purpose.
a.Brick Lying or
b. Stone Laying Mortar
II. Mortar for Finishing works
Mortar can also be used for Finishing purposes such as pointing and plastering
works. It is also used for decorative effects of building to give good appealing
appearances. The mortar used for decorative finishing should have good strength,
flexibility, and resistance against atmospheric action like rain, wind, etc.
59
Figure 3-2 Finishing Mortar
Based on Binding Material
I . Cement Mortar
Cement mortar provides a good medium to make a smooth surface on walls

made from bricks or other forms of masonry. In such type of mortar, cement is
used as a cementations material, and sand is used as a fine aggregate. The
proportioning ratio of cement to sand is decided based on the required
durability and working conditions as well as the function of the plastering.
Cement mortar will give high strength and resistance against water compared
to lime mortar. The proportioning ratio of cement to sand may range from 1:2
to 1:6.
The following procedure involves the preparation of cement mortar:
a. First Select the required raw materials
b. Then proportioning of ingredients of cement mortar
c. Finally mixing of ingredients
Even though there are different types of materials available for the production
of Cement mortar, it is necessary to assure that weather the appropriate
materials are carefully selected as per the type of construction and its purpose.
60
For common types of cement mortar Portland cement is usual cement.
Ordinary Portland cement is most appropriate for common construction
purposes.
During choosing mortar materials sand must be of sufficiently good quality

and it should be free of impurities like clay, dust, oxide of irons, etc. It must
be cleaned completely before mixing with cement, to do this washing the sand
is a usual practice.
The function of sand in cement mortar is to provide strength, and resistance

against shrinkage and cracking. It provides the majority of content to mortars,
hence making it economical. Using a large volume of cement as the content of
sand is not only expensive but also impractical due to its generation of high
heat of hydration. The generation of high heat of hydration results in a crack
in the mortar.
To prepare a good quality mortar proper mixing procedures should be applied.

To prepare cement mortar, cement and sand are properly mixed in their dry
condition. Water is then added gradually and mixed using a shovel. The water
used for preparing mortar should be free from clay and other impurities.
Manual mixing (hand mixing) or mechanical mixing (machine mixing) can be

used to mix the cement mortar.
Hand mixing is commonly used for small construction. In large quantities and
where there is a large need and continuous order, mechanical mixing is
required.
After laying masonry units and applying plastering work with cement mortar,
it is very important to keep the mortar moist because cement gains its strength
through the hydration process between cement and water. So, it is necessary to
observe that the mortar remains wet until the hydration process is completed.
After placing the mortar, the process of ensuring adequate moisture for
hydration is called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying or any other method
61
of supplying water to the cement-based mortar. Plastering work generally is,
cured starting from 6–24 hours after the application of the mortar for use. In
the beginning, more water is required for the hydration process, which can be
reduced gradually due to the reducing effect of the hydration process with
increasing time. Curing for cement mortar is recommended for a minimum of
7 days.
II. Lime Mortar
Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material. There
are two types of limes used for mortar preparation which are fat lime and
hydraulic lime. Fat lime in the lime mortar requires 2 to 3 times of sand used
in hydraulic lime mortar and it is used for dry work. Hydraulic lime and sand
in the ratio of 1:2 ratios will give good results in damp conditions and are
also suitable for the areas where much water is present. The lime mortar has
higher plasticity than cement mortar so more workable and can be placed
easily.
a. Properties of Lime Mortars
Hydrated lime or lime putty is the type of lime that does not have the
capability of setting underwater. It is not hydraulic as hydraulic lime
and Portland cement. For a lime-sand mortar to harden, it must first
lose its excess water by pulling out of the backing material and
evaporating into the atmosphere, which makes it stiff, and then
carbonate, finally resulting in the hardening of the mortar.
Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) + CO2 (gas from atmosphere) ⇒ CaCO3

(calcite)
Lime-sand mortar produces a highly plastic and workable mortar that is

preferred by masons and plasterers. Lime will hold on to the water with
a water retention requirement of 85% wet, which promotes an even
moisture loss due to suction or evaporation.
62
Over time, lime-sand mortar produces a surface coating of calcium
carbonate. It is formed at the beginning but also tends to build up as
calcium hydroxide saturated water is moved to the surface and
carbonates. This surface is often referred to as discoloration and is
almost marble-like, and it provides excellent resistance to water
penetration but allows for vapor penetration. Similarly, fine cracks that
might be developed are filled with a calcium hydroxide saturated
solution, and carbonate, autogenously self-healing the crack.
The most obvious use of lime-sand mortars is for masonry repair,

particularly for repointing of structures that used lime-sand. Where the
masonry unit is a very dense stone, lime-sand mortar provides the
optimum route for moisture/vapor transport, resulting in drainage. For
the same reason, lime-sand mortars should always be considered first
before using exterior stucco is applied for important masonry.
Figure 3-3 Lime Mortar
b. Uses of lime mortar in construction
1) Pointing
The method of wall finishing greatly affects the final appearance of the
built surface. The measure of pointing finishes ranges from exposing as
much of the stonework as possible, to spreading the stonework across
63
its face with the lime mortar. There is an extensive diversity of surface
finishing methods used.
Several methods were used, one of which is exposing as much of the

stonework as possible to finishing. This will create a wall which was
more capable of resisting erosion. The lime mortar readily filled any
irregularities in the construction, at the same time reducing the external
surface area of exposed lime on the face, thereby predominately
creating a stone weathering skin.
At its most basic, fresh mortar is simply used across the face of the
emerging surface to infill the low points of the rough rubble face.
Connecting across the high spots greatly reduced the visible exposed
stone face.
2) Rendering
Rendering or harling is similar to a certain extent to pointing.

Rendering is applied to the outside of the structural surface for
protection and appearance. A lime render layer with fine stones is
applied to the face of the surface. After the render has been set, the
stones become fixed, this provides a covering layer. However, this is
not always the case for some structural surfaces. Rendering a structural
surface using a hard material like cement can lead to erosion of the
stonework as some parts of the surface are not meant to be covered.
3) Lime wash
Lime washing involved the routine, annual brushing of slaked lime,

watered down to a creamy consistency and sometimes, waterproofed
with additives, such as tallow. As a result structural surfaces frequently
built up a thick, weathering skin due to successive applications.
This process controls water absorption, surface run-off, and the quantity
of light reflected. Lime washing is not for protection but the look of
64
cleanliness, but has been used for good reason on lighthouses due to its
reflecting properties.
4) Plastering
Lime plaster is used to increase prevailing situations in solid masonry

walls. The lime plaster smoothed over the rough interior of the masonry
wall, giving an even appearance. For the application of decorative
painted work clay or a mixture of clay and lime gave greater durability
and a more solid substance
III. Gypsum Mortar
Gypsum mortar is produced by mixing hard finished plaster and soft sand
as binding material and fine aggregate. Usually, gypsum mortar exhibits
low performance in wet situations.
Uses of gypsum mortar
Gypsum mortar is used in plastering of internal wall, fixing marble

grouts and wallboard production. Gypsum Plaster is designed for use
in a variety of masonry backgrounds.
Figure 3-4 Gypsum Mortar
65
IV. Compo mortar
Compo mortar is produced by mixing the basic three substances that are
lime, cement, and sand, cement and lime are used as a binder material
and sand is used as fine aggregate. Compo mortar is essentially lime
mortar and its strength increased by adding cement it is more workable
than cement mortar due to the presence of lime. Eventually, such kind of
mortar will have high plasticity due to the presence of lime and high
strength due to the cement. The mixing ratio between cement to lime
varies from 1:6 to 1:9, and it decreases the cost.
Common constituents of compo mortar are Portland cement, lime, and

fine sand, here cement and lime are used as binding material and sand is
used as filler. Using lime to mortar increases the plasticity and
workability of the mortar and also gives a high degree of cohesiveness it
can also spread easily under the trowel.
Compo mortar is a slower hardening than cement mortar, but it has a high
degree of flexibility which improves the masonry work to accommodate
stresses caused by structural movement and cyclic changes without
excessive cracking.
When hydrated lime reacts with carbon dioxide of the atmosphere

through several chemical reactions like carbonation it forms limestone
and pozzolanic cementations reaction and also can occur between
hydrates lime and silica compound in mortar mix.
i. Types of compo mortar
There are four types of compo mortar according to their compressive

strength and ratio of cement, lime, and sand
66
And these are:
1. Type _ O compo mortar,
2. Type _ N compo mortar,
3. Type _ S compo mortar and
4. Type _ M compo mortar.
1) Type O compo mortar:- this type of mortar is used for the non-
load bearing structure above the ground, usually it is used for internal
structural surface plastering or partition of structural surface and
general work. The compressive strength of O-type compo mortar is
about 350 psi or 2.4 Mpa. The mix ratio for O-type compo mortar is 1
parts cement to 2 parts lime to 9 parts sand which is represented as
1:2:9 (1 cement: 2 lime: 9 sand).
2) Type – N compo mortar:- this type of mortar is used for

lightweight load and supporting work above the ground level
application, generally it is used for rendering or plastering of brick-
made surfaces and brick or block work. The compressive strength of
N-type compo mortar is 750 psi or 5 Mpa. And N-type compo mortar
has The mix ratio of 1 parts cement to 1 parts lime to 6 parts sand
which is represented as 1:1:6 (1 cement: 1 lime: 6 sand).
3. Type – S mortar:- this type of compo mortar is used for load-

bearing structures below the ground level application, usually it is used
for the base for foundation and retaining wall. This type of compo
mortar has the compressive strength of 1800 psi or 12.4 Mpa with the
mix ratio for S 2 parts cement to 1 parts lime to 9 parts sand which is
represented as 2:1:9 (2 cement: 1 lime: 9 sand).
4. Type – M compo mortar:- this type of compo mortar is used for the
denser load-bearing structure below the ground level application,
usually it is used for foundation and retaining wall. The compressive
strength of M mortar is 2500 psi or 17 Mpa with the mix ratio of 3
67
parts cement to 1 parts lime to 12 parts sand which is represented as
3:1:12 (3 cement: 1 lime: 12 sand).
Figure 3-5 Type of M mortar
Figure 3-6 Type of S Mortar
68
V. Aerated Cement Mortar
This type of mortar is a cement mortar in which an air entraining agent is

added to increase plasticity and workability. The resulted mortar is termed as
aerated cement mortar.
Based on Bulk Density
1. Heavyweight Mortar
If the mortar has a bulk density of 15 KN/m 3 or more it is categorized as

heavyweight mortar. In this type of mortar heavy quartzes are used as fine
aggregate.
2. Lightweight Mortar
If the mortar has a bulk density of less than 15 KN/m 3, it will be categorized as
light mortar. Lightweight mortar is produced by mixing lime and/or cement as a
binder, sand, and lightweight material like sawdust, or asbestos fibers. Based on
Strength (ASTM C 270) standard Lightweight mortar is generally used in
soundproof and heatproof constructions.
3.1.2 Use of cement mortal
Cement mortar is widely in masonry work, plastering, repairing spoiled concrete, fill patching,
external and internal plastering, floor leveling works, and the production of precast concrete
products. Cement mortar primarily consists of cement as a binder, sand as an inert material,
water for mixing, and fibers with the size of fine-grain material less than or equal to 2 mm. it is
possible to use binding materials like cement, lime, or mixed cement and lime. Chemical
admixtures can also be used for modifying different properties of the fresh and hardened mortar
chemical admixtures used depending on the application.
69
Cement mortar is used for the following purposes:
 To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, blocks, floor tiles, and plastering works
 Cement mortar uses to distribute in uniform load over the lower bricks.
 Cement mortars were used to lay bricks and stones in masonry work.
 It also provides waterproofing against cold weathering conditions.
 Cement mortars use as plaster or impermeable covering for walls and roofs.
 For different types of pointing work to prevent ingresses of water into the joints of
bricks and stone masonry.
 Cement mortars use to repair cracks of any structure.
 It uses to improve the general appearance of the structure.
 It is also used for various ornamental works to improve the general appearance of a
structure.
 To fill cracks and joints in the wall.
 Cement mortar provides quality finishing work to wall and concrete work.
3.1.3 Composition of mortar
Constituent materials of Cement mortar
The constituent materials for cement mortar are cement, sand, and water with different
proportions so the proportioning of materials is a very important consideration. Proportioning is
defined as the comparative quantity of different constituent materials of mortar to be mixed to
produce a good mortar.
Following are the proportioning of cement mortar which is commonly advised to be used for
different works:
 Proportioning for masonry Construction:
 For ordinary masonry and brick and stonework– 1:3 to 1:6
 For special type of brickwork (reinforced brick) – 1:2 to 1:3.
70
 For all work in saturated condition – 1:3
 For Load supporting (bearing) structures – 1:3 or 1:4
 Proportioning for plaster Work:
 For External Plaster– 1:4
 Internal Plaster 1:5 -1-6
 Proportioning of Flooring Work:
 Mortar ratio of 1:4 to 1:8 (cement: sand, water to be judgmental),

depending upon the thickness of the tile
 Constituent materials for Lime mortar
Lime Mortar is composed of lime, sand, and water and the proportion of these
constituents is depending on the function of the mortar. The combination of lime putty
and aggregate (sand) is known as traditional lime. In a modern lime mortar, the lime
mortar mix is 1:3 which means 1 part lime to 3 parts clean and well-graded sand.
The following conditions are responsible for shrinkage and cracking of the lime mortar:
 Due to poor grading of the sand or using finer particle size
 Making the plastering too thick
 Too much suction from the substrate (a substance that is acted upon in a
biochemical reaction)
 In a condition where there is a very hot atmospheric condition and due to

exposing the face of plastering to direct sunlight.
 Due to using a high amount of water for mixing the lime mortar mixes
because lime mortar requires high water.
 Using the un matured slaked lime results in Poor quality plastering
 Using poor quality sand with high silt content
 The method of mixing lime mortar using powder should use the following procedure:
 First, measure the required amount of sand and mortar as per the
requirement in terms of their mix proportion
71
 The dry ingredients of the materials should be mixed exhaustively first
before mixing with water to coot the sand with lime.
 Make reserve some portion of the dry ingredient materials by taking it

from your mixing bowl. This will be added in later to adjust the dryness of
the mix.
 Measure the necessary quantity of water. This amount of water will

depend on the mix design.
 First, add about 2/3 of the mixing water to your dry ingredient materials
and mix carefully till even consistency is achieved.
 And add the reserved dry ingredient materials and/or the outstanding water
to get a mix as your preference.
 Make a test on the prepared mortar by taking some amount from the mix
by using, your trowel, or rub the mortar with your hand to see how much
moisture comes to the top surface.
3.1.4 Characteristics of cement mortar
One of the most important properties described of mortar is its workability or plastic consistency
which makes the mortar easy to spread on the surface and this is done by conducting a constancy
test. A workable mortar that has good consistency will spread without any difficulty with a
trowel; stick to vertical surfaces during handling, placing, and bedding; maintains good
placement when other units are placed on it, and provides a waterproof and locked joint when
tooled.
Once the mix proportions have been established, the addition of water should be steady to
improve mortar placement without losing the capability to support the masonry unit. A sufficient
amount of water content promotes friendly contact between the unit and mortar, which is vital
for an acceptable bond. Even though water content is responsible for the workability of a mortar,
cementations materials, aggregate gradation, and air-entrainment also contribute to a lesser
degree.
72
The capability of the water retention of the mortar indicates the ability of the mortar to maintain
its plasticity when subjected to the existing atmosphere or the absorption of water by a concrete
masonry unit. Mortars with low water capability of retention become stiff within a short time,
and this makes it difficult for the mason or the plasterer to work with the mortar. Mortars with
good water retention capability characteristics let the mason or the plasterer to use the mortar
easily and meet the required purpose for the mortar. The water holding capacity of the mortar is
dependent on the properties of the cementing materials, grading of sand, and mix ratio of mortar.
Using of admixture has also grate contributed to the water holding capacity of mortar.
The time gap between applying a mortar bed and placing the masonry block or plastering work
should be kept to a minimum because the workability of the mortar will be reduced and the
mortar become stiff due to heat of hydration occurring during the chemical reaction between
cement and water and due to the absorption of water by the surface on which the mortar is going
to be applied and absorption of water by the block to be laid. If too much time is spent before the
mortar is used for plastering work and block lying work the binding effect of the mortar will be
reduced.
There will be also evaporation of the mixing water from the mortar and it is required to mix the
mortar with additional water. This is not harmful as far as it is used before hydration of the
mortar. To avoid the stiffening effects of hydration, mortar should be placed immediately within
30 minutes after mixing.
For the cement mortar to meet its purpose, the following attention should be made while using
cement mortar:
 The mortar should be used within 30 minutes after mixing the mortar with water
because the setting process begins immediately after adding water. Otherwise, its
strength will gradually decrease.
 Before putting in place the structural units, i.e. bricks and stones they must be
saturated in water because the cement requires a sufficient amount of water for the
process of hydration. If dry masonry units are placed on the mortar, they will
absorb water from the mortar very quickly, which will have a weakening effect on
the mixture and its strength will get reduced. The mortar should be kept wet at
73
least for 7 days.
 Properties of lime mortar
Lime mortar is not as strong in compression as Portland cement-based mortar, but both
are sufficiently strong enough for construction purposes like plastering and non-load
bearing masonry work.
Lime mortar does not have the strong binding capability as Portland cement for masonry
work. This property makes lime mortar advantageous for softer types of masonry unit
work since at the end of the life of the masonry unit, it is simple to pull out some masonry
units without any difficulty. The mortar is an element that is weaker than the bricks so it
will crack before the bricks.
During cracking as a result of small movement, Portland cement disrupts, but lime
frequently produces many micro cracks. These micro-cracks recrystallize through the
action of 'free lime' which exists in the lime mortar and effectively self-healing the
affected area.
Since lime mortar is more porous than cement mortars, it draws up any dampness in the
wall to the surface where it evaporates. Thus any salt content in the water will crystallize
on the lime, and damage the lime. On the other hand, cement will release water into the
atmosphere less than soft brick, for this reason, dampness issues will cause the salt
formation and spalling on brick surfaces and resulting disintegration of bricks. This damp
evaporation ability is called 'breathability'.
Since lime mortar takes a long time to set it should not be used below temperatures of 5
°C (41 °F) and it should also be protected from freezing for three months after it is used.
Hydraulic lime has the capability of fast setting it may not need as much time before the
freezing temperatures start.
Frequently any dampness in the wall plastered or placed with lime mortar will result in
color change, and if there is color change this indicates the presence of moisture. The
effect will create a frequently spotted appearance of a lime-washed wall. The darker the
shade of lime washes, the more pronounced this effect will become.
74
3.2 Concrete
3.2.1 Constituents materials for concrete
Concrete is made up of three components materials which are, aggregate, cement, and water.
Aggregates are classified into two groups which are fine aggregate and coarse aggregate. About
60 to 80 percent of the total volume of concrete is occupied by aggregate and about 20 to 40
percent of the concrete is occupied by a cement paste.
Freshly mixed and hardened properties of Aggregate are strongly influenced by, mixture
proportions, and economy. Fine aggregates commonly comprise natural sand or crushed stone
(artificial aggregate) with most particles smaller than 5 mm (0.2 in.).
Cement paste is composed of cement; water and entrained air (admixture). The following topic is
dealing with the component of concrete which are coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement, and
water.
 The function of aggregate In Concrete
Mainly concrete contains aggregate which imparts strength to the concrete such that
aggregate is the most essential element for concrete production. The aggregate gives the
mass to the concrete; it minimizes shrinkage and affects the cost of the concrete and the
total economy. Aggregate provides strength and long-lasting properties to concrete.
Aggregate in concrete occupies .around 70-80 percent of the total volume of concrete,
and the impact of aggregate is reflected on various characteristics and properties of
concrete are, undoubtedly considerable. Before analyzing the properties of concrete it is
necessary to get knowledge about the aggregates which constitute a major volume of
concrete. Without having the necessary understanding of the properties of aggregate it is
not possible to get complete information about the properties of concrete.
The definition of aggregates can be concluded as the crushed stone and natural gravel
which is used in concrete as inert materials. The constituent material which provides
strength to the concrete is aggregate.
75
 Types of Aggregates
 Aggregate is classified into the following groups:
⁃ Types according to the source.
⁃ Types according to the unit weight.
⁃ Types according to size.
⁃ Types as per to shape the aggregate
o Types of Aggregates based on their Source
1. Natural Aggregates
This type of aggregates is commonly used in the natural state having rock
garbage or is used after mechanical processing such as crushing, washing, and
sizing. Some naturally occurring aggregates are known as pit-run gravel and
they consist of gravel and sand that can be easily used in concrete after a little
processing. Natural occurring sand and gravel are commonly burrowed or dug
up from a pit, river, lake, or seabed.
2. Crushed Rock Aggregates
The aggregate of crushed rock is commonly dug or quarried from stone that
has been crushed and screened to the favorite standard particle size and
distribution. The crushed aggregate is crushed by using crusher. Crushed
aggregate has good compaction and load-bearing properties. These types of
aggregates are generally suitable to construct the different layers of streets,
roads, and other areas exposed to traffic.
3. Artificially produced Aggregates
Artificially produced Aggregates are made from various waste materials.

Artificial aggregate is occasionally contrived for constructing special work: –
⁃ To manufacture lightweight concrete, fired clays, artificial ashes, foamed slag,

stretched out shale and slate, fly ash formed by pressure and heat below the
melting point to bond and partly fuse masses of metal particles, or be bonded
in this way exfoliated vermiculite is used.
76
⁃ To produce high-density concrete such as steel rivet stamping and iron ore
(Magnetite) have been used.
4. Aggregates produced by recycling materials
This type of aggregate is produced by crushing materials obtained from

construction demolishing and is known as Recycled aggregate. It is commonly
described as recycled concrete aggregate if it is largely made from crushed
concrete and recycled aggregate if it comprises considerable quantities of
materials different from crushed concrete.
The properties of recycled aggregates properties may be different based on the

types of concrete because the original concrete was intended for its purposes
such as porous, durable, and high strength concrete
The process of aggregate recycling is humble there is no difficult method

involved. This process the method includes breaking, removing, and crushing
prevailing concrete into a material with a definite size and quality.
Commonly the following are some of the uses of recycled aggregate without
processing:
⁃ Many types of general bulk fill
⁃ Bank protection
⁃ Base or fill for drainage structures
⁃ Road construction
⁃ Noise barriers and embankments
Uses of Recycled aggregates for new concrete include:
⁃ The shoulders of pavements, sidewalks, median barriers, curbs,

and gutters
⁃ Bridge foundations
⁃ Concrete bases
⁃ Bituminous concrete.
77
o Types of Aggregates based on their Unit Weight
The aggregates are also classified based on their unit weights. In this topic,
aggregates are classified based on their unit weight is lightweight, normal-weight,
and heavyweight aggregates
o Types of Aggregates as per their Size
During the mix proportions, the size of aggregate used should be taken into
consideration for a different type of work since aggregates are available in nature in
different sizes and the particle size distribution of aggregates is known as grading of
aggregates. According to their size aggregates are classified into 2 types. And these
are as follows:
– Fine aggregate
– Coarse aggregate
1. Fine Aggregate
During the sieving of aggregate through a 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate that
passed through it is classified as fine aggregate and the aggregate which is
retained on the sieve is classified as coarse aggregate. Natural sand is generally
used as fine aggregate; silt and clay have also come under this category but in
concrete production, the amount of silt should be as small as about 3-6%. The
very fine deposit consisting of fine sand, silt, and clay is termed loam. The
function of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to
make the concrete mix workability.
78
Figure 3-7 Fine aggregate
2. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate is defined as aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve when

sieving the aggregate; under this category gravel, cobble and boulder included.
The largest size of the aggregate used in concrete is depending on the purpose
of concrete and on the prevailing atmospheric condition at which the concrete is
produced. For normal concrete 40mm size aggregate is used and for heavy
weight 20mm size aggregate is used.
Coarse Aggregate can be obtained in the form of
⁃ Natural gravel
⁃ Crushed stone
Table 3.1. Range of various sizes of coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm
Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm
Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm
79
Cobbles 64mm – 256mm
Boulders >256mm
Figure 3-8 Course aggregate
Ideal coarse aggregate will have the following properties
⁃ Sufficiently strong and hard to withstand the applied loads

⁃ Chemically inert so it is not broken down by reactions with substances
when it comes in contact with
⁃ Does not shrink or swell because the volume is stable
⁃ Bonds tightly with asphalt and Portland cement paste
⁃ Contains no impurities or weak particles
⁃ Would be the perfect size and gradation for the application intended
⁃ Would be locally available and economical
o Types of aggregates according to shape are classified as under,
Aggregates are also classified based on the shape of the aggregates. The
followings are the different types of aggregate as per their shape:
⁃ Rounded aggregates
⁃ Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
⁃ Angular aggregates
⁃ Flaky aggregates
80
⁃ Elongated aggregates
⁃ Flaky and elongated aggregates
1. Round aggregate
The rounded aggregates are totally nature shape and available in the form of seashore
gravel. This aggregate allows minimum percentages of voids (32–33%), hence
provides more workability to the concrete product.
They also perform well with a low water-cement ratio. These kinds of aggregates are
not taken as suitable to produce high-strength concrete due to its poor interconnecting
behavior and weak bond strength. The void of these types of aggregates may vary
from 35 to 37% of the bulk volume .of the aggregate.
Figure 3-9 Irrigular aggregates
2. Irregular Aggregates
Irregularly shaped aggregate provides lesser workability when compared to rounded

aggregates. Relatively it has higher bond strength compared to rounded aggregate
but not as essential for high strength concrete.
81
Figure 3-10 Angular aggregates
3. Angular Aggregates
It is the strongest aggregate for concrete making due to its well defined edges and
these are acquired by crushing the rocks. These aggregates offers maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability.
Angular aggregates have high specific area when compared to rounded aggregates.
Due to greater specific surface area angular aggregate exhibits higher bond strength
than rounded aggregates. In addition, angular aggregates have a better interlocking
property in concrete that adds to the strength of concrete.
4. Flaky Aggregates
Flaky aggregates are the aggregates whose thickness is less than the length and
width of the aggregate when compared, and if the least dimension of aggregate is
less than the 60% of its mean.
5. Flaky and Elongated Aggregates
If length of aggregate is larger than its width and length is larger than its thickness
then it is said to be flaky and elongated aggregates.
82
Figure 3-11 Elongated and Flaky aggregates
 Physical properties of aggregates
1) Shape and size

Classification of aggregates based on of shape and size has been discussed before.
In the coming topic the discussion of the impact of shape and sizes of aggregates on
concrete will be presented.
Besides shape of aggregate the size of aggregate may have a substantial effect on
the strength and workability of the concrete in its fresh and hardened state. This is
preferable for both fine and coarse aggregate. The maximum size of the coarse
aggregate which should be used not exceed 1/4th of the minimum thickness of the
structural member or shouldn’t be greater than 5mm less of the minimum clear
spacing between reinforcements in Reinforced Cement Concrete structure.
Using the maximum possible size of the aggregates will assistances in reducing
(binding material) cement content, reducing water requirements, and minimize
shrinkage and creeping due to drying of fresh concrete.
On the other hand, the high amount of coarse aggregate may reduce the workability
of concrete during application. Using a coarse aggregate of nominal size 20mm and
sand as fine aggregate is recommended for normal concreting to get more better
soundness, compactness, band, and workability of concrete, .
83
Figure 3-12 Properties of aggregate
By the same token, the shape of aggregate grains has also affect the workability of
the concrete in its fresh state and its durability, strength, and bonding in the hardened
state. As mention above in the classification of aggregate the shape of aggregate can
be classified into rounded, irregular, angular, flaky, elongated, and flaky elongated.
Every group of aggregate produces different properties and can have different
requirements. The shape of the aggregates can be observed by visual inspection and
different other parameters and this will indices like roundness index, sphericity,
angularity number, flakiness index, elongation index, etc.
The demand of cement in rounded aggregates is less for constant W/C ratio due to
their smaller specific surface area and low angularity number. Total surface area per
unit weight of aggregate is defines as specific surface area. The measurement
specific surface is surface index of aggregate and it gives an indirect measure of
grading of aggregate.
When compared to rounded aggregates, angular aggregates have high angularity

numbers and higher specific surface area obtainable for proper bonding between
cement paste and aggregates along with better interlocking properties which makes
84
them more preferable shape for aggregates in the production of concrete but, the
increase of such angularity number will decreases the workability of the concrete.
Even though Flaky and elongated aggregates ensure larger specific surface areas, it
lacks proper interlocking properties due to their shape. Flakey and elongated
aggregates have a more angularity number than angular aggregates due to this they
will registered low workability.
For this reason, we cannot make good concrete with these types of aggregate. So,
flaky and elongated aggregates should be avoided to be used as concrete making
materials.
2) Surface texture
The nature of the aggregate to which the surface of the particle is: polished or dull,
smooth or rough is measured by the surface texture of an aggregate. The grain size,
hardness, and pore characteristics of the parent source rock largely affect the surface
texture of a crushed aggregate.
As it is stated above it can be grouped as Glassy, Smooth, Granular, Rough,

Crystalline, and honeycomb. The water requirement of the concrete mix and its
workability in its fresh state is affected by the surface texture of both fine and coarse
aggregate.
Aggregates with rough texture surface will form more strong bonds with cement paste
compared to another textured aggregate due to the presence of voids and pores.
3) Specific gravity
Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as .the ratio of the weight
of oven-dried aggregates to the weight of equal volume of pure water.
An oven-dry aggregate is found by drying the field aggregates in the oven for 24
hours at 100°C to110°C. This ratio gives the apparent specific gravity of the
aggregates as it includes the volume of void which is impermeable which does not
include capillary voids present in the aggregates.
85
On the other hand an absolute specific gravity includes the solid material present in
the aggregates i.e. without including any voids and pores.
The apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate is determined in the field and lab
using .A pycnometer is used to determine the apparent specific gravity of fine
aggregate in the field and a laboratory that comprises of a 1L jar with a sealed metal
conical screw lid having a small hole at the apex of the cone. On the other hand, the
apparent specific gravity of coarse aggregate is determined by using the wire basket
method consists of a wire basket and a gas jar.
The ranges specific gravity of many of the natural aggregates is between 2.6 – 2.9.
But for light weight aggregate which is used for light weight concrete may be below
this range. Suitability and quantity of the aggregates for the given volume of
concrete can be determined by the specific gravity of aggregate.
Usually, aggregates which have higher specific gravity are compact, dense, strong,
and which contains have minimum voids and lesser water absorption capacity, such
that they can be termed as important aggregates. When compare aggregates with
higher to lower specific gravity, lower specific gravity aggregates can be porous,
weak, and highly water absorptive.
4) Bulk density
Bulk density or also called unit weight or unit mass and is the density of the
aggregate at a certain degree of compaction. It has the same numerical value to the
specific gravity of the aggregate. The unit of bulk density is kg/m3 in the
construction field. Bulk density is an important parameter to convert weight batches
to volume batches.
To determine the bulk specific gravity an aggregate first fill a unit volume
cylindrical container with aggregates at a specific degree of compaction and since
the degree of compaction is directly proportional to the bulk specific gravity by the
time of filling the container, accordingly has been divided into categories of loose
and compact bulk density.
86
Furthermore, the bulk density of the aggregate also is affected by the particle size
distribution of and shape of the aggregate particles. The particles or grain which has
the uniform size produces more voids as a result will have lower bulk density but,
aggregates with different sizes of particles will have a minimum void and higher
bulk density.
At normal condition the bulk density at saturated and surface dry conditions can be
used to determine the void ratio. This void ratio affects the cement paste requirement
of a concrete mix.
In the same manner, elongated and flaky aggregates produce more pores than
angular and rounded ones. These increases cement content requirements. A
maximum bulk density of aggregate is obtained when the mixture contains 35-40%
fine aggregate by the total mass of the aggregate mix.
5) Porosity, water absorption and moisture content
Pores are formed by the time of formation of rocks or as a result of some natural
happenings like decomposition and fossil formation. This pore may be of different
sizes and shapes changing from one rock to another rock and may occur on the top
surface or enclosed inside the rock. It is found to vary from 0 -50% of the volume of
aggregate.
The amount and rate of penetration of water by the aggregates is affected by Size and
occurrence of pores and these results in the capability of water absorptive properties
of aggregate. The field moisture content of the aggregate will also affects the water
demand of concrete while mixing.
Dry and porous aggregates need more water than saturated or partially saturated
aggregates while wet aggregate holding free water decreases the water demand of the
concrete during mixing. Aggregates can absorb moisture from 0.5% to 25% by the
weight of aggregate.
87
 Gradation of Aggregates
Definition
Sieve analysis used for determining particle size distribution of an aggregate. If all the
particles of an aggregate have uniform size, the compacted mass will contain more voids
while aggregate comprising particles of different sizes will give a mass with lesser voids.
For good particle size distribution smaller size of aggregate should fill the voids between
the larger particles. The proper grading of an aggregate produces dense concrete and needs
less quantity of fine aggregate and cement, therefore, it is important that coarse and fine
aggregates be well graded to produce quality concrete.
The grading limits and maximum aggregate particle size should be stated because these
properties affect the quantity of aggregate as well as cement and water demands,
workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete. On the whole, if the water-cement
ratio is selected correctly, an extensive range in grading can be used without a major effect
on strength.
 The Grading Curve of Aggregates
The aggregates gradation is characterized in the form of a curve which is known

as S-CURVE. The curve indicates the cumulative percentages of the material
passing the sieves denoted on the vertical axis with the sieve openings to the
logarithmic scale represented on the horizontal axis is termed as Grading Curve.
The grading curve for a particular sample shows whether the grading of a given
sample is well graded too coarse or too fine, or deficient in a particular size.
 Types of Grading of Aggregates
o Well graded aggregate is an aggregate which has gradation close to the

FWHA maximum density grading curve.
o Gap-graded aggregate are aggregate which has a small percentage of

particles in the mid-size range.
o Uniformly graded aggregate – consists mainly of particles with the same

size.
88
o Open-graded aggregate – Comprises a small percentage of small-size
particles.
Uniform graded aggregate
Uniformly graded aggregate denotes to a gradation that comprises most of the particles
in a narrow size range. Basically, all the particles have the same size. The curve is
steep and occupies the very limited size range specified. Uniformly graded aggregates
have the following descriptions:
⁃ They have narrow range of sizes.
⁃ Grain to grain contact is weak
⁃ Large void content.
⁃ Its permeability is high.
⁃ Have low firmness.
⁃ It is difficult to be compacted.
Open graded aggregate
A small percentage of aggregate particles sizes are found in the small range in this
type of gradation of aggregates. This causes more air voids because of their small
content of fine particles to fill in the gap between the larger particles. The curve is
almost vertical at the mid-size range and flat but nearly zero in the small-size range.
Gap graded aggregate
Gap-graded aggregate contains a small percentage of aggregate particles at the range

of the mid-size and the curve is flat at this range. So as to provide more economical
mix some Portland Cement Concrete mix designs use gap graded aggregate because
less sand can be used for a given workability. In gap-graded aggregate certain particle
sizes of aggregate are omitted. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform
textures in exposed aggregate concrete. Using gap- graded aggregate will provide
uniform textures. Good attention of mix proportions is important to avoid segregation.
89
Well graded aggregate
A well gradation denotes to an aggregate sample that is about equal amounts of

different sizes of aggregate. Most of the voids between the aggregates are filled with
particles by producing a dense gradation. A Well gradation will have a smooth curve on
the graph of the gradation. Well graded aggregates have wide range of different sizes
Similarly, elongated and flaky aggregates yield more void than angular and rounded
ones. These increases cement content requirements. A maximum bulk density of
aggregate is obtained when the mixture contains 35-40% fine aggregate by the total
mass of the aggregate mix.
⁃ Good grain-to-grain contact.
⁃ Low air voids content.
⁃ Minimum permeability.
⁃ Highly stability.
⁃ It is difficult to compact.
3.2.2 Concrete admixtures
Admixtures are ingredients that are added to concrete which are different from Portland cement,
water, and aggregates to the concrete mix directly just before or during mixing. Admixtures can
be categorized by purpose as follows:
1. Air-entraining
2. Water reducing
3. Plasticizers
4. Accelerator
5. Low setting
6. Hydration-control
90
7. Corrosion inhibitors
8. Shrinkage reducers
9. Alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors
10. Coloring admixtures
Fresh Concrete should be workable, place-able, and finish-able; hard concrete also should be
strong, durable, watertight, and wear-resistant. By the selection of suitable materials, the above-
mentioned qualities can regularly be gained simply and wastefully rather than by using
admixtures except where air-entraining admixtures are required.
The major reasons for using admixtures are:
1. To reduce the cost incurred for concrete production
2. To achieve definite characteristics in concrete more efficiently than by other means
3. To keep the workability during the stages of mixing, placing, transporting, and
compacting, and to give additional special properties to the hardened concrete also make
the concrete capable to be cured in adverse weather conditions
Despite these concerns, it should be assumed that admixture of any type or amount of admixtures
can be well not thought-out as a replacement for good concreting production. The efficiency of
an admixture is governed by different factors such as type, and amount of binding agent
materials; the amount of water content; the shape of the aggregate, aggregate gradation, and mix
proportioning; time of mixing; slump; and temperature of the concrete.
Admixtures used in concrete should come across applicable specifications. Before using
admixtures trial mixtures should be made with the concrete mix at temperatures and humidity
expected on the job site. By doing this the capability of the mix to exist, live or work together
without conflict with other admixtures and concrete materials, as well as the effects of the
admixture on the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete, can be perceived. The amount of
admixture can be determined by laboratory tests.
91
 Air-entraining admixtures
Air-entraining admixtures are used in the concrete mix to intentionally create and keep the
stability of the microscopic air bubbles in concrete. Air entrainment will surprisingly
increase the long-lasting property of concrete exposed to repeatedly occurring freezing and
thawing. The resistance of concrete surface scaling due to chemical deicer is considerably
increased by using Entrained air. Additionally, the workability of fresh concrete is
increased considerably, and segregation and bleeding are minimized or eliminated.
Air-entrained concrete comprises tiny air bubbles that are dispersed uniformly throughout
the cement paste. Entrained air can be produced in concrete by adding air-entraining
cement during the manufacturing of cement, by adding an air-entraining admixture, or by a
combination of both methods. Air-entraining cement is a type of Portland cement that has
an air-entraining in it by grinding with the clinker during manufacture. On the other hand,
an air-entraining admixture is a mixture that is added directly to the mixture of the concrete
either before or by the time of mixing
The efficiency of water reducers on concrete is a function of their chemical composition of

cement and fineness, the temperature of concrete, composition of the admixture, cement
content, and the presence of other admixtures.
 Moderate water-reducing admixtures
Moderate water reducers were first presented in 1984. These admixtures deliver a .major
reduction of water will happen while using moderate water-reducing admixtures the
reduction will be between 6 and 12% for concretes which have slumps of 125 to 200 mm
(5 to 8 in.).
Normal water reducers are proposed for concretes which have slumps of 100 to 125 mm
(4 to 5 in.) to reduce adhesiveness and improve finish ability, pumpability, and place
ability of concretes containing silica fume and other supplementary cementing materials
using moderate water reducers can be the best solution.
92
 High-range water-reducing admixtures
High-range water reducers may be used to provide induced characteristics by normal

water reducers, much more efficiently. They reduce a great amount of water demand and
cement contents and then may result in a low water-cement ratio, as a result, high-strength
concrete with normal or enhanced workability can be produced. By using these mixtures it
is possible to reduce about 12% to 30% of mixing water.
The reduced amount of water content and water-cement ratio can yield concretes with:
(1) Concrete which has ultimate compressive strengths above 70 MPa (10,000 psi),
(2) Will increased early strength gain,
(3) Reduced chloride-ion penetration, and
(4) Reduce the water-cement ratio of concrete
High-range water reducers are generally more effective than regular water-reducing
admixtures in producing workable concrete. A substantial reduction of bleeding can result
in large reductions in water content; this may cause finishing problems on flat surfaces
when there are rapid drying conditions. A few of these admixtures can cause substantial
slump loss. The possibility of significant retardation may happen but can exaggerate
plastic shrinkage cracking without proper protection and curing. The drying shrinkage,
chloride permeability, air preservation, and strength development of concretes with high-
range water reducers are analogous to concretes without them when compared at constant
water-cement ratios (reduced cement and water contents).
 Plasticizers
Plasticizers, frequently called excellent plasticizers, are essentially high-range water

reducers. Such type of admixtures is added to concrete with a low to normal slump and
water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing concrete is a highly
fluid but workable concrete that can be placed with little or no vibration or compaction
while remaining essentially (3-in.) slump concrete can effortlessly yield a concrete with a
230-mm (9-in.) slump.
93
Plasticizers are generally more effective than common or mid-range water-reducing
admixtures in making flowing concrete. The effect of some plasticizers in increasing
workability or making flowing concrete is short-lived, about 30 to 60 minutes; this period
is followed by a rapid loss in workability of slump loss. Also, slump loss deteriorates with
high temperatures. Plasticizer admixtures are free of extreme bleeding and segregation
because of their tendency for losses of the slump
The followings are some of the applications where flowing concrete is used:
(1 ) For the application of thin-section placements
(2) Areas of closely spaced and congested reinforcing steel,
(3) Termite pipe (underwater) placements,
(4) Plasticizer increasing lift and distance capacity of pumping concrete for pumped
concrete,
(5) Handling costs will be minimized.
The efficiency of the plasticizer is increased with an increasing amount of cement and
fines in the concrete. Plasticization is also influenced by the initial slump of the concrete.
 Retarding admixtures
Retarding admixtures is applicable to reduce the rate of setting of concrete. They are often
the cause of an increase in the rate of hardening which makes the operation of placing and
finishing difficult due to High temperatures of fresh concrete (30°C [86°F]). One of the
most practical methods to counteract this effect is to decrease the temperature of the
concrete by cooling down the mixing water and/or the aggregates. Retarders cannot
decrease the initial temperature of concrete. The amount of retarder affects the bleeding of
concrete, as the retarder increases bleeding will decreases.
The main function of retarding admixture is to extend the setting time of concrete, but
they are frequently also used to decrease slump loss and extend workability, specifically
earlier to placement at high temperatures.
94
Retarders are sometimes used to:
(1) Offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete;
(2)For special purposes concreting like exposed aggregate surface retarder provides
a delay of setting.
 Hydration-control admixtures
Hydration-control admixtures consist of two types of chemical systems:
(1) The first one is a stabilizer or retarder that is importuned for hindering the
hydration of cementing materials, and
(2) The other one is an activator that reestablishes normal hydration and sets by the
time of adding to the stabilized concrete. The stabilizer can interrupt hydration for 72
hours and the activator should be added to the concrete mix before the concrete is
used for application.
 Accelerating admixtures
If someone needs to improve, the hydration process, early development of the strength of
concrete at an early age using an accelerator is the solution. The early age strength
development of concrete can also be accelerated following methods:
(1) Using Type III or high-early-strength cement,
(2) Minimizing the water-cement ratio by using additional cement from 60 to 120
kg/m3 to the concrete,
(3) Using a water reducer, or
(4) Curing at higher temperatures.
The usual chemical used in accelerating admixtures is, especially for non-reinforced
concrete.
95
In addition to accelerating strength gain, calcium chloride causes results in drying
shrinkage, possible reinforcement corrosion, staining (a darkening of concrete), and an
increase in the potential for scaling.
Calcium chloride is not an antifreeze agent. Attempts to protect concrete from freezing by
this method are unwise. Instead, proven reliable precautions should be taken during cold
concreting.
The application of calcium chloride should be used with caution:
1. Concrete exposed to steam curing
2. Concrete containing embedded, unlike metals, particularly if electrically linked to

steel reinforcement
3. If the concrete slabs are supported on everlasting galvanized steel forms
4. Stained (colored) concrete
Calcium chloride as admixtures that contain soluble chlorides never be used for the
following purpose:
1. Garages
2. For prestressed concrete because of possible steel corrosion hazards
3. For concrete that contains embedded aluminum, serious corrosion of the aluminum
can result, particularly if the aluminum is in direct contact with embedded steel and
the concrete is in a moist situation
4. Concrete which is exposed to soil or water that contains sulfates
5. For massive concrete placements
 Corrosion inhibitors
Corrosion protector (inhibitors) is used for concreting of different constructions the

followings are the common ones:
96
– for parking structures,
– marine structures, and
– bridges where chloride salts are present.
The chlorides can result in corrosion of the steel reinforcement in concrete. Ferrous oxide
and ferric oxide will be generated on the top surface of reinforcing steel in concrete. Even
though Ferrous oxide is stable in concrete’s alkaline environment, it reacts with chlorides
to form difficulties that move away from the steel to form rust. The chloride ions remain
attacking the steel until the passivating oxide layer is devastated. Corrosion-protecting
admixtures chemically stop the corrosion reaction.
⁃ Marketable available corrosion inhibitors include:
⁃ Calcium nitrite,
⁃ Sodium nitrite,
⁃ Dimethyl ethanolamine,
⁃ Amines,
⁃ Phosphates, and
⁃ Ester amines.
Anodic substances that stop or slow a chemical reaction, such as nitrites, block the
corrosion reaction of the chloride ions by chemically reinforcing and stabilizing the
passive protective film on the steel; this ferric oxide film is created by the high pH
environment in concrete. The nitrite ions cause the ferric oxide to become steadier.
In effect, the chloride ions are prohibited from getting into the passive film and making
contact with the steel.
 Chemical admixtures to reduce alkali-aggregate reactivity
Chemical admixtures to control alkali-silica reactivity (alkali-aggregate expansion) were

introduced in the 1990s which include:
⁃ Lithium nitrate,
97
⁃ Lithium carbonate,
⁃ Lithium hydroxide,
⁃ Lithium aluminum silicate (decrepitated spodumene), and
⁃ Barium salts reduce alkali-silica reaction
 Shrinkage-reducing admixtures
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures, introduced in the 1980s, have potential uses in bridge

decks, critical floor slabs, and constructions where cracks and curling must be minimized
for long-lasting or appealing reasons. Drying shrinkage reductions of between 25% and
50% have been established in laboratory tests.
Slump and air loss will not be affected by these types of admixtures but can delay setting.
3.2.3 Fresh and hardened concrete properties
 Properties of fresh concrete

Concrete is a composite product of several available materials like aggregate, cement,
water, and admixtures if required. And fresh concrete is the concrete that is found at the
stage of being molded into any desired shape and is prepared by mixing the above-
mentioned four main components in its fresh condition i.e. under the phase of its plastic
state. Concrete should stay fresh from the time of mixing up to the time concrete by which
it is used for placing, surfacing, and, finishing in its predetermined location. The other
name for concrete is “Green Concrete”.
Concrete is a very important material that can be used for different purposes with any
desired shape.
After the combination of cement and water chemical reaction will take place and results in
the generation of heat of hydration. The process changes the fresh concrete to stone-like
hardened material by holding all the constituent materials together, here the binding
material is the cement paste and the body of the concrete which contributes strength to the
concrete is the aggregate.
During the preparation of fresh concrete the following steps should be maintained:
98
⁃ Batching,
⁃ Mixing
⁃ Transporting,
⁃ Placing,
⁃ Compacting,
⁃ Surfacing and
⁃ Finishing
After all these processes have been completed the concrete should be kept moist for completing
the hydration process and, this can be achieved by adding water to the concrete starting from 6 to
10 hours on certain days. The process of keeping the moisture of concrete is known as curing.
Unless the concrete is cured for a specified period, until it gets at least 60-90% of its final
strength it will not meet its purpose.
The property of fresh concrete will affect the property the hardened state concrete. The strength
and durability of hardened concrete are affected by the proportion of the constituent materials
and the degree of compaction. Controlling these properties is essential for the long-term behavior
of the hardened concrete like; ultimate strength, elastic modulus, creep and durability.
The most important properties of fresh concrete are the following:
⁃ Setting
⁃ Workability
⁃ Bleeding
⁃ Segregation
⁃ Hydration
⁃ Shrinkage
 Setting of concrete
The setting is the process of the transformation of the cement from its plastic state to a
hardened state. The setting of the concrete is directly related to the setting of cement.
Different factors affect the setting. The setting is classified into two categories which are:
i) Initial setting and
ii) Final setting
The initial setting is the time interval by which the fresh concrete loses its plasticity.
99
The final setting is the time interval by which the fresh concrete loses its plasticity
completely and attends its firmness to resist a certain amount of pressure.
The factors affect the setting of concrete are:
⁃ The ratio between the water and the cement
⁃ The ambient temperature at which the concrete is cast
⁃ The content of the cement
⁃ The type of the cement
⁃ The fineness of the cement
⁃ Type and amount of admixture
⁃ The amount and the type of mixture used for the preparation of specific concrete
To determine the setting time there are different tests are available among those tests using
Vicat's Apparatus is the common method.
 Workability
By simple and standard definition Workability is the ease with which freshly prepared
concrete can be transported and placed for the job and compacted to a dense mass. And
Workability is the most essential and very important property of fresh concrete. This
workability will affect several properties of fresh and hardened concrete. It is a physical
property of fresh concrete which depends on the external as well as internal elements of
the concrete medium; internal elements are described by the aggregate size and particles
and the external element is described by the surface on which the concrete is applied.
The effects of workability on the fresh condition are
i) Compact ability of concrete
ii) Place ability of concrete
iii) Finish ability of concrete
iv) Transportability of the concrete mix
The effects of workability on the hardened concrete are
i) Durability (since durability is directly related to compaction)
ii) Ultimate strength of concrete
iii) Weather resistance of exposed aggregate concrete
Factors affect workability
⁃ The amount of mixing water
100
⁃ Proportioning of the aggregate mix
⁃ The properties of the aggregate
⁃ The ambient temperature
⁃ Admixteres
1. The amount of mixing water:- this is the supreme significant factor that directs the
workability of concrete. The particles of the constituent’s materials required a certain
amount of water for mixing them. The voids between the particles of the aggregate
will absorb the water and the mixture becomes lubricated, this will make the particles
move one on another easily. Since finer particle has a larger surface area, finer
particles demand more water. Losing of strength and the possibility of segregation will
happen.
2. Proportioning of the aggregate mix:- the workability of concrete decreases with
increasing the amount of aggregate relative to cement in co-concrete. Also increasing
the amount of finer particles increase the cement requirement, on the other hand
reducing the amount of finer aggregate will make the concrete harsh.
3. The properties of the aggregate:- shape, size, and texture of aggregate will also
affect the workability of freshly mixed concrete. When comparing round shape
aggregate with angular shape aggregate, the aggregate interlock between angular
aggregate is much stronger than the interlock between round shape aggregate.
Regarding workability and bond strength, concrete with angular aggregates is more
strong but less workable than concrete with round shape aggregates.
4. The ambient temperature:- the rising temperature will increase the hydration
process and, this will result in a loss of workability.
The physical and chemical characteristics of cement:- the chemical composition and
fineness of cement affect the rate of hydration but compared to the properties of
aggregate it has less important.
5. Using different types of admixture for different purposes:- Water reducing
agents, air-entraining agents, and retarders will improve workability.
101
 Workability test
 Slump test
As has been mentioned above there are several factors that affect workability of concrete.
Figure 3-13 a) The steps of filling and the application of tampling of the sump
cone
Figure 3-13 b) Levaling c) Lifting d) Measuring the slump height
True slump indicates the concrete mix has good workability and is suitable for the
placement. And this kind of mix has the proper amount of mixing water as a result the
hardened concrete will have good ultimate strength provided that the quality of the
aggregate, water, and the mix proportion are as per the mix design.
Shear slump indicates that the mix has a lack of cohesion and it tends to be a harsh mix and
it is not suitable for placement. To make this kind of mix suitable for placement it is
necessary to adjust the mixing water. Collapse mix is the type of mix with excess mixing
water and indicates the mix is a wet mix. True slump is measured ranges from 0-175 mm
102
True slump Shear Collapse Slump
Figure 3-14 Different types of slump
Table 3.2. Table shows consistancy grade
consistency grade Slump in mm Recommendation on method of compaction

Stiff 0-60 Required mechanical compaction
Plastic 60-130 Mechanical or hand compaction
Flowing 130-200 Hand compaction
Self-compacting >200 No compaction
 Compaction factor test:- is one of the methods of measuring to determine the

workability for low workable concrete. In this method, a measured volume of
the concrete is allowed to be dropped from one-hopper to the next hopper (two
hoppers and a bottom cylinder) and the volume is measured in the final hopper
at which the concrete is fully compacted. To perform this type of test is difficult
in the field and it is not applicable for a large volume of concrete.
The compaction factor test is sensitive to the resulting difference in workability
as a result of the initial process of the hydration of cement. To get the
comparable result it should be conducted at a regular time interval after the
mixing of the concrete is completed.
103
Figure 3-15 Compaction factor test apparatus
Compaction factor
¿(initial volume of concrete before compaction)/(final volume of conrete after full compaction)
Table 3.3. Table shows the relationship of degree of workability. slump and
compaction factor
Degree of Slump in mm Compaction

workability factor
Very low 0-25 0.78
Low 25-50 0.85
Medium 50-100 0.92
High 100-175 0.95
 Flow table test:- in this test the capability of flowing the concrete is measured
through the application of vibration which is placed on the flow table. The
segregation tendency information of the concrete is provided. There are several
tests applicable but any test had recognized by ASTM. In contrast to the
compaction factor test, this test is used as a highly workable test.
104
The flow table becomes wet after cleaning the top of the flow table from any
dirties and then the mold is placed at the center of the table by holding firmly to
fill the fresh concrete in two layers. During fill, each concrete layer is rodded 25
times by using 16mm diameter and 610 mm rod at the lower tamping end. And
the mold lifted and let the concrete stand on the table without support then makes
the table move up and down by 12.5 mm 15 times for 15 seconds.
Finally, the diameter of the spread concrete is measured in 6 directions to the

nearest 5 mm, and taken the average measured diameter is the flow.
The most applicable test for a large volume of concrete and which is simple to be
performed in the field is the slump test.
Figure 3-16 Steps to be followed to detrmine workability of fresh conctete by

using flow table method
 Remolding Tests: - this test is used to measure not only the concrete flow of
concrete but also to assure the conformance to a new shape.
There are two methods of molding tests which are the Vebe test and penetration
test.
Vebe test:- in this test a standard slump cone is used and the concrete is cast in
this cone and the mold is removed. And after pacing a transparent disk on the top
of the cone, let the concrete vibrate until the disk is fully covered with mortar.
105
The measured time for the mortar to completely cover the disk is defined as vebe
time. This type of test is used for low workable concretes
Figure 3-17 Vebe test apparatus
Penetration Test: - it is also called as Kelly ball penetration test; in this type of
test the measure of the penetration of some deep into concrete is taken. It is used
in the construction field. This type of test is included only In the ASTM standard.
It measures the penetration value of the quantity of 30lb of concrete in the form of
a hemispherical shape of fresh concrete. This test is conducted on an open truck
or on a platform that is not too narrow.
The penetration test can be correlated to the slump test for the measurement of
consistency of concrete. For a certain concrete sample, the correlation of the result
of the slump test to the penetration test is the value of slump is between 1.1 to
2.00 times the Kelly ball tests.
106
Figure 3-18 Kelly pall test apparatus
 Bleeding
Bleeding is defined as the coming of the mixing water to the top surface of the freshly
placed concrete and compacted just before the setting of the concrete. This happens due to
the incapability of holding the whole water by the solid particles of the constituent
materials during they settle down. As a result, the top surface of the fresh concrete after
compaction becomes reached in cement and fine aggregate. This finally causes the
hardened concrete to weak and pours and also the top part of the concrete becomes a dusted
surface. For this reason, the top surface which is covered by bleeding must be removed by
brushing and/or washing.
The following mechanisms can be applied to reduce bleeding:
i) The finishing operation needed to be delayed until the bleeding water is
completely evaporated
ii) Increase the fineness of the cement
iii) Using accelerator (Calcium chloride) to increase the hydration process
iv) Adding an admixture to form a bubble in the concrete ( using air-entraining
agents)
v) Reduce the amount of mixing water
107
Figure 3-19 Bleeding in fresh concrete
 Segregation
Segregation is defined as the separation of the fine particles of the constituent materials
of the concrete from the coarse aggregate i.e. the finer particles come to the top and the
coarser particles settle down and this results in the non-uniform mix.
Factors affecting or increasing segregation in fresh concrete:
⁃ Water cement ratio
⁃ Using an aggregate with high specific gravity
⁃ Reducing the finer particles aggregate from the mix
⁃ The particles’ size and shape
⁃ Using a high amount of coarser particles
To minimize segregation it is necessary to handle the mix properly during transporting and
taking care during placing of the fresh concrete.
The segregation will happen in two ways as described below:-
1) The coarser particles of the aggregate will be separated from the finer particles of
the aggregate by settling down of the coarser particles
108
2) The other type of segregation is the separation of cement paste from the concrete
mix and this type of segregation occurs in wet concrete mix
Causes that may result in segregation
⁃ Using a high water-cement ratio
⁃ Applying high vibration while using a mechanical needle vibrator
⁃ Dropping the concrete mix from a higher position to the lower position
⁃ Using coarse aggregate with high specific gravity
Required measures to reduce segregation
⁃ If the place of concreting is greater than 1.5 m it is necessary to use a

temporary inclined surface that will be used to transport the mix to the lower
position
⁃ If we use an inclined surface for transporting the mix ,the delivery end should
be as closer as to the area of the concrete deposit
⁃ During the placing of concrete the concrete should be placed at the location
in which it will remain at the same position and minimize the moving
distance of the concrete for work
⁃ Improve the cohesion of concrete by adding air-entrained admixture
Figure 3-20 The figure shows Segregation in fresh concrete
109
 Shrinkage
There are four types of shrinkage these are plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage,
autogenous shrinkage, and carbonation shrinkage in this topic we only discuss plastic and
drying shrinkage which are the most important properties of fresh concrete.
 Plastic shrinkage:- this type of shrinkage is the shrinkage that happens

immediately after the concrete is placed in the form while the concrete is in its
plastic state. This happens due to the evaporation of the mixing water and
absorption of formwork, aggregate, or the subgrade. This will result in volume
reduction in the placed concrete.
Unintentional vibration may occur in fresh concrete slight movement of the

formwork support this phenomenon also results in plastic shrinkage. Poorly
made concrete with high water/ cement and a large amount of water will cause
bleeding and the accumulation of the water on the surface of the concrete. This
accumulated water becomes dried and the crack will be formed, this is also can
be termed plastic shrinkage.
 Drying shrinkage:- shrinkage is a long-term process due to the long-lasting

process of the hydration process between cement and water. Due to this process,
the drying of concrete will continue until the hydration process is completed and
the concrete is completely dried. The loss of water which is continuous in
hardened concrete doesn’t cause significant dimensional change. This is known
as drying shrinkage and when we compare the dimensional change between
plastic and hardened concrete, drying shrinkage is very small even if it cannot
visible with the necked eye.
 Hardened concrete
Concrete is a highly multifaceted mixed material and its stress reaction depends not only
on the reaction of the separate components but also upon the contribution of reactions of
each component of the concrete.
If concrete is properly produced with the required mixing ratio for a particular purpose to
meet a certain standard and cured properly the hardened concrete should be strong
110
enough to resist the live and dead loads that will be imposed on it. In addition to this, the
hardened concrete must be durable enough to overcome the effect on the environment of
the surrounding area.
The quality of concrete material also affects the properties of the hardened concrete i.e. if
we use aggregate with impurity-free, pure mixing water, and good quality cement; it is
obvious that we can produce a good quality concrete that will be able to resist any applied
loads and the effect of the environment.
The quality of concrete is not only dependent on the quality of material and curing but
also on the production process and workmanship. So that it is necessary to give great
attention to the placing, handling, compacting, and finishing of fresh concrete.
 Properties of hardened concrete:
Hardened concrete has several properties; the followings are the most important ones:
 Strength
 Deformation under load:
 Durability:
 Permeability and,
 Shrinkage
These properties are going to be discussed below
o Strength
The strength of concrete can be defined as the capability of the concrete to

withstand the maximum stress it can yield when the concrete is under service.
Since concrete is very weak under tension, the compression and flexural tests
are the common tests to be implemented to check the strength of concrete.
In the compression test, the following three tests going to be measured:-
⁃ Cubes,
⁃ Cylinders and
⁃ Prisms
111
In concrete flexible tests are also be used for the prediction of the load that results in
cracking in the concrete members, even though compressive strength is considered
as the maximum compressive load that the concrete can resist per unit area.
Factors affecting the strength of Hardened Concrete:
Several factors affect the strength of concrete:
Factors affecting the properties of hardened concrete based on the effect of a

constituent of concreting materials
⁃ Type and quality of cement

⁃ Quality amount of water
⁃ Quality, amount, and types of aggregate
⁃ Admixture
⁃ Compaction:
⁃ Curing
Factors affecting the properties of hardened concrete based on the effect of a

constituent of concrete materials
Cement:
The concrete becomes a hard and strong material due to the chemical
reaction and heat of hydration of cement and water. Different types of
cement are applicable for construction purposes and these different types of
cement have different properties when they are combined with water
depending on their chemical composition, Fineness & types of cement (e.g.
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement, Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement, and
Low Heat Portland Cement). It has already been discussed in Chapter 2 of
this material.
Water:
Water is not the only factor that affects the property of concrete in the ratio
between cement and the water also affects the property of the concrete.
112
Water has two functions in the production of concrete which are
⁃ Acting as lubricant
⁃ Facilitating the hydration process
But the consideration of the water-cement ratio is very important because

the water-cement ratio has a great effect on the hardened concrete. Since
the mixing water is excess, void will be created when the water lives out
from the concrete during evaporation and the formation of this void leads
the concrete to be weak. It has been discussed in section 2.3 which deals
with the Chemical reaction of cement in water and its results.
Aggregate:
As it has been discussed previously in section 3.2.1 Constituents materials

for concrete, aggregate is the body of the concrete that will provide strength
to the concrete. For aggregate to be used as a constituent material for
concrete it should be clean, and well-graded and its quantity should be
determined by the mix design for the required intended use. The compressive
strength of hardened concrete becomes increasing by reducing the size of
coarse aggregates because the smaller size aggregate has a larger surface area
than the larger coarse aggregate and this gives more bonding area with the
cement paste.
Admixture:
As it has been discussed previously in section 3.2.2 Concrete admixtures, using

admixture in concrete has a great roll on fresh concrete but also has several
effects on hardened concrete properties.
Compaction:
Proper compaction increases the strength of hardened concrete. When the

concrete is compacted the void will be minimized by expelling the air from the
fresh concrete and increasing void implies increasing density. Density and
strength are directly proportional so that compaction increases the ultimate
113
strength of the hardened concrete. In general, the strength of hardened concrete
is affected by the degree of compaction of the fresh concrete.
Influence of curing:
Curing is the process of maintaining the water in the concrete for the complete
hydration process and the temperature as well as for controlling the speed of the
moisture from the concrete. The strength gaining of concrete largely depends
upon the heat of hydration that occurred during the chemical reaction between
water and cement. So as for concrete to gain its ultimate strength; curing play an
important role. For concrete, the curing should precede a minimum from 7days
to 28 days. The ultimate strength increases as the duration of curing increases.
o Deformation under load:
Deformation in concrete indicates the dimensional change under different stress

conditions.
Stress in any material can be formed due to one or more of the following, as
discussed in section 1.2 Nature and performance of materials under a load of
this document
⁃ Due to service conditions

⁃ Due to the environment in which the element works
⁃ Through contact with other members
⁃ Due to fluid pressures
⁃ Due to graveness or indolence forces (Self-weight of the structure).
There are two types of deformations namely
⁃ Elastic deformation
⁃ Plastic deformation
These two types of deformations will exist under normal conditions and continuous
conditions. The stress-strain relationship under normal conditions is linearly proportional
i.e. as the stress increases the deformation also increases.
114
Under continuous loading conditions, the continuous slow tensile stress results in permanent
deformation and creep, this indicates stress and strain are not proportional i.e. deformation
decreases through time.
1. Elastic deformation:
Elastic deformation is the type of deformation that returned to its original position
when the applied load is released i.e. the deformation is recoverable
2. Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation is the type of deformation that will remain deformed after the
load is released i.e. the deformation is not recoverable. This type of deformation is
very dangerous in any construction.
o Durability:
Durability in concrete is the capability of the concrete to withstand the deteriorating

processes due to the effect of external and internal factors. The external factors are
those related to the environmental interaction whereas internal factors are those
factors related to the extraction of the constituent materials or the reaction with
other materials which may react with cement, water, and other ingredients of
concrete
o Permeability:
During the production of concrete while placing and after placing concrete, porous
may be formed in the hardened concrete. The penetration of other substances from
outside may adversely affect the durability. And one of the penetrating substances is
moisture. To avoid the penetration of water, the most important measure is a
preventive measure which has to be taken during the production of concrete but this
may not be applicable for purposely created porous. In this case, a water retaining
membrane is important
To produce low permeable concrete it is necessary to keep good compaction and

curing. The presence of low permeability in concrete will affect the concrete against
115
resistance to frost action, corrosion of reinforcement, and chemical attack from the
external environment.
To produce concrete of low permeability, complete compaction and proper curing are
necessary while low permeability is important to enhancing resistance to frost action,
chemical attack, and protecting embedded steel against corrosion.
In general, the higher the strength of cement paste, the lower the permeability.
The following factors affect the permeability of hardened concrete:
⁃ The water-cement ratio

⁃ Improper and/or insufficient Curing.
⁃ Insufficient compaction.
⁃ The workability of fresh concrete.
⁃ Soundness of the aggregate
⁃ Porosity of the aggregate.
⁃ Aggregate gradation
o Shrinkage:
Shrinkage in concrete is the dimensional stability of concrete this dimensional

stability or shrinkage is of four types that are:- plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage,
autogenous shrinkage, and carbonation shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage can occur due to loss of water and it happens in two ways. The
main one is due to evaporation of water from the surface and the other one is due to
absorption of the subgrade, depending on the materials of the subgrade and
formwork, this kind of loss of water will intensify the effect of evaporation of water
from the surface of the concrete. The rate of evaporation of water from the surface
of concrete intensifies due to the combined effect of high temperature, low
humidity, and wind speed.
Drying shrinkage happens after the concrete has been hardened that is why is called
drying shrinkage. This type of shrinkage results from the continuous loss of
moisture which remains in a large capillary porous prevented. This water loss may
116
create very small or no shrinkage. In this case, negative pressure will be developed
as a result of the meniscus formed in the porous. And drying shrinkage will be
developed due to this internal pressure.
Autogenous shrinkage is the shrinkage that happens by losing the internal moisture
during the hydration process of cement and water as a result of a chemical reaction
in the cement paste. Autogenous shrinkage may result in a considerable crack if the
water-cement ratio is less than 0.4. The Autogenous shrinkage happens due to
surface tension within the capillaries in the porous. This can be prevented by using
low heat cement and shrinkage=reducing agents.
o Carbonation shrinkage
Carbonation shrinkage occurs when the wet concrete is unprotected from the
atmosphere, the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere will react with the
constituent substances of the concrete and this will result in the reduction of the
Ph value of the concrete. If the Ph becomes below 10 the reinforcement in the
concrete start to be corroded. Due to this corrosion crack will be formed and this
is what is called carbonation shrinkage crack.
 Concrete Testing
Quality assurance is an important procedure to be implemented to determine the quality of

concrete while producing concrete for different structural purposes and whether it satisfies
the standard set by the designer. The quality of concrete can be assured by performing a
strength test on the hardening concrete.
In conclusion, all the above-mentioned types of shrinkage have the capability of adversely
affecting the strength of hardened concrete.
Tests of strength in hardened concrete
There are two types of categories’ of strength test co concrete which are:
⁃ Distractive and
⁃ Non-distractive test
117
In the distractive test, the sample of concrete is subjected to direct stress it may be
tensile compressive or flexural stress after the test the sample will be destroyed on
the other hand in the non-destructive test the concrete will be tested parallel to the
casting of the concrete for compressive, flexural and tensile strength. The result of a
non-destructive test cannot be obtained immediately, the concrete sample for the test
may have different curing and compaction situation from the actual structure, the
shape and size of the concrete sample also affect the strength properties: for this
reason, the result obtained from this types of test is as reliable as a distractive test.
The variables that affect the measured strength of concrete
⁃ Method of sampling
⁃ Method of casting
⁃ Site curing of the sample
⁃ Transporting of the sample
⁃ Curing of the sample in the laboratory
⁃ Accuracy of testing
Non-distractive concrete is classified as follows:-
⁃ Penetration test
⁃ Rebound test
⁃ Pull-out test technique
⁃ Dynamic and radioactive technique
o Penetration test
The most preferable method of a penetration test is the Windsor probe

method. The equipment contains an electrically powered gun with the probe
made of hardened steel alloy, a loaded casing, a gauge for measuring the
depth of penetration of the probe, and other accessories.
Penetration has its advantage and disadvantage, the advantage is that

providing quick results to provide the maturity of in situ concrete, and the
118
disadvantage is that it provides variable result and result is not reliable or
accurate.
Figure 3-21 Windsor probe
o Rebound Tests
This type of test is used for the surface hardened tests, in this test the result
is interpreted by correlating the rebound number with the strength. The
Schmidt hammer is the instrument used to measure the rebound number.
It has also an advantage and disadvantages. The advantage of the Rebound

test is it is very simple and provides a quick result of the strength of
concrete with ±15 to ±20 percent. The result of this test is affected by the
smoothness of the surface, shape, and size of the sample, the condition of
the moisture of the concrete, the type of cement, the type of aggregate, and
the degree of carbonation of the concrete surface.
Figure 3-22 Schmidt hammer test instrument

119
o Pull-Out Tests
This type of test is done with a special strike that is used to measure the
amount of force essential to pull out a special steel shape that is embedded
in the concrete with its enlarged end at a depth of 3 inches.
The disadvantage of this test is it doesn’t measure the entire mass of the
concrete rather it provides information regarding the maturity and the
development of strength on some typical parts of the concrete, to perform
the test it is necessary to plan first .and necessary to put the full assembly
of pull-out set into the formwork. This test has the advantage of taking
measurements of the qualitative strength of concrete at the place of the
construction.
Figure 3-23 Pull out test
o Dynamic test
Now a day a modern and accurate method of hardened concrete strength

test becomes available. By this method, the time interval of ultrasonic pulse
that passes through the concrete is measured. The instrument contains a
120
pulse generator and receiver that measures the time elapsed by the
electronic measuring device.
In its application, the pulse velocity method is the perfect tool and can be
used for both conditions i.e. existing structures and constructions under
work. If there is a large pulse difference in velocity within the structure for
no deceptive reason, it is possible to conclude that there is deteriorated or
defective concrete present. High velocity is the indication of good concrete.
Figure 3-24 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester
3.2.4 Curing of concrete
Curing is the process of keeping suitable moisture content and temperature in concrete for some
time instantly after placing and finishing so that the anticipated properties may develop (Fig.
3.25). The importance of adequate curing of concrete cannot be undermined. Curing has a strong
impact on the properties of hardened concrete; appropriate curing will increase durability,
strength, water tightness, abrasion resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and
thawing and deicers. Exposed slab surfaces are particularly sensitive to curing as strength
development and freeze-thaw resistance of the top surface of a slab can be decreased
meaningfully when curing is ineffective.
121
There will be a chemical reaction that takes place which is called hydration when Portland
cement is mixed with water. The degree to which this reaction is completed affects the strength
and durability of the concrete. Newly mixed concrete generally contains more water than is vital
for hydration of the cement; however, unnecessary loss of water by evaporation can delay or stop
satisfactory hydration. The surface is principally liable to insufficient hydration because it dries
first. If temperatures are satisfactory, hydration is relatively fast for the first few days after the
concrete is placed; however, water needs to be reserved in the concrete all through this period,
that is, for evaporation to be prohibited or considerably reduced.
With appropriate curing, concrete turn out to be stronger, more waterproof, and more resistant to
stress, abrasion, and freezing and thawing. The enhancement is quick at early ages but continues
more gradually subsequently for an unspecified period. Fig. 3.26 shows the gaining of the
strength of concrete with age for diverse moist curing periods and Fig. 3.26 shows the
comparative strength gain of concrete cured at various temperatures.
The most functioning process for curing concrete is governed by the materials used, the process
of construction, and the anticipated use of the hardened concrete. For most jobs, curing usually
includes spreading over curing compounds, or wrapping the recently placed and finished
concrete with water-resistant sheets or wet coarse cloth woven from jute, hemp, or similar rough
fiber materials. In some situations, such as in hot and cold weather, exceptional care using other
provisions is needed.
Concrete mixtures with high cement contents and low water-cement ratios (less than 0.40) may
need exceptional curing needs. As cement hydrates (chemically combining with water) the
internal relative moisture reductions cause the paste to self- dry out if no external water is added.
The paste can self-dry out to a level where hydration breaks. This may impact anticipated
concrete properties, particularly if the internal relative humidity becomes lower than 80% within
the first seven days. In this condition, membrane-forming curing compounds may not preserve
enough water in the concrete. Therefore, fogging and wet curing becomes essential to get the
most out of hydration.
122
Figure 3-25 Figure shaws that curing should be started as soon as the
concrete stiffens enough to prevent marring or erosion of the surface
Fogging at the time of placing and after finishing concrete also helps reduce plastic cracking in
concretes with very low water-cement ratios (particularly around 0.30 or less). When moist
curing is broken up, the increase of strength remains for a short period and then stops after the
concrete’s internal relative humidity becomes lower to about 80%. However, if moist curing is
sustained, the increase of strength will be restarted, but the original potential strength may not be
attained. Therefore, it would be better to moist-cure the concrete constantly from the time it is
placed and finished till it has gained acceptable strength, waterproofness, and durability.
123
Figure 3-26 Effect of curring temperature on strength gain (left) relatively to
28-day strength and ( right) relative to the strenght of concrete at 23 0 C
Loss of water will also result in the concrete shrinking, therefore generating tensile stresses
within the concrete. If these stresses develop before the concrete has reached satisfactory tensile
strength, surface cracking can result. All outer surfaces, including outer edges and joints, must be
protected against moisture evaporation.
Hydration continues at a considerably slower rate when the concrete temperature is low.
Temperatures below 10°C are critical for the development of early strength; below 4°C the
development of early strength is significantly delayed; and at or below freezing temperatures,
down to -10°C, little or no strength develops.
124
Figure 3-27 Effect of moist curing time on strength gain of concrete
Currently, a maturity concept has been presented to assess the development of strength when
there is a difference in the curing temperature of the concrete. Maturity is the result of the age of
the concrete and its average curing temperature above a definite base temperature.
It follows that concrete should be sheltered so that its temperature remains satisfactory for
hydration and moisture is not lost during the early hardening period.
 Method of Curing
There are three methods available to keep the moisture of freshly mixed
concrete from leaving the concrete before the hydration process as a result
of the chemical reaction between cement and water is completed.
1. Methods that preserve the existence of mixing water in the concrete
during the early hardening period. These consist of ponding or
immersion, spraying or fogging, and saturated wet coverings. These
125
methods meet the expense of some cooling through evaporation, which
is favorable in hot weather.
2. Methods that decrease the loss of mixing water from the surface of
the concrete. This can be completed by wrapping the concrete with
waterproof paper or plastic sheets, or by putting on membrane-forming
curing compounds.
3. Methods that speed up strength gain by providing heat and
supplementary moisture to the concrete. This is frequently achieved by
live steam, heating coils, or electrically heated forms or pads.
The method or arrangement of methods selected is governed by different factors such as
accessibility of curing materials, size, shape, and age of concrete, construction facilities,
appealing appearance, and available finances.
Consequently, curing frequently includes a series of processes used at a specific time as
the concrete ages. As an example, fog spraying, plastic-covered or wet coarse cloth
woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough thread can precede the application of a curing
compound. The timing of each technique is governed by the degree of hardening of the
concrete desired to stop the particular procedure from damaging the concrete surface.
 Ponding and Immersion
On level surfaces, for instance, pavements and floors, concrete is cured by ponding
curing. Soil or sand placed surrounding the outside of the concrete surface can
hold a pond of water. Ponding can be used as one of the most usual techniques
used to avoid leaving out moisture from the concrete; it is also functional for
keeping an even temperature in the concrete. During the curing of concrete, the
126
temperature of the curing water should be necessary kept less than or equal to
11°C cooler than the temperature of concrete to avoid thermal stresses that may
cause cracking. Since ponding necessitates significant labor and control, the
method is usually used only for small works.
The finished concrete component can be cured by totally immersing in water and is
one of the most comprehensive methods of curing concrete. The method of curing
concrete by ponding is usually used in the laboratory for curing concrete to test
samples. During curing of concrete is vital, the water used for curing by ponding
or soaking should be free of any matters that will change the color of concrete or
discolor the concrete. The substance used for watercourses may also stain the
concrete.
Figure 3-28 Immersion curing method
 Fogging and Sprinkling
One of the most excellent methods of concrete curing is Fogging (Fig. -4) and
sprinkling with water when the ambient temperature is much higher than freezing
127
and low humidity. To prevent the evaporation of water from the concrete surface, a
fine fog spray is regularly applied through a system of nozzles or sprinklers to
increase the relative humidity of the air over flatwork; this will slow down the
evaporation of water from the surface. In curing concrete fogging is applied to
reduce plastic shrinkage cracking till finishing processes are finished. As soon as the
concrete has been set adequately to prevent water from wearing away, regular lawn
nozzles are effective when sufficient coverage is delivered and water runoff is of no
worry.
 Using sprinkling has a disadvantage of cost because it requires plenty of water
supplies and also requires careful control. If sprinkling is done at intervals, the
concrete must not be permitted to dry out between applications of water by using
covering of course of cloth woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough thread or
similar materials; or else substitute phases of wetting and drying can cause surface
cracking.
Figure 3-29 Curing of concrete by fogging
128
 Wet Coverings
Covering of the concrete surface with fabric saturated with water, such as coarse
cloth woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough thread, cotton mats, rugs, or other
moisture-retaining fabrics, are usually used for curing concrete (Fig. 3.30).
Figure 3-30 Curing of concrete by wet covering
The coarse cloth woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough thread must be free of
any substance that is harmful to concrete or causes the alteration of the color of
concrete. New coarse cloth woven from jute, hemp, or a similar rough thread should
be carefully cleaned in water to take away soluble materials and to make the wet
covering material more pervious.
129
Wet, moisture-absorbent fabric coverings should necessarily be retained immediately
as the concrete has hardened adequately to avoid surface damage. Another curing
method can be used while the waiting period, such as Fogging and Sprinkling or the
use of membrane creating finishing utilities. It is necessary to take care for covering
the complete surface with wet material, together with the edges of slabs. The wet
covering must be kept uninterruptedly saturated so that a thin film of water remains
on the concrete surface during the curing period. The use of polyethylene film over a
wet cover is a good exercise; it will remove the need for constant watering of the
covering.
Occasionally rewetting the material under the plastic before it dries out should be
adequate. Substitute successions of wetting and drying during the early curing period
may cause a crack on the surface.
Wet coverings of soil, sand, or sawdust are an efficient method for curing and are
frequently convenient for small jobs. In most cases, sawdust from most woods
except oak is satisfactory oak and other woods that comprise tannic acid must be
avoided because the weakening of the concrete may happen. Usually, a layer
thickness of about 50 mm (2 in.) should be consistently spread over the formerly
moisturized surface of the concrete and maintain constant wetness.
Saturated straw can also be used for curing level surfaces. And a thickness of at least
150 mm (6 in.), should be placed in a layer and seized down with wire shelter, a wet
covering of coarse clothing, to avoid it being driven off by the wind. Discoloring the
concrete is the main disadvantage of moist soil, sand, sawdust, or straw coverings.
130
 Impervious Paper
The impervious paper used for curing concrete is made of two sheet layers of tough
paper tiled together by bituminous cement with fiber strengthening. It is mostly used
as a means of curing horizontal surfaces and structural concrete with relatively
simple shapes. This type of method of curing has the advantage of reducing the
requirement of water because in this method it is not necessary to intermittent
addition of add water for curing. Using impervious paper for curing concrete
improves the hydration process in cement concrete by precluding the loss of water
from the freshly placed concrete. Immediately when the concrete has hardened
enough to inhibit surface damage, it is necessary to cover the concrete surface with
the available wetted and widest paper and also overlap the adjacent edges of the
sheet by about 150 mm.
Figure 3-31 Impervious curing paper
131
The edges of adjacent sheets should also be tightly sealed with available sealing
materials like; sand, wood planks, powerful tape, gum, or adhesive. The sheets must
be subjected to weight to keep close contact with the concrete surface during the
whole curing period.
If the impervious paper has the capability of protecting the moving out of moisture
from the concrete it can be reused for other times. And if the condition of the
impervious paper is not good it is necessary to repair it by using curing paper
patches or using an additional layer.
The use of impervious paper is not only for curing but also can protect the concrete
from damage from the consequent construction activity and direct sun that result in
discoloration of the concrete.
In hot weather conditions, it is preferable to use white upper surface paper to reflect
the sunlight.
 Burlap wet concrete curing
Concrete can be used by using burlap wet concrete curing blankets which are made
up of two-layer concrete curing covers. The burlap sheet is laminated with a 5 mil
white layered polyethylene fabric. In wet cure method of concrete curing, it involves
spreading water over the partial-hardened concrete and then placing the blankets
over the concrete surface. In lying on the burlap covering material the burlap face
should be faced towards the concrete. Burlap is prepared from natural moisture-
absorbing materials which have the capability of holding moisture. The white-coated
poly fabric faces should be up to reflect sunlight and strong heat rays.
o Burlap should have the following features
132
A. Used with the wet cure method of concrete curing
B. Natural burlap provides moisture absorption
C. Coated white poly reflects sunlight and intense heat rays
D. It should deliver a smoother, harder concrete finish
o Benefits of burlap curing material;
A. Quality lamination between the two fabrics
B. Burlap is moisture absorbent material
C. White coated poly reflects sunlight and intense heat rays
D. Material is flexible
E. Easy handle, easy to move
F. It should Meet DOT requirements for concrete curing
G. It can be Reused
o Applications of burlap:
A. It is used for freshly poured concrete
B. Interstates & highway projects
C. Bridge & overpass projects
D. Decks, slabs, concrete surfaces
E. Retaining walls & concrete columns
F. Can be used for horizontal and vertical concrete works
133
Figure 3-32 Turf sprinklers saturating burlap with water to keep the concrete
continously moist
 Plastic Sheets
Covering the concrete surface with plastic sheet materials, such as polyethylene
film, can be used for the curing of concrete (Fig.3.33). A plastic sheet like
polyethylene film is a good material to be used for curing purposes because it is a
lightweight, effective slow dawning material for the movement of moisture from
the concrete surface and is easily applicable to difficult as well as simple shapes.
Curing with polyethylene film can cause an irregular change of concrete color,
particularly if the concrete comprises calcium chloride that has been smoothened by
hard-steel troweling. This type of concrete color change is more noticeable when
the film becomes lined, but it is difficult and time-consuming on a large project to
place sheet materials without folds. Inundating the external part under the covering
134
may prevent the concrete color change, but if a uniform color is significant using
another method of curing should necessarily be used.
The polyethylene film should meet the ASTM C 171 (AASHTO M 171) standard,
which stipulates a 0.10-mm thickness for curing concrete but use only clear and
white dense film. Conversely, the black film is accessible and is acceptable under
certain conditions. To cure the external concrete white film should be used during
hot weather to reflect the sun’s rays. On the other hand, the black film can be
applied in cool weather or for interior concreting.
Polyethylene film may also be used over wet covering materials to keep the water
in the wet covering material. This procedure has the advantages of eliminating the
labor-intensive requirement for continuous watering of wet covering materials.
Figure 3-33 Polyethylene film cover to cure concrete
135
 Internal Moist Curing
Internal curing provides a good curing technique by giving water to the cementitious
matrix after the setting of concrete. Internal curing increases the performance quality
of concrete by facilitating the chemical reaction of the cementitious materials with
water. In internal moist curing, the supply of external water is not required, the water
used for curing is found from the aggregate that is found in the concrete. This method
is very important since external curing water has a limited depth of penetration inside
the concrete but internal moist curing can provide water throughout the depth of the
concrete.
In this method light weight aggregate is employed for the production of concrete,
these lightweight aggregate has more void than the normal and heavyweight
aggregate. And the water is absorbed into these voids while mixing the concrete.
Figure 3-34 An illustration of conventional curing as compared with internal

curing
136
The water absorved in these voide will not contribute to the water cement ratio. After
the setting of the concrete the water which was absorved by the pores of the aggregate
will serve for the continuation of the hydration process in the concrete. Figure below.
An illustration of conventional curing as compared with internal curing.
 Steam Curing
For concrete where early strength gain is required and where additional heat is
required in cold weather for facilitating the hydration process of the concrete mix, it
is beneficial to use steam curing. There are two methods of steam curing which are
steam curing at ordinary pressure and steam curing at high pressure. The former is
used for large precast concrete structures units that are enclosed in cast-in-place
concrete. And the later steam curing method is used for small manufactured concrete
units.
Here in this text-only steam curing at ordinary atmospheric pressure will be
discussed.
In this method we have the following steam curing cycle:
A. An initial delay before steaming,
B. A period for increasing the temperature,
C. A period for keeping the maximum temperature constant, and
D. A period for decreasing the temperature.
137
The following figure shows a typical atmospheric steam-curing cycle
Figure 3-35 A typical atmospheric steem-curing cycle
o Steam curing at atmospheric pressure
In this method, atmospheric pressure is usually used in an enclosed space to
reduce moisture and heat losses. The enclosure in this method is achieved by
tarpaulins and it is regularly used to make the enclosure. In this method, the
application of steam will be done at least after three hours until the initial
setting is completed to let for some hardening of the concrete In general from
3to 5 hours delaying before steaming will result in maximum early strength.
Regarding the temperature of the steam in the enclosure, it is needed to be
kept at about 60°C till the anticipated concrete strength has developed. Even
138
if the steam temperature is increased, a significant strength of concrete will
not be achieved; for this reason, it is necessary to avoid increasing the steam
temperature above 70 0 C. Raising the temperature above 700C will be
uneconomical and also will damage the concrete. In monitoring the steam
temperature it is recommended to use the exposed face of the concrete. It is
also necessary to control the steam temperature as a result of the heat of
hydration because the heat generated due to the heat of hydration can also
increase the steam temperature. In addition to the early strength gain,
maintaining the steam temperature around 600C has another advantage
reducing drying shrinkage and creep compared to concrete cured at a normal
atmospheric temperature of 230C for 28 days.
When heating and cooling, it is necessary to avoid an excessive rate of heating
and cooling.to eliminate damage to concrete due to volume change. The rate
of decreasing temperature in the enclosure should not be more than 220C to
330C per hours depending on the shape and size of the concrete. The curing
temperature should be maintained in the enclosure until the concrete has
achieved the desired strength.
o Steam Curing at High Pressure:
This method of curing is different from ordinary steam curing. In this
method, curing is conducted in a closed chamber and overheated steam
at a higher temperature and higher pressure are applied on the concrete.
This method of curing is also known as “Autoclaving”. The autoclaving
process is experienced in curing precast concrete products in the factory.
139
Figure 3-36 Relationship between strength at 18 hours and delay period for
steaming
 Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds
In this method of curing the concrete is cured with liquid membrane-forming
mixtures containing waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and other ingredients that may
be used to delay or reduce evaporation of wetness from concrete. This method of
curings is the most applicable and most broadly used method for curing not only
newly casted concrete but also for prolonging curing of concrete after the removal of
form works or after early water curing. Even if this method of curing is widely used
the effective method of curing is wet covering and fogging for spraying. which retains
the concrete constantly moist.
Curing compounds should have the capability of preserving the relative humidity of
the concrete surface beyond 80% for seven days to keep the hydration process caused
due to the chemical reaction between cement and water. There are two types of
140
membrane-forming curing compounds which are: clear, or translucent; and white
pigmented. The clear or translucent one might contain a fleeting dye that makes it
easier to check by visual inspection for the whole exposure of the concrete surface
during the compound is applied. After the application, the day will immediately feds.
During hot weather conditions, it is recommended to use white pigmented
compounds. The dye fades away soon after application.; they minimize the heat
gained from the sun, therefore reducing the temperature in concrete. The pigment
compounds should be agitated in the container to prevent the settling of the pigment.
Hand operating or powered equipment can be used for the application of the curing
compounds as soon as the finishing operation of the concrete work is completed. It is
also necessary to dump the concrete surface before the concrete curing compound is
applied. In dry weather conditions and windy days, plastic shrinkage cracks may
happen; the application of a curing compound as soon as the finishing work is
completed and before the evaporation of the free water from the surface of the
concrete will prevent the formation of these cracks.
To apply the curing compounds it is recommended to use powered equipment in a
large area. To prevent the wind blow loss of curing compounds it is necessary to
provide the windshield and spray nozzles n the equipment.
The application of one layer of the curing compound that covers 3 to 4 m2 per liter is
sufficient, but depending upon the product it is necessary to follow up on the
manufacturer’s recommended rate of application. If two coats of application are
required to guarantee complete coverage, the second layer of coating must be applied
perpendicular to the previous layer of the application. Great care should be taken to
141
ensure the complete coverage of the surface because even a small uncovered surface
may result in evaporation of the moisture from the concrete surface.
The application of curing compounds will hinder the bonding between the hardened
concrete and the newly casted concrete overlay. Therefore great attention is required
when there is an overlay is expected; in this case, it is necessary to select the concrete
curing compound which is compatible with adhesive or decide not to use the curing
compound if there is an overlay of freshly casted concrete is expected.
 Curing period and temperature
There are different factors on which the period that concrete must be protected from
freezing action, unusually high temperatures, and loss of wetness depends upon several
factors and the followings are the common ones:
A. The type of cementing materials used; mixture proportions;
B. required strength, size, and shape of the concrete member;
C. ambient weather;
D. and future exposure conditions.
The time for curing lean concrete may take 3 weeks or longer for lean concrete mixtures
that are used in massive structures such as dams; on the other hand, it may the curing
period only be a few days for rich mixes, particularly if Type III cement is used. In Steam-
curing the periods are usually much shorter, it can range from a few hours to 3 days, but
usually, 24-hour cycles are used. To maintain the required properties of the concrete and
this is achieved by curing, it is necessary to keep the curing period as long as necessary.
142
A minimum of 7 day curing period for ambient temperatures above 5°C is required for
concrete slabs at the ground level like; floors, pavements, canal linings, parking lots,
driveways, and sidewalks. It is also required a minimum of 7 days for structural concrete
works such as;cast-in-place walls, columns, slabs, beams, footings, piers, retaining walls,
and bridge decks. if the daily mean ambient temperature is 5°C (40°F) or lower, it is
necessary to follow the ACI Committee recommendations for curing to prevent damage
due to toy freezing.
Even if s higher curing temperature offers to gain of earlier strength in concrete than a
lower temperature, it may result in a decrease of 28-day. To perform the strength test for
establishing the time when curing can Fig. 3.37. Strength tests are very important to
establish the time when curing can ends or form works can be removed, for this reason, it
is necessary to prepare representative concrete test cylinders or beams which are
fabricated in the field, kept in line with the structure or pavement they characterize, and
cured by the same methods. Using the available equipment that can monitor internal
concrete temperatures and match that temperature in the concrete cylinder curing box is
also an important measure to assure accurate in-place concrete strengths of the
representing sample. This equipment includes; Cores, cast-in-place removable cylinders,
and nondestructive testing methods.
For concrete that is produced with a material and types of cement that have slow setting
and slow-strength gain characteristics, the curing period should be extended. For curing of
mass concrete-like large piers, abutments, dams, heavy footings, and massive columns and
transfer girders in which there is no pozzolanic material is used to supplement the
cementitious material, the curing process of unreinforced sections must have proceeded
143
for a minimum of 2 weeks. And if the mass concrete comprises a pozzolanic material as
part of the concrete mix, the minimum curing time for unreinforced sections should be
prolonged to 3 weeks
Figure 3-37 Curing temperature verses compressive strength of concrete
Mass concrete elements with heavy reinforcement must be cured at least for 7 days. In
cold weather conditions, extra heat is frequently obligatory to keep satisfactory curing
temperatures of 10°C to 20°C. Emitted gas or oil-based heaters, heating coils, live steam,
or other means of the heater, or can be used to provide the essential heat. Care must be
taken in all situations, to eliminate the loss of moisture from the concrete. It is necessary
144
to avoid exposing the fresh concrete to the heater because it can cause surface
deterioration and dusting due to rapid carbonation.
3.2.5 Concrete mix design
Mix design is the process of defining essential and specifiable characteristics of a concrete
mixture. These characteristics can comprise: (1) Property of freshly mixed concrete; (2) The
essential mechanical properties of hardened concrete like strength and durability requirements;
and (3) the presence, exclusion, or limits on specific constituents. A proper mix design guides the
preparation of a concrete specification.
The process of determining the relative quantities of the constituent materials of concrete mix is
known Mixture proportioning. This will provide specified characteristics to the concrete. A
correctly proportioned concrete mix should have the following qualities:
1. Satisfactory workability of the newly mixed concrete
2. Durability, strength, and even appearance of the hardened concrete
3. It will be economical
To calculate the proportioning of the constituent materials of concrete, it is necessary to
understand the main principles of mixture design. So as to achieve the above mentioned qualities
of concrete, a proper selection of the constituent materials and the characteristics of the concrete
mix are essential.
Mix design and proportioning for Normal concrete mix
Choosing mix characteristics
It is essential to choose the characteristics of the concrete mixture according to the proposed
function of concrete, the existing conditions that may influence the concrete, the shape and size
of the elements of concrete and the required physical properties of concrete structures for the
particular intended use.
The need of the structure should match with the selected characteristics of concrete; for example,
resistance to chemical attack should be confirmable, and suitable test methods needed to be
specified.
After selecting the characteristics, it is possible to prepare the proportioning of the constituent
materials of concrete based on the field and laboratory data. The quality of cement paste will
145
determine the necessary properties of the hardened concrete. For this reason it is necessary first
to select the appropriate water cement ratio for the required durability and strength. The most
important consideration for the intended quality of concrete is the relationship between water-
Cement ratio and Strength. Other important characteristic like, durability, permeability, and
wearing resistance are also need equal attention as the water cement ratio. The compressive
strength is inversely proportional to the water cement ratio within the normal range of strengths
used in concrete construction. The quantity of mixing water used in concrete making operation
relative to the quantity of cement is governing the strength and other necessary properties,
provided that the concrete is fully compacted, made of clean water and sound aggregate.
The quality and quantity of the cementing material and the degree of hydration process due to the
chemical reaction between cement and water also affects the strength of the cement paste. With
the presence of moisture and favorable temperature concrete becomes gradually stronger.
Therefore, the strength of concrete depends on the initial water cement ratio and the degree of
hydration of cement. To keep the continuation of the hydration process curing is essential. There
may be difference in the water cement ratio that depends on 1) the aggregate size, grading,
surface texture of the aggregate and stiffness of aggregate (2) the types and sources of cementing
materials; (3) the type and amount of entrained-air (4) the type and amount of admixtures; and
(5) the period of curing.
Strength
The compressive strength of concrete f c’ is determined from strength test of the specified
concrete at its 28 days strength that is expected to be equal to or greater than the average of any
set of three consecutive strength tests. From ACI 318 it is required to be (f c’) at least 17.5 MPa.
The average of two cylinders test can be more than 3.5 MPa below the specified strength. For
separate class of concrete (ACI 318), samples should be cured under laboratory conditions.
The average strength should be equal to the specified strength and add tolerance to consider for
differences in materials; differences in procedures of mixing, transporting, and casting the
concrete; and differences in producing, curing, and testing concrete cylinder samples. The
average strength, which is greater than fc’, is called fcr’; it is the strength essential in the mix
design. Tables 3.4 and Table 3.5 show strength requirements for various influencing conditions.
Even if flexural strength is occasionally used in pavement works instead of compressive
strength; it should be avoided due to its greater variability.
146
Table 3.4. Maximum Water-Cement ratio and Minimum Design Strength for
various influencing conditions
Table 3.5. Requirements for Concrete which is influenced by Sulfate in soil or

water
Water-Cement Ratio
The water-cement ratio is the ratio between the mass of water and the mass of cementing
materials. The water-cement ratio chosen for mix design should be the lowest value essential to
meet expected influencing situations.
The above two tables show prerequisites for various influencing situations. If durability is not the
factor, the water-cement ratio could be chosen on the basis of concrete compressive strength. In
such cases accurately gathered field date and trial mix made with real job materials is required to
determine the water cement ratio and mixture proportions for the necessary strength. Fig. 3.38 or
Table 3.6 can be used to decide the association between the water cement ratio and strength and
147
this can be used to choose a water-cement ratio in relation to the necessary average strength, f cr’,
for trial mixtures when no other data are available. Conventionally, the water cement ratio is
stated as the ratio of water to Portland cement.
Aggregates
There are two important characteristics of aggregates that influence the proportioning of concrete
mixtures due to their effect on the workability of the fresh concrete. They are:
1. Particle size distribution
2. Natural characteristics of aggregate particles (shape, porosity, surface texture)
Particle size distribution is important for achieving cost effective mixture because it affects the
quantity of concrete that can be made from a given amount of cement and water. The largest
applicable particle size of coarse aggregate should be included in the particle size distribution.
The maximum size of aggregate in a particle size distribution is depending on the size and shape
of the concrete element to be casted, the quantity and arrangement of reinforcing steel in the
member, and the thickness of the structural member. The workability and the capability of
concrete being placed also affected by the particle size distribution.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate should neither greater than one-fifth of the smallest
dimension between sides of forms nor three-fourths of the clear space between discrete
reinforcement bars or, or prestressing tendons or ducts. For unreinforced slabs on ground, the
maximum size should not be greater than one third of the slab thickness. Uniform sizes can be
used when accessibility or economic concern necessitate them.
The required amount of mixing water essential to make a unit volume of concrete of a given
slump depends on the shape and the maximum size, and quantity of coarse aggregate. Larger
particle sizes minimize the water demand and thus let the cement content to be minimized. Also
rounded aggregate needs less amount of mixing water than angular aggregate in concretes which
have the same slump.
Aggregate source as well as its shape and grading aggregate, governs the maximum size of
coarse aggregate that will produce concrete with maximum strength for certain cement content.
The maximum size of about 19 mm (3⁄4 in.) is preferable to produce high compressive-strength
concrete. Rather than round aggregate, angular aggregate gives higher strength.
148
Figure 3-38 Estimated relationship between compressive strength and water
cement ratio for concrete with 19-mm to 25mm (3/4-in.) for nominal size
course aggregate strength
Table 3.6: Relationship between Water Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength of Concrete
(Metric)
The anticipated particle size distribution of fine aggregate will be governed by the type of
concrete work, the quantity of cement paste in the mixture, and the size of the coarse aggregate.
149
For lean mixtures, a fine grading i.e. grading with lower fineness modulus is necessary for
workability. For richer mixtures, a coarse grading i.e. higher fineness modulus is preferable for
greater economy.
Fig. 3.39 or Table 3.7 can be used to determine the bulk volume of coarse aggregate. For less
workable concrete works, like for concrete pavement construction, the volume may be increased
by 10%. For more workable concrete, such as may be essentially casted by pump, this volume
may be reduced up to 10%.
Air Content
If there is a possibility of occurrence of freezing and thawing, it is necessary to use entrained air
and deicing chemicals to improve workability even where not required.
The formation of entertained air in the concrete can be achieved by using an air-entraining
Portland cement or by supplementing with an air-entraining admixture in the mixer. The quantity
of admixture must be adjusted to meet differences in concrete constituents and site situations.
The quantity suggested by the admixture manufacturer will, in most cases, provide the preferred
air content.
The nominal maximum size of aggregate and the degree of exposure govern the quantity of air
essential to give satisfactory freeze-thaw resistance. In suitably proportioned mixes, the mortar
content reduces as maximum aggregate size increases, thus reducing the essential concrete air
content. This is obvious in Fig. 3.40.
The levels of exposure are defined by ACI 211.1 as follows:

Mild Exposure
This exposure includes all service in a climatic condition where concrete will not be exposed to
freezing or deicing agents. If the use of air entrainment is anticipated for a valuable effect
different from durability, like to increase workability or cohesion or in low cement content
concrete to increase strength, air contents lower than those desirable for durability can be used.
150
Figur3-39 Bulk volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete
Table 3.7. Bulk volume of Coarse Aggregate per volume of concrete
Moderate Exposure
Such type of exposure may happen in a climatic condition where freezing is expected and where
the concrete will not be frequently exposed to moisture or free water for long periods before
freezing and will not be exposed to deicing or other destructive chemicals. Examples a concrete
member that includes exterior beams, columns, walls, girders, or slabs that are not in contact
151
with wet soil and are so placed that they will not obtain uninterrupted applications of deicing
chemicals.
Severe Exposure
Sever exposure happens when concrete members that is exposed to deicing or other destructive
chemicals or where the concrete may become highly moisturized by uninterrupted contact with
moisture or free water before freezing. Examples include concrete in pavement construction,
bridge decks works, curbs, gutters, which are exposed to external moisture.
Specific air content may not be freely or continually accomplished because of the many variables
influencing air content; consequently, allowable range of air contents nearby aimed value must
be delivered. Although a range of ±1% of the Fig. 3.39 or Table 3.8 values is frequently used in
project specifications, it is sometimes an unfeasibly tight limit.
The solution is to use a broader range, such as –1 to +2 percentage of the aimed values. For
example, for a aimed value of 6% air, the definite range for the concrete provided to the jobsite
might be 5% to 8%.
Figure 3-40 Target total air content requirement for concrete using differen
sizes of aggregate
152
Slump
For concrete to be used in any construction, it necessarily be good workable, even, and enough
plastic for suitable job conditions. Workability is the degree of how the concrete is easy or
difficult to be placed, consolidated, and finished. Consistency is the capability of newly mixed
concrete to flow. Plasticity is the ability of concrete to be molded. If the amount of aggregate
becomes more in a concrete mixture, or if the amount of mixing water is less, the concrete
mixture becomes stiffer (decrease plasticity and workability) and becomes difficult to be molded.
For measuring consistency the slump test is a usual method. For a particular proportion of
cement and aggregate, the higher the slump, the wetter the mixture. Slump is expressive of
workability when evaluating similar mixtures. Conversely, slump should not be used to relate
mixtures of completely different proportions. When considering different batches with similar
mix design, the slump change shows that there is a change in consistency, in the features of
materials, the relative proportioning of mixture, the amount of water, method and timing of
mixing, time of test.
Table 3.8. Estimated mixing water and aimed air content for different slumps
and nominal maximum size of aggregate
Different slumps are desired for different types of concrete construction. Slump is usually
designated in the job specifications as a range, like 50 to 100 mm, or as a maximum value not to
153
be surpassed. ASTM C 94 describes slump tolerances in detail. When slump is not stated, an
approximate value can be selected from Table 3.9 for concrete compacted by mechanical means
of vibration.
For the adjustments of batching, the slump can be improved by nearly 10 mm by addition of 2
kilograms of water for every cubic meter of concrete.
Water Content
There are different causes which may affect the quantity of mixing water in concrete work like:
the size of the aggregate, the shape of the aggregate, the surface texture of the aggregate, slump,
water cement ratio, the amount of enterained air, type of cement, type and amount of admixtures,
and environmental situations. An increase in air amount and aggregate size, a decreasing of
water-cement ratio and slump, and the use of rounded shape aggregates, using water reducing
agents, or fly ash will decrease water demand.
Conversely, rising in temperatures, quantity of cement, slump, water-cement ratio, angular
aggregate, and a minimizing in the proportion of coarse aggregate to fine aggregate will increase
water demand. The estimated water contents in Table 3.8 and Fig. 3.41 can be used in
proportioning for angular coarse aggregates (crushed stone).
Figure 3-41 Approximate water requirement for various slums and crushed
aggregte sizes for (left) non-air entrained and (right) air-entrained
154
For certain concretes and aggregates, the water estimations in Table 3.8 and Fig. 3.40 can be
minimized by about 10 kg for semi-angular aggregate, and about 20 kg for gravel that contains
some crushed particles, and 25 kg for a rounded shape gravel to create the slumps shown. This
exemplifies the demand for trial batch testing of native materials, as each aggregate source is
different and can affect concrete properties in different way.
It is necessary to keep in mind that altering of the quantity of any single constituent in a concrete
mixture generally affects the proportions of other constituents as well as alter the properties of
the mixture.
Table 3.9. Suggested slumps for different types of concrete production
For example, the adding of 2 kg of water on every cubic meter will raise the slump by about 10
mm; it will also increase the air content and paste volume, reduction of the aggregate volume,
and minimize the density of the concrete. In the adjustments of mixture, for the same slump, a
decreasing in air content by 1 percentage will result in increasing the water demand by
approximately 3 kg for every cubic meter of concrete.
Cementing Materials Content and Type
The cement content is usually determined from the selected water-cement ratio and water
content, even though lowest cement content normally is included in specifications in addition to
a maximum water cement ratio. Minimum cement content demand help to make sure acceptable
155
durability and the capability of the concrete to be easily finished, to increase wear resistance of
slabs, and to assurance appropriate looking of vertical surfaces. This is significant though
strength demand may be met at lower cementing materials contents. However, extremely large
quantities of cement should be avoided to sustain economy in the mixture and to not unfavorably
affect workability and other properties.
For severe freeze-thaw, deicer, and sulfate exposures, it is necessary to state: (1) a minimum
cement content of 335 kg for every cubic meter of concrete, and (2) only enough mixing water to
achieve the desired consistency without exceeding the maximum water-cement ratios shown in
Tables 3.4 and table 3.5. For casting concrete underwater, frequently not less than 390 kg of
cement for every cubic meter of concrete must be used with a water cement ratio not greater
0.45. For workability, the ability of being easily finished, abrasion resistance, and durability in
flatwork, the amount of cement to be used should not be less than presented in Table 3.10.
To gain good economy, proportioning of the concrete mix should reduce the amount of cement
required without losing concrete quality. Since quality depends mainly on water cement ratio, the
water content should be kept to a minimum to reduce the cement demand.
The following step should be implemented to reduce the requirement of water and cement (1)
use the stiffest practical mixture, (2) use the largest practical maximum size of aggregate, and (3)
use the best ratio of fine-to-coarse aggregate.
Additional cement has different effects on water requirement and air contents. The addition of
fly ash will usually decrease water requirement and minimize the air content if no modification
in the amount of air-entraining admixture is made. Silica fume raises water requirement and
minimizes air content.
156
Table 3.10. Minimum requirement of cementing materials for concrete used
in flatwork
Table3.11. Cement requirwement for concrete exposed to deicing chemicals
Table 3.11 shows boundaries on the amount of additional cement in concrete to be exposed to
deicers. Local experiences should be referred as amounts lesser or greater than those shown in
Table 3.11 can be used without put in danger scale-resistance, depending on the exposure
harshness.
Admixtures
To reduce the water cement ratio, water-reducing admixtures are supplemented to concrete, the
addition of the water reducing admixture decrease cement content, decrease water content,
decrease paste content, to improve the workability of a concrete without altering the water-
157
cement ratio. Water reducing admixture will generally reduce the content of the water content by
5% to 10% and will also increase air contents by 1⁄2 to 1 percentage. Retendering admixtures can
also maximize the air content.
High-range water reducing agents (plasticizers) decrease water contents by the range of 12% and
30% and some other air reducing agents can concurrently maximize the air content nearly to 1
percentage; some others can reduce or not influence the air content.
A calcium chloride-based admixture decrease water contents by nearly 3% and, raises the air
content by about 0.5 percentages. When using such types of admixture, there may be the risk of
corrosion of reinforcement bar these risks should be considered. Table 3.12 gives suggested
restrictions on the amount of water-soluble chloride-ion in reinforced and prestressed concrete
for different conditions.
During the application of more than one admixture in the concrete mix the compatibility of using
intermixing admixtures must be guaranteed by the manufacturer or it needs to be tested in a trial
mix. The amount of water existed in the admixtures must be taken into account if the quantity of
water in the admixture is considered part of the mixing water if the admixture’s water content is
sufficiently influence the water-cement ratio by 0.01 or more.
An extreme use of different admixtures at a time must be underestimated to permit well control
of the concrete mixture in construction and to decrease the risk of admixture mismatch.
PROPORTIONING
The concrete mix design encompasses the following:
(1) The establishment of detailed concrete characteristics, and
(2) The assortment of proportions of obtainable materials to create concrete of essential
properties, with the highest economy.
There are two methods of proportioning or batching which are weight proportioning method and
volume proportioning method, the weight proportioning is simple and quick method for fairly for
approximating mixture proportions using an anticipated or known weight of concrete per unit
volume. But absolute volume proportioning is the most accurate method because it uses the
relative density (specific gravity) to calculate the absolute volumes of all ingredients. Using
relative density (specific gravity) values for all the ingredients materials of concrete and each
will occupy in a unit volume of concrete. It is also possible to proportioning the concrete mix
from field data or from trial mixtures.
158
Proportioning of concrete mix from Field Data
In using the field date the statistical data should basically characterize the same constituents,
proportions, and concreting circumstances to be used in the different project. The data obtained
to be used for mix proportioning should also be from a concrete with an f c’ that is contained by 7
MPa of the strength essential for the suggested work. Also, the data should characterize at least
30 successive tests or two groups of successive tests adding at least 30 tests (one test represents
average of the strength of two cylinders test from the identical sample).
Table 3.12. Maximum chloride-ion content for corrosion protection
*ASTM C 1218.
Adapted from ACI 318
If there is only 15 to 29 successive tests are obtainable, modified standard deviation can be
acquired by multiplying the standard deviation (S) for the 15 to 29 tests and a modification factor
from Table 9-10. The data must characterize at least 45 days of tests.
The standard or adjusted deviation is then used in Equations below. The average compressive
strength obtained from the test record should be equal or greater than the ACI 318 required
average compressive strength, f;cr, so as for the concrete proportions to be acceptable. The larger
159
value of the result from the equation 3-1 and 3-2 will be taken as f; cr for the selected mixture
proportions (for fc’≤ 35 MPa or Equations 3-1 and 3-3 (for fc’ > 35 MPa).
Table 3.13. Modification factor for standered diviation when less than 30
testes are available
fcr’ = fc’ + 1.34S Eq. 3-1

fcr’ = fc ‘+ 2.33S – 3.45 (MPa) Eq. 3-2
fcr’ = fc’ + 2.33S – 500 (psi) Eq. 3-2
fcr’ = 0.90 fc’ + 2.33S Eq. 3-3
where
fcr’ = required average compressive strength of concrete used as the basis for selection of
concrete proportions, MPa
fc’ = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
S = standard deviation, MPa
And if the obtained field strength test results do not satisfy the earlier discussed requirements, f cr’
can be found from Table 3-14. A field strength result, several strength test results, or tests from
trial mixtures should be used for records displaying that the average strength of the mixture is
equal to or greater than fcr’. If the test results satisfy the above requirements and restrictions of
ACI 318, the proportions for the mixture may then be acceptable for the suggested work.
If the average strength of the mixtures obtained from the statistical data is less than f cr’, or if
statistical data or test results are inadequate or not obtainable, the mixture should be proportioned
160
by the trial-mixture method. The approved mixture must have a compressive strength that
satisfies or greater than fcr’. In trial mix proportioning, it is necessary to use three trial mixtures
using three different water cement ratios or cement contents should be tested. By plotting the
water cement ratio to strength curve (similar to Fig. 3.37) the proportions can be interpolated
from the data. It is also good practice to test the properties of the recently proportioned mixture
in a trial batch.
Proportioning concrete ingredient materials by Trial Mix
Field test results may not available or it will not be insufficient for proportioning the concrete
mix, if this happens the proportioning is done with trial mix. The trial mixtures should use the
similar materials suggested for the work. In trial mix three mixtures are prepared with three
different water-cement ratios or cement contents to produce a variety of strengths that include
fcr’. The trial mixtures needed to have a slump and air content with ±20 mm and ± 0.5%,
respectively, of the maximum allowed. Three cylindrical samples should be prepared for each
mixture and cured as per ASTM C 192 (AASHTO T 126) for 28 days. At 28 days or at the
design age average compressive strength test will be taken
And then the test results should be plotted to produce strength versus water-cementing materials
ratio curve (similar to Fig. 3.38) and the required compressive stress can be found by
interpolation.
Different methods of proportioning concrete constituents have been used at one time or another,
including the following:
Arbitrary assignment (1:2:3), volumetric
Void ratio
Fineness modulus
Surface area of aggregates
Cement content
161
Table 3.14. Required average compressive strength
Adapted from ACI 318.
And any one of these methods can give nearly the same final mixture after corrections are
prepared in the field. The best result can be found by selecting the mix proportion on the basis of
past experience and dependable test data with proven correlation between strength and water to
cement ratio for the materials to be used in the concrete.
The most important thing here is to reach a satisfactory job mixture. The following factors must
be selected first: (1) required strength, (2) minimum cement content or maximum water-cement
ratio, (3) nominal maximum size of aggregate, (4) air content, and (5) desired slump.
Trial batches are then done by varying the relative quantities of fine and coarse aggregates and
other constituent materials of the concrete mix. The appropriate mix proportions are selected on
the basis of workability and economy. If the quality of the concrete mixture is stated by water-
cement ratio, the trial-batch process involves fundamentally of combining a cement paste (water,
cement, and chemical admixture) of the correct mix proportions with the required quantities of
fine and coarse aggregates to get the required slump and workability. Representative samples of
the cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures should be used.
And then the quantity for every meter cube is calculated. To make simpler calculations and
minimize error due to differences in aggregate moisture content, first he aggregates should be
wetted with water then dried to a saturated surface-dry (SSD) condition, put the aggregates in
enclosed containers to retain them in this SSD condition up to they are used. At this time the
moisture content of the aggregate must be determined and as a result the weight of the batched
be corrected.
162
Depend on the number of size of test samples to be made and on the available mixing equipment,
the size of the trial batch may vary. The larger batch is preferable because of its accurate result.
Measurements and Calculations
The slump test, test for air content and temperature should be done for the trial mixture, and the
following measurements and calculations should also be conducted:
Density (Unit Weight) and Yield
In determining the density (unit weight) of freshly mixed concrete, it is stated in kilograms per
cubic meter. The yield is the volume of fresh concrete made in a batch, generally stated in cubic
meters. The yield can be found by dividing the total mass of the materials in a batch by the
density of the freshly mixed concrete.
Absolute Volume
The absolute volume of a granular material represents the volume of the solid particles which
does not include the volume of voids between particles. The volume (yield) of newly mixed
concrete is the sum of the absolute volumes of the concrete ingredients (cementing materials,
water) that exclude absorbed in the aggregate, aggregates, admixtures if applicable, and air. The
following formula can be used to calculate the absolute volume from the mass of the materials
and relative density (specific gravity) as follows:
mass of loose material

Absolute volume=
relative density of a material X density of water
The relative density (specific gravity of important material is listed below:
Portland cement is 3.15,
Blended cements range from 2.90 to 3.15.
Fly ash varies from 1.9 to 2.8,
Slag from 2.85 to 2.95, and
Silica fumes from 2.20 to 2.25.
The relative density of water is 1.0 and the density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 at 4°C for mix
calculations at room temperature. The more accurate density of water is given in Table 3.15. The
relative density of normal aggregate usually varies between 2.4 and 2.9.
163
Table 3.15. Density of water verses temperature
For proportioning the ingredients of the concrete mix the relative density of aggregate used in
mix design calculations is the relative density of either saturated surface-dry (SSD) material or
oven dry material. Absolute volume is usually expressed in cubic meters.
The absolute volume of air in concrete, expressed as cubic meters per cubic meter, is the total air
content in percent divided by 100 (for example, 7% ÷ 100) and then multiplied by the volume of
the concrete batch.
One of the following two methods can be used to determine the volume of concrete in a batch:
(1) if the relative densities of the aggregates and cementing materials are known, these can be
used to calculate volume of concrete; or (2) if relative densities are unknown, or they vary, the
volume can be computed by dividing the total mass of materials in the mixer by the density of
concrete. In some cases, both methods are made, one helping as a check on the other.
Example 1 Absolute Volume Method
(Metric)
Conditions and Specifications
Concrete is required for a pavement that will be exposed to moisture in a severe freeze-thaw
environment. A specified compressive strength, f c’, of 35 MPa is required at 28 days. Air
entrainment is required. Slump should be between 25 mm and 75 mm. A nominal maximum size
aggregate of 25 mm is required. No statistical data on previous mixes are available.
The materials available are as follows:
Cement: Type GU (ASTM C 1157) with a relative density of 3.0.
Coarse aggregate: Well-graded, 25-mm nominal maximum-size rounded gravel (ASTM C 33 or
AASHTOM 80) with an oven dry relative density of 2.68, absorption of 0.5% (moisture content
164
at SSD condition) and oven dry rodded bulk density (unit weight) of 1600 kg/m3. The laboratory
sample for trial batching has a moisture content of 2%.
Fine aggregate: Natural sand (ASTM C 33 or AASHTO M 6) with an oven dry relative density
of 2.64 and absorption of 0.7%. The laboratory sample moisture content is 6%.
The fineness modulus is 2.80.
Air-entraining admixture
Wood-resin type water reducer: is particular admixture commonly used to reduce water demand
by about 10% if it is used at an amount of rate of 3 g (or 3 mL) per kg of cement. The relative
density of chemical admixtures has a density nearly the same to that of water. That is 1mL of
admixture has a mass of 1 g.
Strength
Tor the different exposure conditions the design strength of 35 MPa is greater than the 31 MPa
required in Table 9-1. Since no statistical data is available, f cr’ (required compressive strength for
proportioning) from Table 9-11 is equal to fc’ + 8.5. Therefore, fcr’= 35 + 8.5 = 43.5 MPa.
Water to Cement Ratio
For an environment with moist freezing and thawing, the maximum water cement ratio should be
0.45. The recommended water cement ratio for an f cr’ of 43.5 MPa is 0.31 from Fig. 9-2 or
interpolated from Table 9-3
[{(45 – 43.5)(0.34 – 0.30)/(45 – 40)} + 0.30 = 0.31].
Since the lower water to cement ratio governs, the mix must be designed for 0.31. If a plot from
trial batches or field tests had been available, the water cement ratio could have been
extrapolated from that data.
Air Content
Table 9-5 recommends a target air content of 6.0% for a 25-mm aggregate for a severe freeze-
thaw exposure. Therefore, design the mix for 5% to 8% air and use 8% (or the maximum
allowable) for batch proportions.
The trial-batch air content must be within ±0.5 percentage points of the maximum allowable air
content.
Slump
The slump is specified at 25 mm to 75 mm. Use 75 mm ±20 mm for proportioning purposes.
165
Water Content
Table 9-5 and Fig. 9-5 recommend that a 75-mm slump, air-entrained concrete made with 25-
mm nominal maximum-size aggregate should have a water content of about 175 kg/m 3.
However, rounded gravel should reduce the water content of the table value by about 25 kg/m 3.
Therefore, the water content can be estimated to be about 150 kg/m 3 (175 kg/m3- minus 25
kg/m3). In addition, the water reducer will reduce water demand by 10% resulting in a likely
water demand of 135 kg/m3.
Cement Content
The cement content is based on the maximum water-cement ratio and the water content.
Therefore, 135 kg/m3 of water divided by a water-cement ratio of 0.31 requires a cement content
of 435 kg/m3; this is greater than the 335 kg/m3 required for frost resistance (Table 3-10).
Coarse-Aggregate Content
The quantity of 25-mm nominal maximum-size coarse aggregate can be approximated from Fig.
9-3 or Table 9-4. The bulk volume of coarse aggregate suggested when using sand with a
fineness modulus of 2.80 is 0.67.
Since it has a bulk density of 1600 kg/m 3, the oven dry mass of coarse aggregate for a cubic
meter of concrete is 1600 x 0.67 = 1072 kg
Admixture Content
For 8% air content, the air entraining admixture manufacturer recommends a dosage rate of 0.5 g
per kg of cement. From this information, the amount of air-entraining admixture per cubic meter
of concrete is 0.5 x 435 = 218 g or 0.218 kg
The water reducer dosage rate of 3 g per kg of cement results in 3 x 435 = 1305 g or 1.305 kg of
water reducer per cubic meter of concrete
Fine-Aggregate Content
At this point, the amounts of all ingredients except the fine aggregate are known. In the absolute
volume method, the volume of fine aggregate is determined by subtracting the absolute volumes
of the known ingredients from 1 cubic meter. The absolute volume of the water, cement,
admixtures and coarse aggregate is calculated by dividing the known mass of each by the
product of their relative density and the density of water. Volume computations are as follows:
135
Water= = 0.135 m 3
1 x 1000
166
435
Cement= = 0.145 m 3
3 X 1000
8
Air= = 0.08
100
( 1072 )
Coarse aggregate= = 0.400
( 2.68 X 1000 )
Total volume of known ingredients = 0.135+0.145+0.08+0.400= 0.760 m 3
The calculated absolute volume of fine aggregate is then =1 – 0.76 = 0.24 m 3
The mixture then has the following proportions before trial mixing for one cubic meter of
concrete:
Water 135 kg
Cement 435 kg
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1072 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) 634 kg
Total mass 2276 kg
Air-entraining admixture 0.218 kg
Water reducer 1.305 kg
Slump 75 mm (±20 mm for trial batch)
Air content 8% (±0.5% for trial batch)
Estimated concrete = 135 + 435 + (1072 x 1.005*)
density (using + (634 x 1.007*)
SSD aggregate = 2286 kg/m3
The liquid admixture volume is generally too insignificant to include in the water calculations.
However, certain admixtures, such as shrinkage reducers, plasticizers, and corrosion inhibitors
are exceptions due to their relatively large dosage rates; their volumes should be included.
Moisture
Corrections are needed to compensate for moisture in and on the aggregates. In practice,
aggregates will contain some measurable amount of moisture. The dry batch weights of
aggregates, therefore, have to be increased to compensate for the moisture that is absorbed in and
contained on the surface of each particle and between particles. The mixing water added to the
batch must be reduced by the amount of free moisture contributed by the aggregates. Tests
indicate that for this example, coarse aggregate moisture content is 2% and fine-aggregate
167
moisture content is 6%. With the aggregate moisture contents (MC) indicated, the trial batch
aggregate proportions become
Coarse aggregate (2% MC) = 1072 x 1.02 = 1093 kg
Fine aggregate (6% MC) = 634 x 1.06 = 672 kg
Water absorbed by the aggregates does not become part of the mixing water and must be
excluded from the water adjustment. Surface moisture contributed by the coarse aggregate
amounts to 2% – 0.5% = 1.5%; that contributed by the fine aggregate is, 6% – 0.7% = 5.3%. The
estimated requirement for added water becomes 135 – (1072 x 0.015) – (634 x 0.053) = 85 kg
The estimated batch weights for one cubic meter of concrete are revised to include aggregate
moisture as follows:
Water (to be added) 85 kg
Cement 435 kg
Coarse aggregate (2% MC, wet) 1093 kg
Fine aggregate (6% MC, wet) 672 kg
Total 2285 kg
Air-entraining admixture 0.218 kg
Water reducer 1.305 kg
Trial Batch
At this stage, the estimated batch weights should be checked by means of trial batches or by full-
size field batches. Enough concrete must be mixed for appropriate air and slump tests and for
casting the three cylinders required for 28-day compressive-strength tests, plus beams for
flexural tests if necessary. For a laboratory trial batch it is convenient, in this case, to scale down
the weights to produce 0.1 m3 of concrete as follows:
Water 85 x 0.1 = 8.5 kg

Cement 435 x 0.1 = 43.5 kg
Coarse aggregate (wet) 1093 x 0.1 = 109.3 kg
Fine aggregate (wet) 672 x 0.1 = 67.2 kg
Total 228.5 kg
Air-entraining
Admixture 218 g x 0.1 = 21.8 g or 21.8 mL
168
Water reducer 1305 g x 0.1 = 130 g or 130 mL
The above concrete, when mixed, had a measured slump of 100 mm, an air content of 9%, and a
density of 2274 kg per cubic meter. During mixing, some of the premeasured water may remain
unused or additional water may be added to approach the required slump. In this example,
although 8.5 kg of water was calculated to be added, the trial batch actually used only 8.0 kg.
The mixture excluding admixtures therefore becomes
Water 8.0 kg
Cement 43.5 kg
Coarse aggregate (2% MC) 109.3 kg
Fine aggregate (6% MC) 67.2 kg
Total 228.0 kg
280 kg
The yield of the trialbatch i s= =0.10026 m3
kg
2274
m3
The mixing water content is determined from the added water plus the free water on the
aggregates and is calculated as follows:
Water added =8.0 kg
( 109.3 ) X (0.015)
Free water on coarse aggregate= = 1.61 kg
(1.02)
( 67.2 ) X 0.053
Free water on fine aggregate= = 3.36kg
1.06
Total water 12.97 kg
Batch Adjustments
The measured 100-mm slump of the trial batch is unacceptable (above 75 mm ±20 mm max.),
the yield was slightly high, and the 9.0% air content as measured in this example is also too high
(more than 0.5% above 8.5% max.). Adjust the yield and re-estimate the amount of air-entraining
admixture required for an 8% air content and adjust the water to obtain a 75-mm slump.
Increase the mixing water content by 3 kg/m 3 for each 1% by which the air content is decreased
from that of the trial batch and reduce the water content by 2 kg/m 3 for each 10 mm reduction in
slump. The adjusted mixture water for the reduced slump and air content is (3 kg water x 1
169
percentage difference for air) – (2 kg water x 25/10 for slump change) + 129 = 127 kg of water
With less mixing water needed in the trial batch, less cement also is needed to maintain the
desired water cement ratio of 0.31.
127
The new cement content is ¿ = 410 kg
0.31
The amount of coarse aggregate remains unchanged because workability is satisfactory. The new
adjusted batch weights based on the new cement and water contents are calculated after the
following volume computations:
127
Water= = 0.127 m3
1 X 1000
410
Cement= = 0.137 m 3
3 X 1000
1072
Co arse aggregate dry= = 0.400 m 3
2.68 X 1000
8
Air= = 0.08 m 3
100
Total 0.744 m 3
The weight of dry fine aggregate required is 0.256 x 2.64 x 1000 = 676 kg
Air-entraining admixture (the manufacturer suggests reducing the dosage by 0.1 g to reduce air 1
percentage ) = 0.4 x 410 = 164 g or mL
Water reducer = 3.0 x 410 = 1230 g or mL
Adjusted batch weights per cubic meter of concrete are
Water 127 kg
Cement 410 kg
Coarse aggregate (dry) 1072 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) 676 kg
Total 2285 kg
Air-entraining admixture 164 g or mL
Water reducer 1230 g or mL
Estimated concrete = 127 + 410 + (1072 x 1.005)
density (aggregates + (676 x 1.007) at SSD) = 2295 kg/m3
170
After checking these adjusted proportions in a trial batch, it was found that the concrete had the
desired slump, air content, and yield. The 28-day test cylinders had an average compressive
strength of 48 MPa, which exceeds the f cr’ of 43.5 MPa. Due to fluctuations in moisture content,
absorption rates, and relative density (specific gravity) of the aggregate, the density determined
by volume calculations may not always equal the density determined by ASTM C 138
(AASHTO T 121). Occasionally, the proportion of fine to coarse aggregate is kept constant in
adjusting the batch weights to maintain workability or other properties obtained in the first trial
batch.
After adjustments to the cement, water, and air content have been made, the volume remaining
for aggregate is appropriately proportioned between the fine and coarse aggregates.
Additional trial concrete mixtures with water-cement ratios above and below 0.31 should also be
tested to develop strength to water-cement ratio relationship. From that data, a new more
economical mixture with a compressive strength closer to f cr’ and a lower cement content can be
proportioned and tested. The final mixture would probably look similar to the above mixture
with a slump range of 25 mm to 75 mm and an air content of 5% to 8%. The amount of air-
entraining admixture must be adjusted to field conditions to maintain the specified air content.
171
Assessment
1. Concrete gains strength due to

(A) Chemical reaction of cement with sand and coarse aggregates
(B) Evaporation of water from concrete
(C) Hydration of cement
(D) All the above
2. Admixtures which cause early setting and hardening of concrete are called
(A) Workability admixtures
(B) Accelerators
(C) Retarders
(D) Air entraining agent
3. Pick up the incorrect statement from the following:
(A) Admixtures accelerate hydration
(B) Admixtures make concrete water proof
(C) Admixtures make concrete acid proof
(D) Admixtures give high strength
4. In slump test, each layer of concrete is compacted by a steel rod 60 cm long and of 16 mm
diameter for
(A) 20 times
(B) 25 times
(C) 30 times
(D) 50 times
5. For preparing a test-specimen, it is necessary
(A) To mix cement and fine aggregate by dry hand
172
(B) To mix coarse aggregates
(C) To mix water to the cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
(D) All the above
6. The process of hardening the concrete by keeping its surface moist is known
(A) Placing
(B) Wetting
(C) Curing
(D) Compacting
7. Proper proportioning of concrete, ensures
(A) Desired strength and workability
(B) Desired durability
(C) Water tightness of the structure
(D) All the above
8. Air entrainment in the concrete increases
(A) Workability
(B) Strength
(C) The effects of temperature variations
(D) The unit weight
9. An aggregate is said to be flaky, if its least dimension is less than
(A) 2/3 mean dimension
(B) 3/4 mean dimension
(C) 3/5 mean dimension
(D) 5/8 mean dimension
10. 13. The effect of adding calcium chloride in concrete is
(i) To increase shrinkage
(ii) To decrease shrinkage
(iii) To increase setting time
(iv) To decrease setting time
The correct answer is
(A) (i) and (iii)
(B) (i) and (iv)
173
(C) (ii) and (iii)
(D) (ii) and (iv)
11. If the slump of a concrete mix is 60 mm, its workability is

(A) Very low
(B) Low
(C) Medium
(D) High
12. Pick up the correct statement from the following:
(A) The free water is the amount of water added while mixing and the amount of water held on
the surface of the aggregates prior to mixing
(B) The total water is the free water and the amount actually absorbed by the aggregates
(C) Neither (a) nor (b)
(D) Both (a) and (b)
13. Inert material of a cement concrete mix, is
(A) Water
(B) Cement
(C) Aggregate
(D) None of these
14. 16. Which of the following ratio is also known as water-cement ratio?
A) Weight of water to the weight of aggregates
B) Density of cement to the Density of cement
C) Weight of water to the weight of cement
D) Volume of cement to the volume of cement
15. The usual test for the workability of concrete is the:
A) Compression test
B) Sieve test
C) Silt test
D) Slump test
16. Curing of concrete is achieved by providing:
A) Cold surface conditions
174
B) Constant hot air
C) Intermittent surface heat
D) Damp conditions
17. The type of aggregate used for the manufacture of lightweight concrete blocks is:
A) Crushed sandstone
B) Pulverized fuel ash
C) Granite chippings
D) Broken old bricks
175
Subjective type questions
1. Define concrete.
2. List any three reasons why concrete is used as a building material.
3. Define bleeding.
4. Define segregation
5. What are the steps adopted to control bleeding?
6. Define workability. What are the factors that affect the workability of concrete?
7. Mention the steps adopted to control segregation of concrete.
8. What are the factors affecting proportioning of concrete mixes?
9. Define mixing of concrete.
10. Define curing of concrete.
11. What are admixtures?
12. Name the methods to measure the workability of concrete.
13. Define compaction factor.
14. What is Vee Bee consistometer?
15. a) Explain any three tests for fresh concrete in detail.
b) Explain any three tests for hardened concrete in detail.
16. Describe the importance of curing? When should it be commenced? For how long should
it be continued?
17. What are the reasons for the cracking of concrete and how does it affect durability.
18. What do you understand by carbonation of concrete? How is it tested?
176
References
[1]. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/pubs/013683.pdf
[2]. http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3137/slides/10%20-%20Properties%20of%20PCC.pdf
[3]. http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3137/Powerpoint%20Handouts/14%20-20Properties%20of
%20PCC.pdf
[4].https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
319839604_Various_types_of_Portland_cement_concrete_used_in_pavement_and_dam_const
ructions/link/59bec11f458515e9cfd225bb/download
[5]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/portland-cement-concrete
[6]. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov › dot › dot_24405_DS1
[7]. https://www.nbmcw.com/product-technology/construction-chemicals-waterproofing/
concrete-admixtures/concrete-mix-design-with-portland-pozzolana-cements.html
[8]. https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/design/mix-design/pcc-mix-design-
fundamentals/
[9].http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/79441/1/2.2%20.%20Cement%20Concrete
%20Mix%20Design.pdf
[10]. http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1112/notes/project_2/PCA_manual/Chap09.pdf
[11]. http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/malqedra/files/Portland-Cement1.pdf
[12]. https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/cement/111-properties-of-cement-
physical-chemical-properties
[13].https://books.google.com.et/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=uUcvBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=fresh+concrete+properties&ots=Do
PyzdoZ1U&sig=EHw
[14]. https://www.sathyabama.ac.in/sites/default/files/course-material/2020-10/SCI1103-UNIT-
3NOTES.PDF
177
[15]. https://www.civilknowledges.com/fresh-concrete-and-properties/
[16]. https://www.civilknowledges.com/types-of-cement-and-uses-concrete-construction/
[17]. https://civilseek.com/properties-of-hardened-concrete/
[18]. https://www.civilengineeringrealities.com/2020/07/properties-of-hardened-concrete.html
[19]. https://theconstructor.org/concrete/properties-of-hardened-concrete/6492/
[20]. http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/malqedra/files/Hardened-Concrete1.pdf
[21]. https://www.teachmint.com/tfile/studymaterial/class-st/dgjjbc/u4hardenedconcretepdf/
515ad5a7-a472-4256-adf8-21426490183b
178
179
Chapter Four: Metals in constructions
4.1 Classification of Metals
Metals are classified into two main categories: (1) Ferrous metals which have iron as the main
constituent, and (ii) Non-Ferrous metals, where in iron is not the main constituent.
Although there are many types of metals presently extracted in different parts of the world, those
used in the construction industry are very few in number and have as base metals: Aluminum,
Copper, Lead, Iron and Zinc. In the following topics both ferrous and non-ferrous metal will be
discussed.
Ferrous Metals
The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of iron and steel. Most
common engineering materials are ferrous materials which are alloys of iron. Ferrous means
iron. Iron is the name given to pure ferrite Fe, as well as to fused mixtures of this ferrite with
large amount of carbon (may be 1.8%), these mixtures are known as pig iron and cast iron.
Primarily pig iron is produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from which cast iron,
wrought iron and steel can be produced.
Iron is never found in its pure form in nature. It has to be extracted from ores, which are classed
according to the iron mineral that is predominant.
Magnetite (Fe3O4): - Brown or steel gray to black in color, it is very hard and magnetic. It is
also the richest iron ore, containing 65-75% iron when mined.
Hematite (Fe2O3): Another oxide of iron, red to brown in color, found in hard or soft deposits, it
contains 45-65% iron.
Limonite (Fe2O3 + nH2O): Hydrated iron or hydrated hematite is yellow in color, becomes red
hematite dehydrated at high temperature. It normally contains 20-50% iron.
Siderite (Fe2CO3): The carbonate of iron, gray in color and usually hard and stone like contains
about 30% iron.
Iron ores are sometimes classified according to their phosphorous content because this impurity
cannot be removed in the blast furnace, and because it has a bad effect on the properties of iron
and steel. These are: i) low phosphorous ores, containing up to about 0.04% phosphorous. They
180
usually have a relatively high silicon content, and (ii) high phosphorous or basic ores, with up to
about 2.5% phosphorous.
Alloys of Iron
Pure iron is a relatively soft and readily cold-worked metal. Its typical mechanical properties
are:
Tensile strength = 310 MPa, Elongation in 50 mm = 35.40 %
Yield point = 207 MPa, Reduction in area = 75 %
With such high percentage elongation and reduction in area pure iron cannot be used effectively
for structural purposes. In order to improve some of its properties and make it a useful and
effective material, pure iron is alloyed with other chemical elements.
A large number of elements form alloys with iron. These include carbon, chromium,
manganese, nickel, silicon that combined with iron, form commercially important alloys.
There are different ways of forming alloys, the two most important being (a) the method of
fusion of the constituents and solidification after mixture, and (b) the method of diffusion,
where the main metal is in its solid state, and the diffusing material is gas, liquid or solid. The
method of fusion is the most common
 Steel
Alloys of iron and carbon, and at times other elements added for special purposes, make
up the important classes of ferrous metals known as steel and cast iron, By varying the
carbon content one can impart desired characteristics to the final product. For engineering
purposes, however only the iron-carbon system between zero and 6.67% carbon by
weight is of importance in the study of steel and cast iron. The iron-carbon alloys
containing from a trace to about 2% carbon with only negligible amount of other
elements are called plain carbon steels. With carbon content between 2% and 6.67% the
alloys are referred to as cast iron. While the iron containing a trace of carbon is referred
to as soft or dead mild steel, that containing 6.67% and represented by the formula
(Fe3C) (iron carbide) is commonly called cementite. Cementite is a very hard and brittle
alloy.
Plain carbon steels are elastic materials with relatively high compressive, tensile and
shear strength. They are also relatively stiff having generally high modulus of elasticity.
181
Carbon content and ultimate tensile strength have a linear relationship. The yield point of
steel in tension also increases with carbon content. The ultimate compressive strength of
steel in short members not affected by column action is proportional to the carbon content
up to 0.83 %.
Dead mild steel (carbon content 0.07 -0.15 %) subject to tension test will draw down and
elongate extensively before rupture takes place: however this behavior changes with
increasing carbon content.
The shearing strength of steel also increases with carbon content and is approximately
80% of the tensile strength for mild and medium-carbon steel, but decreases to 60% for
high-carbon steel.
The ultimate strength, yield point, modulus of elasticity and hardness of steel decrease
with increase in temperature. Mechanical work performed on a steel product affects its
internal structure and properties. The effect on the properties depends to a certain extent
on the temperature at which the mechanical work is performed, i.e., hot working or cold
working.
Hot working of steel is done by hot rolling, forging, hydraulic or- mechanical pressing
and extrusion. Cold working is generally done at room temperature and the properties of
cold-worked steel depend on the method and amount of cold work. In general, cold
working leads to a marked increase in ductility and toughness; however, extensive cold
working has a marked effect on high carbon than low carbon steels.
 Alloy Steels
While alloys of iron and carbon are referred to as plain carbon steels, the term
alloy steels is applied to alloys of iron, carbon and one or more metallic elements,
such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, etc.
The important reason for adding alloys other than carbon is to increase the
strength and hardness of the steel.
For instance, next to carbon, molybdenum is the most effective hardening
element. Chromium also gives great hardness.
Nickel, silicon and tungsten increase strength. Chromium also insures increased
resistance to corrosion. A combination of 18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel
182
and 0.07 to 0.16 percent carbons added to iron results in a particularly effective
stainless steel.
Different types of alloys of steel will be discussed below
o Stainless steels
The only material known to engineers which possesses a combination of various
properties such as: wide range of strength and hardness, high ductility and
formability, high corrosion resistance, good creep resistance, good thermal
conductivity, good machinability, high hot & cold workability and excellent
surface finish is stainless steel.
Alloy steels have been developed for a specific purpose. We shall study them as
follows
(1) Ferritic stainless steel: It is that steel when properly heat treated and
finished, resists oxidation and corrosive attacks from corrosive media. Ferritic
stainless steels contain 12–18% chromium, 0.15 to 0.2% carbon besides iron and
usual amounts of manganese and silicon. The steels are stainless and relatively
cheap. They are magnetic in nature. Structure of these steels consists of ferrite
phase which cannot be hardened by heat treatment. These steels are actually iron-
chromium alloys and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Such type of steel is
utilized in manufacture of dairy equipment food processing plants, etc.
(2) Martensitic stainless steel: These steels contain 12–18% chromium and 0.1
to 1.8% carbon. These steels can be hardened by heat treatment but their
corrosion resistance is decreased. Steels with 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3%
carbon are widely used for table cutlery, tools and equipment. Steel with little
less carbon percentage and higher percentage of chromium are used as springs,
ball bearings and instruments under high temperature and corrective conditions.
(3) Austentic stainless steels: These are the most costliest among all stainless
steels. In these steels besides chromium, nickel is also added. Nickel is a very
strong austenitic stabilizer and therefore the microstructure of these steels is
austentic at room temperature. These steels contain 12 to 21% chromium and 8
to 15% nickel and carbon less than 0.2%. The most familiar alloy of this group is
183
known as 18:8 stainless steel i.e. 18% chromium and 8% nickel plus other. Other
elements like carbon, manganese and silicon in very small quantities.
o Tool steels
Tool steels are specially alloyed steels designed for high strength, impact toughness and
wear resistance at room and elevated temperatures. They are normally used in forming
and machining of metals. So the requirements in a tool steel are that it should be
capable of becoming very hard and further that it should be able to retain its hardness at
high temperatures normally developed during cutting of materials. This property is
known as “red hardness”. Further, tool steel should not be brittle for smooth working.
1. High Speed Steel (H.S.S.)
It is the name given to the most common tool steel. As the name implies, it can
cut steel at high cutting speeds. These steels are high in alloy content, have
excellent hardenability, maintain their hardness at elevated temperatures around
650°C, are quite resistant to wear and contain relatively large amounts of
tungsten or molybdenum, together with chromium, cobalt or vanadium. They are
used to produce cutting tools to be operated for various machining operations
such as turning, drilling, milling, etc. A typical composition of H.S.S. is tungsten
18%, chromium 4% and vanadium 1%, carbon 0.75 to 0.9% and rest iron.
2. Molybdenum High Speed Steel
This steel contains 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium and 2%
vanadium and have excellent toughness and cutting ability. The molybdenum
high speed steel are better and cheaper than other types of steel. It is particularly
utilized in drilling and tapping operations.
Annealing
 Annealing is a heat treatment process in which a metal is heated above its
recrystallization temperature, kept at that temperature for some time for homogenization,
and then cooled slowly to develop an equilibrium structure.
The followings are the purposes of Annealing:
(1) To remove structural inhomogeneity
(2) To relieve internal stresses
184
(3) To soften the metal for easy machinability
(4) To remove the gases trapped inside the structure
(5) To refine the grain to obtain the desired structure
(6) To alter ductility, toughness and electrical properties
There are various methods of Annealing and described below:
 Full annealing:
During this process, heating phase results in fine grained austenite and thus,
fine grained structure is obtained on cooling. This results in improvement in
mechanical properties, high ductility and high toughness. It is the process
where hypo eutectoid steel is heated 30–50°C above the critical temperature,
holding it for some time at that temperature which heats the metal
thoroughly and phase transformation takes place throughout. This is
followed by slow cooling in furnace.
Heating rate is usually 100°C/hr and holding time is 1 hr/ton of metal,
cooling rate is kept from 10°C–100°C for alloy steels and can be 200°C/hr
for carbon steels.
 Partial annealing:
It is a process where steel is heated slightly above lower critical temperature
and this annealing is applied for hypereutectoid steels only. It is also applied
to hypo eutectoid steels where hardness is to be reduced while improving
machinability.
In this operation, pearlite is transformed to austenite and ferrite is partially
deformed into austenite. Heating and holding period is followed by slow
cooling.
Isothermal Annealing:
Steel is heated in the same way as it is treated in full annealing and then it is
rapidly cooled from 500°C to 100°C below critical temperature. This is
followed by keeping steel at this temperature for a long period which results
in complete decomposition of iron. Then this is cooled in air. The isothermal
annealing results in improved machinability and more homogenous structure
throughout the section.
185
 WROUGHT IRON
The meaning of “wrought” is that metal which possesses sufficient ductility in order to
permit hot and/or cold deformation. Wrought iron is the purest iron with a small amount
of slag forged out into fibres. The typical composition indicates 99 per cent of iron and
traces of carbon, phosphorus, manganese, silicon, sulphur and slag. During the
production process, first all elements in iron (may be C, S, Mn, Si and P) are eliminated
leaving almost pure iron molten slag. In order to remove the excess slag, the final mix is
then squeezed in a press and reduced to billets by rolling milling. The resulting material
would consist of pure iron separated by thin layers of slag material. The slag
characteristic of wrought iron is beneficial in blacksmithy/forging operations and
provides the material its peculiar fibrous structure. Further, the non-corrosive slag
constituent makes wrought iron resistant to progressive corrosion and also helps in
reducing effect of fatigue caused by shocks and vibrations.
Wrought iron is tough, malleable and ductile and possesses ultimate tensile strength of
350 N/mm2. Its melting point is 1530°C. It can neither be hardened nor tempered like
steel. The billets of wrought iron can be reheated to form bars, plates, boiler tubing,
forgings, crane hook, railway coupling, bolts and nuts, chains, barbed wire, coal
handling equipment and cooling towers, etc.
 CAST IRON
It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.5
to 4 per cent. Small amounts of silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus are also
present in it. Carbon in cast iron is present either in free state like graphite or in combined
state as cementite. Cast iron contains so much carbon or its equivalent that it is not
malleable. One characteristic (except white cast iron) is that much of carbon content is
present in free form as graphite. Largely the properties of cast iron are determined by this
fact.
Melting point of cast iron is much lower than that of steel. Most of the castings produced
in a cast iron foundry are of grey cast iron. These are cheap and widely used.
The characteristics of cast iron which make it a valuable material for engineering
applications are:
(1) Very good casting characteristics.
186
(2) Low cost
(3) High compressive strength
(4) Good wear resistance
(5) Excellent machinability
The main limitation of this metal is brittleness and low tensile strength and thus cannot be
used in those components subjected to shocks. The varieties of cast iron in common use
are:
(1) Grey cast iron
(2) White cast iron
(3) Malleable cast iron
(4) Nodular cast iron
(5) Chilled cast iron
(6) Alloy cast iron
 Grey Cast Iron
It is the iron which is most commonly used in foundry work. If this iron is machined
or broken, its fractured section shows the greyish colour, hence the name “grey” cast
iron. The grey colour is due to the fact that carbon is present in the form of free
graphite. A very good characteristic of grey cast iron is that the free graphite in its
structure acts as a lubricant. This is suitable for those components/products where
sliding action is desired.
The other properties are good machinability, high compressive strength, low tensile
strength and no ductility.
In view of its low cost, it is preferred in all fields where ductility and high strength are
not required. The grey cast iron castings are widely utilized in machine tool bodies,
automobile cylinder blocks and flywheels, etc.
 White Cast Iron
It is so called due to the whitish colour shown by its fracture. White cast iron contains
carbon exclusively in the form of iron carbide Fe3C (cementite). From engineering
point of view, white cast iron has limited applications. This is because of poor
machinability and possessing, in general, relatively poor mechanical properties. It is
used for inferior castings and places where hard coating is required as in outer surface
187
of car wheels. Only crushing rolls are made of white cast iron. But it is used as raw
material for production of malleable cast iron.
 Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron. The white cast iron is brittle
and hard. It is, therefore, unsuitable for articles which are thin, light and subjected
to shock and vibrations or for small castings used in various machine components.
The malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron by suitable heat
treatment, i.e., annealing. This process separates the combined carbon of the white
cast iron into noddles of free graphite.
The malleable cast iron is ductile and may be bent without rupture or breaking the
section. Its tensile strength is usually higher than that of grey cast iron and has
excellent machining qualities. Malleable cast iron components are mainly utilized
in place of forged steel or parts where intricate shape of these parts creates forging
problem. This material is principally employed in rail, road automotive and pipe
fittings etc.
 Nodular Cast Iron
It is also known as “spheroidal graphite iron” or Ductile iron or High strength
“Cast iron”. This nodular cast iron is obtained by adding magnesium to the molten
cast iron. The magnesium converts the graphite of cast iron from flake to
spheroidal or nodular form. In this manner, the mechanical properties are
considerably improved. The strength increases, yield point improves and
brittleness is reduced. Such castings can even replace steel components.
Outstanding characteristics of nodular cast iron are high fluidity which allows the
castings of intricate shape. This cast iron is widely used in castings where density
as well as pressure tightness is a highly desirable quality. The applications include
hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and pipe fittings, cylinder head for compressors,
diesel engines, etc.
 Chilled Cast Iron
Quick cooling is generally known as chilling and the iron so produced is “chilled
iron”. The outer surface of all castings always gets chilled to a limited depth about
188
(1 to 2 mm) during pouring and solidification of molten metal after coming in
contact with cool sand of mould. Sometimes the casting is chilled intentionally and
some becomes chilled accidentally to a small depth. Chills are employed on any
faces of castings which are required to be hard to withstand wear and friction.
Chilled castings are used in producing stamping dies and crushing rolls railway,
wheels cam followers, and so on.
 Alloy Cast Iron
Alloying elements are added to cast iron to overcome inherent deficiencies in
ordinary cast iron to provide requisite characteristics for special purposes. The alloy
cast iron is 20 Manufacturing Processes extremely tough, wear resistant and non-
magnetic steel about 12 to 14 per cent manganese should be added.
(5) Nickel: It may be termed as one of the most important alloying elements. It
improves tensile strength, ductility, toughness and corrosion resistance.
(6) Chromium: Its addition to steel improves toughness, hardness and corrosion
resistance.
(7) Boron: It increases hardenability and is therefore very useful when alloyed with
low carbon steels.
(8) Cobalt: It is added to high speed steels to improve hardness, toughness, tensile
strength, thermal resistance and magnetic properties. It acts as a grain purifier.
(9) Tungsten: Tungsten improves hardness, toughness, wear resistance, shock
resistance, magnetic reluctance and ability to retain hardness at elevated
temperatures. It provides hardness and abrasion resistance properties to steel.
(10) Molybdenum: It improves wear resistance, hardness, thermal resistance, ability
to retain mechanical properties at elevated temperatures and helps to inhibit temper
brittleness.
(11) Vanadium: It increases tensile strength, elastic limit, ductility, shock resistance
and also acts s a degaser when added to molten steel. It provides improvement to
hardenability of steel.
(12) It is a very good deoxidizer and promotes grain growth. It is the strongest
carbide former. Titanium is used to fix carbon in stainless steel and thus prevents
the precipitation of chromium-carbide.
189
(13) Niobium: It improves ductility, decreases hardenability and substantially
improves the impact strength. It also promotes fine grain growth.
Non-ferrous metals and alloys
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as base
metal. These metals possess low strength at high temperatures, generally suffer from hot
shortness and have more shrinkage than ferrous metals. They are utilized in industry due to
following advantages:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Easy to fabricate – machinability, casting, welding etc
3. Great thermal conductivity
4. Great electrical conductivity
5. Low density (less mass)
6. Colorful
7. Non-magnetic
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron as main constituent or base metal.
Non-ferrous metals have industrial applications because of their case of fabrication (like rolling,
forging, casting, welding, and machining), electrical and thermal conductivity, resistance to
corrosion, light-weight, etc.
However, at high temperatures, their strength is lowered, and shrinkage is more than ferrous
metals. The principal non-ferrous metals used in engineering applications are Copper,
Aluminum, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Cobalt, Nickel, Chromium, Magnesium, and their alloys.
Ferrous Metals like steel and iron is used commonly in buildings and engineering industries.
However, many non-ferrous metals and their alloys have also been used to great advantage in
both buildings and engineering industries.
In fact, in some cases, they form far better materials than iron and steel and have replaced them
to a great extent.
However, the non-ferrous metals are comparatively costlier and are selected for use only when
they satisfy certain specific requirements and possess some definite properties.
Following are the special advantages of non-ferrous metals over ferrous metals in some selected
areas.
190
In Civil Engineering Construction, Aluminum and some of its alloys offer a very suitable
alternative material to steel in some special engineering construction. Thus, wrought aluminum
alloys are:
Economical;
Resistant to Corrosion;
Light in weight;
Compared to steels, they have been used in, i.e., construction of bridges and roofs in situations
where not much strength is required.
In these situations, they have been found to save 50% of extra weight.
In Engineering Industries, Copper, zinc, nickel, and chromium in their pure and alloyed forms
have been used as materials in situations where:
High tensile strength is required at elevated temperatures.
High ductility and malleability are required.
High resistance to heat is required.
High electrical conductivity is required.
In the above fields and situations, mostly non-ferrous metals are used.
4.2. Properties of steel and aluminum alloys
Properties of Steels
When selecting a steel material for a particular application, user has to be confident that it will be
suitable for the loading conditions and environmental challenges it will be subjected to while in
service. Understanding and control of the properties of the steel material is therefore necessary.
Further properties of steel can be controlled through different processes such as hot and cold
working, heat treatment etc.
There are many measurement systems used to define the properties of given steel. These
measurement systems normally come under three categories. These are physical properties,
chemical properties, and mechanical properties.
191
Physical properties of steels
The physical properties of steel depend on the percentage composition of the constituent
elements and the manufacturing process. The properties of steel are totally different from its
component elements – iron and carbon. One of its major properties is the ability to cool down
rapidly from an extremely hot temperature after being subjected to water or oil. And a particular
amount of carbon can be dissolved in iron at a specific temperature.
The physical properties of steel include high strength, low weight, durability, ductility and
resistance to corrosion. Steel, as we all know, offers great strength though it is light in weight. In
fact, the ratio of strength to weight for steel is the lowest than any other building material
available to us. The term ductility means steel can be molded easily to form any desired shape.
Unlike the constituent element iron, steel does not corrode easily, on being exposed to moisture
and water. The dimensional stability of steel is a desired property; it is found that the dimension
of steel remains unchanged even after many years, or after being subjected to extreme
environmental conditions. Steel is a good conductor of electricity, i.e., electricity can pass
through steel.
Steel grades are classified by many standard organizations, based on the composition and the
physical properties of the metal. The deciding factor for the grade of steel is basically its
chemical composition and the supplied condition. The higher the carbon content, the harder and
stronger is the steel metal. On the contrary, a high quality steel containing less carbon is more
ductile.
Earlier forms of steel consisted of more carbon, as compared to the present day steel. Today, the
steel manufacturing process is such that less carbon is added and the metal is cooled down
immediately, so as to retain the desirable physical properties. Rapid cooling (or quenching) of
steel also alters the grain structure.
192
There are other types of steel such as galvanized steel and stainless steel (corrosion-resistant
steel). Galvanized steel is coated with zinc to protect it from corrosion, whereas stainless steel
contains about 10 percent chromium in its composition.
Chemical properties of steels
Iron is the basic component of steel. When carbon (C), a nonmetal, is added to iron (Fe) in
amounts up to 2.0 %, the result is an alloy known as steel. Composition of steel mainly consists
of iron and other elements such as carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and alloying
elements. A large number of elements in wide ranging percentages are used for the purpose of
alloying of steels. Variations in chemical composition of steels are responsible for a great variety
of steel grades and steel properties. Each element that is added to the basic steel composition has
some effect on the properties of the steel and how that steel reacts to the processes of working
and fabrication of steels. The chemical composition of steel also determines the behaviour of
steel in different environments. Steel standards define the limits for composition, quality and
performance parameters for various steel grades
Mechanical properties of steels
Mechanical properties of steels are defined as the reaction of the steels to certain types of
external forces. Steel standards define the limits for different mechanical properties for various
steel grades. These standards also specify the methods for preparation of testing samples and the
procedure for testing. The following are the mechanical properties which are applicable to steels.
 Tensile strength (TS) – It is the maximum force that the steel material withstands before
fracturing. It is also called ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This is usually reported in
terms of force per unit of area (newtons per square millimeter).
 Yield strength (YS) – It is the force that the steel material can withstand before
permanent deformation occurs. It is also reported as force per unit of area (newtons per
square millimeter).
 Proof load testing – It is often used interchangeably with yield strength. It refers to the
tension-applied load that a test sample must support without evidence of deformation.
193
 Ductility – It is the ability of the steel material to deform without fracturing. It is
normally reported in percentage as elongation and reduction of area in a cross section that
has been purposely fractured.
 Tensile strength, yield strength, proof load testing, and ductility of steel are determined
by performing a tension test in which a standard sample of the material is subjected to a
pulling force that increases gradually until the material deforms, stretches, and fractures.
Relationship of C percentage with mechanical properties of steel is shown in Fig 1
Figure 4.1. Relationship of carbon % with mechanical properties of steel
 Hardness – Hardness is the resistance of the steel material to penetration. It is different

from hardenability which is a measure of the ability of the steel to respond to heat
treatment. Hardness is measured by applying a standard force to the surface of the steel
through a small, hardened ball point, and then measuring the diameter of the resulting
impression. Hardness usually is reported as a value on one of two industry standard
scales, Brinell or Rockwell. Brinell hardness is usually more accurate for measuring
hardness of plate products.
 Impact strength – It is the ability of the steel material to withstand a high velocity impact.
Impact strength is measured by subjecting a standard notched sample to a swinging
weight. As it is often important to know how the steel will perform in colder
environments, this test is often done at sub-zero temperatures. Known as a notch test or
194
Charpy test, the testing requires three standard samples of a defined grain orientation.
The results are reported as joules, showing the average of the three specimens and the
lowest value of the three, at the testing temperature.
 Torque test – Torque is the angular force required to turn something. It is the tendency of
a force to rotate a steel object about an axis. Torque testing is accomplished by inserting a
torque transducer between the tool applying the force and the item against which the
force is being applied. There are two different approaches to torque measurement namely
reaction and in-line. In-line torque testing measures the torque required to turn the
rotating part while reaction measures the amount required to prevent the part from
rotating.
 Fatigue testing – It is performed on steel parts to simulate the progressive and localized
structural damage that occurs when steel material is subjected to cyclic loading.
Fatigue is the weakening of the steel material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the
progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when the steel material is
subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage
may be much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the UTS limit or
YS limit.
 Bend test – It determines the ductility or the strength of the steel material by bending the
material over a given radius.
 Shear Testing – Shear strength measures steel material’s response to shear loading, a
force that tends to produce a sliding failure on the steel material along a plane that is
parallel to the direction of the force.
Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys at High Temperatures
The properties of aluminum alloys are compromised at elevated temperatures well before the
metal reaches its melting temperature.
For most of the alloys, strengths after significant times at temperatures above 150 to 200 ° C
(300 to 400 ° F) are lower than those at room temperature, and the amount of the strength
reduction may increase with both increasing temperature and/ or increasing time at an elevated
temperature.
195
As a result, most aluminum alloys are not usually recommended for longtime service at or above
these temperatures, but they are widely used in the temperature range from room temperature up
to 150 to 200 ° C. Certain alloys specifically designed to maximum high-temperature resistance,
such as those in the 2x x x aluminum-copper series, are usually chosen for applications in the
higher end of this range.
Physical Properties of Aluminum Alloys
Several of the physical properties of aluminum and its alloys provide some protection when the
alloys are near a fire in an adjacent structure and also lessen their increase in temperature in the
early stages of a more immediate fire. Those physical properties include
 The specific heat capacity of aluminum alloys (816 to 1050 J/kg K, or 0.195 to 0.258
Btu/lb ā F), which is approximately twice that of steel (377 to 502 -/kg ā K, or 0.090 to
0
0.120 Btu/lb F. This means that it takes twice as much heat energy to raise the
temperature of aluminum one degree as compared to a similar mass of steel. So in any
fire, aluminum members would be relatively slower to heat. This advantage is retained as
temperature increases, because the specific heat of aluminum alloys increases with
temperature to the melting point.
 The thermal conductivity of aluminum and its alloys, which is 88 to 251 W/m ā K, or 51
to 164 Btu (h. ft. 0F), and increases with increase in temperature . This is several times
the value for steels (11 to 63 W/m. K, or 6 to 37 Btu [.h . ft . 0 F]) Thus, heat from a
localized source will be distributed along an aluminum structure in a much more efficient
manner, enabling it to be radiated off and minimizing hot spots. Also, if the structure is
sufficiently massive, the aluminum can act as a heat sink to slow the rate of increase of
temperature in the early stages of a fire, increasing the period of serviceability. This
might make the difference in prolonging structural endurance in a fire and allowing time
to evacuate a burning structure.
 The reflectivity of aluminum, which is very high80 to 90% of incident radiation, many
times that of bare steel, and reportedly 17 to 19 times greater than the usual painted steel
structures . It remains very high, even at high temperatures and even for old and oxidized
surfaces. Thus for bare aluminum or aluminum alloys, this high reflectivity also
contributes to a slower rise in temperature and longer serviceability than for most
196
structural steels during the early stages of a fire. Reflectivity is decreased if the aluminum
surfaces are painted or become coated with soot.
 The emissivity of aluminum alloys (0.02 to 0.10 ε for most structural aluminum alloys),
which is lower than that of carbon steels (0.10 to 0.80 ε) and stainless steels (0.27 ε). This
also contributes to the ability of aluminum alloys to heat up more slowly than steels in the
early stages of a fire, allowing more time for occupants to escape the fire. While
emissivity varies greatly depending on surface quality and cleanliness, steel members
may heat up approximately four times faster than comparable aluminum alloy members
in a non-engulfing fire (
As noted, these physical properties are most important if the aluminum components of the
structure are nearby or adjacent to the main fire in another structure, but they may also be
helpful in the very early stages of a serious conflagration in the immediate structure. If the
aluminum members become heavily coated with soot, the advantages offered by the physical
properties of the original components are diminished or nonexistent.
4.3. Properties and uses of metals
Copper
The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains 68%
purity known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%) copper,
which is remelted and casted into suitable shapes? Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an
attractive reddish brown colour.
Properties and Uses
(1) High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating vessels and appliances, etc.
(2) High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various shapes and forms
for various applications.
(3) Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior to nickel and
chromium plating
(4) High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun. Requires annealing after cold
working as it loses its ductility.
197
Aluminum
Aluminum is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral
known as bauxite.
Properties and Uses
(1) Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.
(2) It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good as copper.
(3) Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
(4) Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after cold working.
(5) In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical transmission
and appliances to some extent.
(6) It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.
Lead
Lead is the heaviest of the common metal. Lead is extracted from its ore known as galena. It
is bluish grey in color and dull lustered which goes very dull on exposure to air.
Properties and Uses
(1) Its specific gravity is 7.1 and melting point is 360°C.
(2) It is resistant to corrosion and many chemicals do not react with it (even acids).
(3) It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily worked and shaped.
(4) Lead is utilized as alloying element in producing solders and plumber’s solders.
(5) It is alloyed with brass as well as steel to improve their machinability.
(6) It is utilized in manufacturing of water pipes, coating for electrical cables, acid tanks and
roof covering etc.
Tin
It is a brilliant white metal with yellowish tinge. Melting point of tin is 240°C Properties and
Uses
(1) Tin is malleable and ductile, it can be rolled into very thin sheets.
(2) It is used for tinning of copper and brass utensils and copper wire before its conversion
into cables.
(3) It is useful as a protective coating for iron and steel since it does corrode in dry or wet
atmosphere.
198
(4) It is utilized for making important alloys such as fine solder and moisture proof packing
with thin tin sheets.
Zinc
The chief ores of zinc are blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO3). Zinc is a fairly heavy; bluish-
white metal principally utilized in view of its low cost, corrosion resistance and alloying
characteristics. Melting point of zinc is 420°C and it boils at 940°C.
Properties and Uses
(1) High corrosion resistance: Widely used as protective coating on iron and steel.
Coating may be provided by dip galvanizing or electroplating.
(2) High fluidity and low melting point: Most suitable metal for pressure die casting
generally in the form of alloy.
(3) When rolled into sheets, zinc is utilized for roof covering and for providing a damp proof
non-corrosive lining to containers.
(4) The galvanized wires, nails, etc. are produced by galvanizing technique and zinc is also
used in manufacture of brasses.
Nickel
About at least 85% of all nickel production is obtained from sulphide ores.
Properties and Uses
1. Pure nickel is tough, silver coloured metal, harder than copper having some but less
ductility but of about same strength.
2. It is plated on steel to provide a corrosion resistance surface or layer.
3. Widely used as an alloying element with steel. Higher proportions are advantageously
added in the production of steel such as monel or in conel.
4. It possesses good resistance to both acids and alkalis regarding corrosion so widely
utilized in food processing equipment.
Magnesium
Principal Ores of magnesium are magnesite, carnallite and dolomite. Magnesium is extracted
by electrolytic process.
Properties and Uses:
(1) It is the lightest of all metals weighing around two-thirds of aluminium.
199
(2) The tensile strength of cast metal is the same as that of ordinary cast aluminium, i.e., 90
MPa.
(3) The tensile strength of rolled annealed magnesium is same as that of good quality cast
iron.
(4) Magnesium can be easily formed, drawn forged and machined with high accuracy.
(5) In powdered form it is likely to burn, in that situation adequate fire protection measures
should be strictly observed.
(6) Its castings are pressure tight and achieve good surface finish. Magnesium castings
include motor car gearbox, differential housing and portable tools.
200
Assessment
1. Aluminum is commercially produced usually from _____________.
a) Hematite
b) Pyrite
c) Malachite
d) Bauxite
2. Which of the following properties is not exhibited by Aluminium ?
a) Aluminum is poor conductor to heat and electricity
b) Aluminum is light in weight
c) It is readily dissolved in HCl
d) Aluminum is resistant to corrosion
3. The crude impure iron extracted from ore of iron is called as _____________.
a) Cast iron
b) Wrought iron
c) Steel
d) Pig iron
4. Which one of the following metals is good conductor of electricity and conducts as much as of the
other elements?
a) Fe
b) Cu
c) Hg
d) Al
5. Which metal is used for making water and steam pipes?
a) Zinc
201
b) Aluminum
c) Copper
d) Iron
6. Which one of the following iron contains 65-75% iron when mined?
a) Magnetite (Fe3O4
b) Hematite (Fe2O3):
c) Limonite (Fe2O3 + nH2O):
d) Siderite (Fe2CO3):
7. The carbonate of iron, gray in color and usually hard and stone like contains about 30% iron is known
as ________________________.
a) Magnetite (Fe3O4
b) Hematite (Fe2O3):
c) Limonite (Fe2O3 + nH2O):
d) Siderite (Fe2CO3):
8. Steel is alloy of _________________and _____________.
a) Iron and copper
b) Iron and aluminum
c) Iron and carbon
d) Iron and Nickel
9. The shear strength of mild and medium-carbon steel ___________________with increasing the carbon
content.
a) No change
b) Decreases
c) Increases
10. During alloy of steel which one of the following metals increases hardness to steel?
a) Aluminum b) Molybdenum c) Chromium nickel d) b and c
202
1. What are metals? Classify engineering materials.

2. What are ferrous metals? Classify ferrous materials.
3. What are alloy steels? How are alloy steels classified?
4. Why is alloying done?
5. What is annealing in metal production?
6. What properties have made aluminum and its alloys the most important non-ferrous metal?
203
References
[1]. https://ominy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/MetalsInConstruction_Spring14_Web.pdf
[3].https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
295919345_Metal_Structures_Metals_and_Welding_in_Construction
[4]. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/4-461-building-technology-i-materials-and-construction-fall-
2004/02eeff6ca6da30e662ef16a2894db805_lect17b.pdf
[5]. https://northern-weldarc.com/five-uses-of-structural-steel-in-the-construction-industry/
[6]. hhttps://www.ispatguru.com/preference-of-steel-as-a-material-of-construction/
[7]. https://www.cdmg.com/building-faqs/most-used-metals-in-construction
[8]. luminiumwarehouse.co.uk/blog/common-metals-in-the-construction-industry/#:~:text=Some%20of
%20the%20most%20common,%2C%20brass%2C%20and%20mild%20steel.
204
205
Chapter Five: Soil as road construction material
5.1 Soil formation and types of soil
Formation of soils
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration, chemical

decomposition and soil which are of organic origin. When a rock surface gets exposed to
atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus
the soils are formed.
 Physical disintegration
Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occurs due to the following
physical processes:
 Temperature changes
Different minerals of rocks have different coefficients of thermal expansion.

Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur due to temperature
changes. When the stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many
times, the particles get detached from the rocks and the soils are formed.
 Wedging action of ice
Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very cold climates.
As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks
get broken into pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging
action of the ice formed.
 Spreading of roots of plants
As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks,
forces act on the rocks. The segments of the rock are forced apart and
disintegration of rocks occurs.
 Abrasion
206
As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and
scouring takes place. It results in the formation of soils.
Note: In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the

chemical composition. The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock.
Coarse grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of
physical disintegration.
 Chemical decomposition
When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place, original
rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical reactions. The soils
formed do not have the properties of the parent rock. The following chemical processes
generally occur in nature:
 Hydration
In hydration, water combines with rock minerals and results in the formation of
a new chemical compound. The chemical reaction causes a change in volume
and decomposition of rock into small particles.
An example of hydration reaction that is taking place in soils is the hydrolysis

of SiO2
SiO2+ 2H2O Si(OH)4
 Carbonation
It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid
reacts chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition.
The example for this type of is, that is taking place in sedimentary rocks which
contain calcium carbonate.
 Oxidation
207
Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with minerals in rock. Oxidation
results in decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to
rusting of steel.
 Solution
Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get dissolved
in water. Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are formed.
 Hydrolysis
It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and OH– ions.
The hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and
potassium in rock minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical
composition.
Note: Chemical decomposition of rocks result in the formation of clay minerals. The
clay minerals impart plastic properties of soils. Clayey soils are formed by chemical
decomposition.
The soils those are formed due to the weathering of parent rocks can be divided into two groups:
i) Transported soil and ii) Residual soil.
The soil is called Transported soil if the products of rock weathering are transported from the
place where they originated and re-deposited to any other place.
The soil is called Residual soil if the products of rock weathering are still located at the place
where they originated. Figure 1.2 shows the various types of soils formed due to weathering of
parent rocks.
208
Figure 5.1. Soil bases on its formation
Figure 5.2. Soil formation due to weathering of parent rock
209
Depending upon the way of formation, the transported soil can be divided into five types: i)
Alluvial deposit ii) Aeolian deposit iii) Glacial deposit iv) Lacustrine deposit v) Marine deposit.
The Alluvial soils are deposited from the suspension of flowing water. The soils are called
Aeolian if they have been transported by wind. If the soils have been transported by ice are
called Glacial deposit. Lacustrine soils have been deposited from the suspension in still and fresh
water of lakes. Marine soils have been deposited from the suspension in sea water.
 Transportation of soils
The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places by agents of
transportation, such as water, ice, wind and gravity.
o Water transported soils
Flowing water is one of the most important agents of transportation of

soils. The size of the soil particles carried by water depends upon the
velocity. The swift water can carry the particles of large size such as
boulders and gravels. With a decrease in velocity, the coarser particles
get deposited. The finer particles are carried further downstream and
deposited when the velocity reduces. An outlet is formed when the
velocity slows down to almost zero at the confluence with a receiving
body of still water such as lake, a sea or an ocean.
All types of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial
deposits. Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits. Marine
deposits are formed when the following water carries soils to ocean or
sea.
210
Figure 5.3. Alluvial deposit
o Wind transported soils
Soil particles are transported by winds. The particle size of the soil
depends on the velocity of wind. The finer particles are carried far away
from the place of the formation. Soil deposits by wind are known as
Aeolian deposits.
Large sand dunes are formed by winds. Sand dunes occur in arid
regions and on the lee ward side of the sea with sandy beaches.
Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These deposits have low density
and high compressibility. The bearing capacity of such soils is very
low. The permeability in vertical direction is large.
211
Figure 5.4. Aeolian deposit
o Glacier- deposited soils
Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the compaction of snow. As

the glaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils varying in size
from fine grained to huge boulders. Soils get mixed with ice and are
transported far away from their original position.
212
Figure 5.5. Glacier deposit soils
o Marine deposits
Soil deposits on ocean beds are known as marine deposits or marine

soils. Though oceans can be very violent, the sea beds are very calm for
the most part. Hence, very small particles would deposit on sea beds.
The texture and composition depends on the proximity to land and
biological matter.
o Lacustrine deposits (lakebeds)
Typically very small particles deposit on lakebeds due to the tranquility

of water. Lakes deposits are mostly clays and silts.
Soils can be defined as an aggregate that is naturally occurring with or without organic content
which can be separated by light mechanical agitation. Soils are a composition of mineral grains.
Rocks are aggregates composed for mineral grains that are bound together by means of cohesive
force. The weathering process occurring with time will decrease the cohesiveness within the
grains and result in the disintegration of the big rock masses into small particles called the soil.
Hence the soil formation is a result of weathering of parent rock.
213
 Types of soil
As mentioned above, the soils can be formed by physical or chemical weathering

processes. The size of individual particle can vary from a small colloidal state to large
boulder forms. Hence, this concludes that all the products of rock weathering can be
considered as soils.
 Types of Soils Based on Grain Size
Cobbles: These are larger than pebbles and smaller than boulders. The size is
between 64 to 256mm.
Gravels: The diameter is between 4.75 and 76.2mm
Sand: Particles seen by naked eye and size less than 4.75mm
Clay: Soil grains finer than 0.002mm
Silt: Soil grain with size ranging from 0.075 to 0.002mm
Figure 3.6. Clay, Sand, Silt, and Loam soils
214
 Types of Soils Based on Origin
The soils can be classified into two based on origin as:
o Residual Soils:
These types of soils will remain at the place of their formations.
They are located near the weathered parent rock. The two factors
governing the depth of the residual soils are the exposure time and
climatic conditions. These are stiff and stable in temperature zones. The
size of residual soil is indefinite.
o Transported Soils:
As the name say, these are soils that are transported from the area of
weathering to some other location by means of transportation agents like
wind, water, ice or gravity.
The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places by agents

of transportation, such as water, ice, wind and gravity. Organic Soils &
Inorganic Soils: The soils that have organic origin come under the
category of organic soils. These are formed by the growth and
decomposition of the plants, shells of organisms, inorganic skeletons etc.
Sometimes inorganic content by some source can make the soil
inorganic.
Different Soils Used in Practice
Bentonite :
The clay formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash. Properties of clay are exhibited highly.
This contain high amount of montmorillonite.
Kaolin:
215
This is also called as china clay which is pure form of white clay. The main application are in
clay industries.
Boulder Clay:
This is a combination of sediment deposited clay (glacial clay) with unsorted rocks and
pulverized clay.
Varved Clays:
Consist of layers of silt and flat clays.
Shale:
This material has a state between clay and slate
Marl:
This material is a combination of clay, loam and calcareous sands
Peat:
Fibrous aggregate with decomposed fragments of vegetable matter are very compressible in
nature and used for supporting of structure
Loam:
This material is a combination of silt, clay and sand
5.2 Soil profiles
The Soil profile is made up of broken-down rock materials of varying degrees of fineness. Rocks
subject to continuous processes of physical and chemical and biological weathering, due to this
continuous weathering, these develop layers of soil one over the other in a progressive state of
maturity. Such a vertical section of soil is called a soil profile.
216
The soil profile makes up of successive horizontal layers each of which varies in thickness,
color, texture, structure, acidity, porosity, and composition, in mineral horizons (A, B, and C-
horizons) and parent rock or R-horizon.
Horizons of a Soil profile
1) O-horizon
2) A-horizon
3) B-horizon
4) C-horizon
5) R-horizon
Figure 5.7. Soil profile
 O-horizon of Soil profile
217
The uppermost horizon of the soil profile is called O-horizon or litter zone. It is usually
not present in the soils of the desert, grassland and cultivated filed and found only in soils
of forests.
 A-horizon of Soil profile

Underlying the O-horizon is the A-horizon. It also knows as topsoil and it contains under-
composed, partially decomposed and completely decomposed humus from upper to lower
sides.
This horizon is usually sandy, and several inches thick. This is the layer of maximum
biological activity in the soil and contains the bulk of the organic matter.
Hence it is of considerable importance to vegetation and agricultural crops. Rock less

deforestation over the years has led to a considerable loss of topsoil.
 B-horizon of Soil profile

The next layer is the B-horizon. It is also called a sub-soil. They are formed with clayed
soil and contain little humus. It receives minerals, organic matter, salts, or clay particles
leached from the topsoil. The A and B horizons together form the true soil, called Solum.
 C-horizon of Soil profile

This zone is composed of weathered parent rocks from which the soil is originated. It is
often coarse-grained and pebbly in texture. It is colored and virtually lacking in organic
material.
 R-horizon of Soil profile

Bedrocks below C-horizon is designed as R-horizon, this is the parent rock itself in
unaltered position.
Soil formed of nature
218
The Soil is the end product of processes of decay and decomposition of the rocks under the
influence of various natural geological agencies.
There is a continuous and time-dependent process that may require hundreds and thousands of
years to reach a stage where the types of soil evolve is in equilibrium with the surroundings.
The formation of soil affects several factors that work in very close co-operation. Nature-formed
of soil factors are-
Soil Profile nature factors
⁃ Parent Rock Material
Climate
Rainfall
Temperature
⁃ Plant and Animal Life

⁃ Topography
⁃ Time
 Parent Rock Material

The texture and structure of parent rocks control the rate of development of soils and
also the type of soils evolved. The process of mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition constitutes weathering proceeds disintegration and chemical
decomposition which constitutes weathering proceeds simultaneously resulting in the
breaking down of rocks into a mixture of soluble and insoluble material.
The soluble matter removes from the water while insoluble matter forms a framework
for soil formation. For example, fine-grained rocks like basalts, limestones, and shales
from fine-textured soils while granites, sandstones, and cherty limestones form relatively
coarse soils.
219
 Climate
Climate is the single most important soil-forming factor. The climate of any
region consists of elements like temperature, precipitation, wind, are
pressure, evaporation, and also transpiration. Of this precipitation (rainfall)
and temperature are most important.
 Rainfall
Rainfall is responsible for various rock decomposing processes. All biological
and chemical activity requires water in the form of moisture. Hydration and
hydrolysis of rocks which are important weathering processes are actually
chemical reactions requiring water. Heavy rainfall causes downward
movement of water and soluble material bleaching. The shortage of rainfall
results in evaporation of water from the surface and cause precipitation of
some chemicals such as carbonates and sulphates on the top layers of soil.
 The temperature of a soil profile

Besides rainfall, temperature also plays a significant role in the weathering
process. The temperature along with the moisture affects the rate of chemical
weathering and biological activity.
Mild temperatures in moist regions allow bacteria growth while freezing

temperatures in humid regions virtually stops such activities. In arid dry
regions, a rise and fall in temperature cause considerable expansion and
contraction in rocks leading to their disintegration. In warm humid regions due
to high bacterial growth, the soil is free hummus.
While in cold humid regions due to the absence of bacteria, vegetable matter
accumulates in the soil, which on decay develops organic acids making
infertile soil rich in humus.
 Plants and Animal Life
220
Plants play a leading role in the process of soil formation. They promote the
disintegration of rocks by the growth of trees in cracks or joints, thus breaking off large
and small fragments of rocks.
Plants also act as conduits of dispersion of certain bases such as Ca, Na, and K from
lower layers to the upper layers of the soil. Dead plants contribute to the humus content
of soil and the process of humification for CO 2 and organic acids, together with traces of
ammonia and nitric acid, etc.
The micro flora, e.g. bacteria, algae, and fungi contribute towards soil formation by
consuming hummus, by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere and so on. Burrowing
animals such as earthworms also affect soil formation.
They make the softer rocks, porous and spongy, and thus more susceptible to weathering
and erosion.
 Topography nature formed of a Soil profile

In the topography of land effects and character of the soil profile the steeper slopes not
allow accumulation of loose particle for greater thickness, further rater of decomposition
is also high because the fresh surface repeatedly expose. Slope soil is also poor in some
constituents as they might get leach out soon after their formation. On the other hand, on
flat bottomlands in flood plains, their dark color, thick soils, as these lands poorly
drained.
 Time
The development of matured soil profiles requires time. Every soil-forming process
requires definite time for its completion. The type of soil in an area is defined by the time
that has been allowed to develop into the present form.
5.3 Soil particles
221
From a general perspective, “soil” is a very broad term and refers to the loose layer of earth that
covers the surface of the planet. The soil is the part of the earth’s surface, which includes
disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and organic materials. For soil to form from rocks, it takes
an average of 500 years or more. The soil is usually formed when rocks break up into their
constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break into smaller parts
to form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water, and salts’ reaction.
There are three stages of soil:
 Solid soil
 Soil with air in the pores
 Soil with water in the pores
Various types of soil undergo diverse environmental pressures. Soil is mainly classified by its
texture, proportions and different forms of organic and mineral compositions.
Soil is classified into four types:
- Gravel soil
- Sandy soil.
- Silt Soil.
- Clay Soil.
Gravel soil
Rocky or gravelly soil: Gravel is very small, irregular pieces of rock and stone. It is more rough
and rocky than sand, and smaller than stones. Soil that is rocky or gravelly will have a large
proportion of rocks or gravel.
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one
of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor water
holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is
very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone and quartz.
222
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and is made up of
rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the
smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by
moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lakes and other water bodies. The silt soil
is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it is also used in agricultural
practices to improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particle among the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are
tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has very good
water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky
to the touch when wet but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil
which does not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.
5.4 Soil water
All soils are permeable materials, water being free to flow through the interconnected pores
between the solid particles. The pressure of the pore water is measured relative to atmospheric
pressure and the level at which the pressure is atmospheric (i.e. zero) is defined as the water table
(WT) or the phreatic surface. Below the water table the soil is assumed to be fully saturated,
although it is likely that, due to the presence of small volumes of entrapped air, the degree of
saturation will be marginally below 100%.
By understanding a little about the soil's physical properties and its relationship to soil moisture,
you can make better soil-management decisions. Soil texture and structure greatly influence
water infiltration, permeability, and water-holding capacity.
Soil texture refers to the composition of the soil in terms of the proportion of small, medium, and
large particles (clay, silt, and sand, respectively) in a specific soil mass. For example, a coarse
223
soil is sand or loamy sand, a medium soil is a loam, silt loam, or silt, and a fine soil is a sandy
clay, silty clay, or clay.
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) into stable units
called aggregates, which give soil its structure. Aggregates can be loose and friable, or they can
form distinct, uniform patterns. For example, granular structure is loose and friable, blocky
structure is six-sided and can have angled or rounded sides, and plate like structure is layered and
may indicate compaction problems.
Soil porosity refers to the space between soil particles, which consists of various amounts of
water and air. Porosity depends on both soil texture and structure. For example, a fine soil has
smaller but more numerous pores than a coarse soil. A coarse soil has bigger particles than a fine
soil, but it has less porosity, or overall pore space. Water can be held tighter in small pores than
in large ones, so fine soils can hold more water than coarse soils.
Water infiltration is the movement of water from the soil surface into the soil profile. Soil
texture, soil structure, and slope have the largest impact on infiltration rate. Water moves by
gravity into the open pore spaces in the soil, and the size of the soil particles and their spacing
determines how much water can flow in. Wide pore spacing at the soil surface increases the rate
of water infiltration, so coarse soils have a higher infiltration rate than fine soils.
Permeability refers to the movement of air and water through the soil, which is important
because it affects the supply of root-zone air, moisture, and nutrients available for plant uptake.
A soil's permeability is determined by the relative rate of moisture and air movement through the
most restrictive layer within the upper 40 inches of the effective root zone. Water and air rapidly
permeate coarse soils with granular sub-soils, which tend to be loose when moist and don't
restrict water or air movement. Slow permeability is characteristic of moderately fine subsoil
with angular to sub-angular blocky structure. It is firm when moist and hard when dry.
Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with
smaller particles (silt and clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles,
and a large surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high
percentage of silt and clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding
224
capacity. The table illustrates water-holding-capacity differences as influenced by texture.
Organic matter percentage also influences water-holding capacity.
As the percentage increases, the water-holding capacity increases because of the affinity organic
matter has for water. Water availability is illustrated in the figure by water levels in three
different soil types. Excess or gravitational water drains quickly from the soil after a heavy rain
because of gravitational forces (saturation point to field capacity). Plants may use small amounts
of this water before it moves out of the root zone. Available water is retained in the soil after the
excess has drained (field capacity to wilting point). This water is the most important for crop or
forage production. Plants can use approximately 50 percent of it without exhibiting stress, but if
less than 50 percent is available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture that
is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in the soil
even below plants' wilting point.
Table 5-1 The influence of soil texture on the water availability
One can see from the table above that soil texture greatly influences water availability. The
sandy soil can quickly be recharged with soil moisture but is unable to hold as much water as the
225
soils with heavier textures. As texture becomes heavier, the wilting point increases because fine
soils with narrow pore spacing hold water more tightly than soils with wide pore spacing.
Soil is a valuable resource that supports plant life, and water is an essential component of this
system. Management decisions concerning types of crops to plant, plant populations, irrigation
scheduling, and the amount of nitrogen fertilizer to apply depend on the amount of moisture that
is available to the crop throughout the growing season. By understanding some physical
characteristics of the soil, you can better define the strengths and weaknesses of different soil
types.
Water presence in the voids of soil mass is called soil water. It can be classified in several ways:
 Broad classification:
1. Free water
2. Held water
a. Structural water
b. Adsorbed water
c. Capillary water
 Classification on phenomenological basis
1. Ground water
2. Capillary water
3. Adsorbed water
4. Infiltrated water
 Classification on structural aspect
1. Pore water
2. Solvate water
3. Adsorbed water
4. Structural water
 Free water
Water is free to move through a soil mass under the influence of gravity.
 Held water
It is the part of water held in the soil pores by some force existing within the pores.
226
Such water is not free to move under gravitational force.
 Adsorbed water
Adsorbed water is that water which the soil particles freely adsorb from atmosphere by
physical
force of attraction and held by force of adhesion.
Water is the vicinity of soil particles subjected to an attractive force basically consists of
two components.
i) Attraction of bipolar water to be electrical charged soil.
ii) Attraction of dipolar water to the action in the double layer, action in turn attract to the
particles.
 Structural water
It is the water chemically combined in the crystal structure of the soil mineral. Structural
water cannot be separated or removed and also not removed by oven drying at 105-
110°c.It can be destroyed at higher temperature which will destroy the crystal structure.
 Infiltrated water
Infiltrated water is the portion of surface precipitation which soaks into ground, moving
downwards through air containing zones.
 Pore water
It is cable of moving under hydrodynamic forces unless restricted in its free movement
such as when entrapped between air bubbles or retention by capillary forces.
Gravitational and capillary water are the two types of pore water.
 Solvate water
The water which forms a hydration shell around soil grains is solvate water. it is subjected
to polar electrostatic and binding forces.
 Ground water
Subsurface water that fills the voids continuously and is subjected to no force other than
gravity is known as gravitational water.
 Capillary water
The minute pores of soil serve as capillary tubes through which the moisture rise above
the ground water table. Capillary water is the soil moisture located within the interstices
227
and voids of capillary size of the soil. Capillary water is held in the interstices of soil due
to capillary forces. Capillary action or capillarity is the phenomenon of movement of
water in the interstices of a soil due to capillary forces. The capillary forces depend upon
various factors such as surface tension of water, pressure in water in relation to
atmospheric pressure, and the size and conformation of soil pores.
 Contact moisture.
Water can also be held by surface tension round the point of contact of two particles
(spheres) capillary water in this form is known as contact moisture (or) contact capillary
water.
 Capillary rise
The pores of soil mass may be looked upon as a series of capillary tubes, extending
vertically above water table.
The rise of water in the capillary tubes, or the fine pores of the soil, is due to the existence
of surface tension which pulls the water up against the gravitational force.
The height of capillary rise, above the ground water (or free water) surface depends upon
the diameter of the capillary tube (or fineness of the pores) and the value of the surface
tension. When a capillary tube is inserted in water, the rise of water will take place up to
reach the equilibrium.
5.5 Soil phase relationships
Partially saturated soil (three-phase soil) is composed of solids (soil particles), liquids (usually
water), and gases (usually air). The spaces between the solids are called voids. The soil water is
commonly called pore water and it plays a very important role in the behavior of soils under
load. If all voids are filled with water, the soil is saturated (two-phase). Otherwise, the soil is
unsaturated. If all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry (two-phase).
 Weight-Volume Relationships
228
Figure (5.8a) shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would exist in a
natural state. To develop the weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three
phases (that is, solid, water, and air) as shown in Figure (5.8 b). Thus, the total volume of
a given soil sample can be expressed as
V =Vs +Vv=Vs+Vw +Va 5.1
Where Vs = volume of soil solids
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va =volume of air in the voids
Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can give the total weight of the sample as
W =Ws+ Ww 5.2
Where Ws = weight of soil solids
Ww = weight of water
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element are void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to
the volume of solids. Thus,
Vv
e=
Vs
5.3
229
Figure 5.8 (a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phase of the soil element
Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, or
Vv
n=
V 5.4
The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids,
or
Vw
S=
Vv 5.5
It is commonly expressed as a percentage.

The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived from Eqs. (5.1), (5.3), and (5.4)
as follows:
Vv Vv Vv
e= =
Vs V −Vv
=( )/¿
V 5.6
230
Also, from Eq. (5.6),
e
n=
1+ e 5.7
The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture content and unit weight. Moisture
content (w) is also referred to as water content and is defined as the ratio of the weight of water
to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil:
Ww
w=
Ws
5.8
Unit weight (γ) is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus,
W
γ=
V
5.9
The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the moisture content,
and the total volume. From Eqs. (5.2), (5.8), and (5.9),
γ=
W Ws+ Ww
= =
[ ( )]
Ws 1+
Ww
Ws
=
Ws ( 1+w ) 5.10
V V V V
Soils engineers sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by Eq. (5.9) as the moist unit weight.
Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume of soil,
excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, 𝛾𝑑. Thus,
γ
γd =
1+ w 5.11
Sometimes it is convenient to express soil densities in terms of mass densities (ρ). The SI unit of
mass density is kilograms cubic meter (kg/m3). We can write the density equations [similar to
Eqs. (5.9) and (5.11)] as
M
ρ=
V 5.12
Ms
γd =
V 5.13
231
where ρ = density of soil (kg/m3)
𝜌𝑑 = dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M = total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
The unit of total volume, V, is m3.
The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as
gρ ( m3kg )
γ ( m3
kN
)= 1000
And
gρd ( m3kg )
γd ( m3
kN
)= 1000
Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2.
Note that unit weight of water (γw) is equal to 9.81 kN/m3.
Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture content, let us
consider a volume of soil in which the volume of the soil solids is one, as shown in Figure 5.9. If
the volume of the soil solids is one, then the volume of voids is numerically equal to the void
ratio, e [from Eq. (5.3)]. The weights of soil solids and water can be given as
Ws=Gsγw
Ww=wWs=wGsγw
where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

w = moisture content
γw = unit weight of water
232
Figure 5.9. Three separate phases of soil element with volume of soil solids
equal to one
Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight [Eqs. (5.9) and (5.11)], we can
write
W Ws+ Ww Gsγw+ wGsγw ( 1+ w ) Gsγw
γ= = = = 5.15
V V 1+e 1+e
and
Ws Gsγw
γd = = 5.16
V 1+ e
or
e= ( Gsγw
γw )
−1 5.17
233
Because the weight of water for the soil element under consideration is wGsγw, the volume
occupied by water is
Ww wGs γw
Vw=
γw
=
γw
=wGs
Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation [Eq. (5.5)],
Vw WGs
S= =
Vv e
Se=WGs
This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase relationships.
If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void spaces are completely filled with water (Figure
5.10 ) the relationship for saturated unit weight (γsat) can be derived in a similar manner:
W Ws+Ww Gsγw+eγw ( Gs+ e ) γw

γsat =
V
¿
V = 1+e = 1+ e
5.19
Also, from Eq. (3.18) with S=1,
e=wGs 5.20
As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities in the SI system, the
following equations, similar to unit–weight relationships given in Eqs. (5.15), (5.16), and (5.19),
will be useful:
234
Figure 5.10. Saturated soil elements with volume of soil solids equal to one
( 1+ w ) Gsρw
Density=ρ= 5.21
1+ e
Gsρw
Dry density=ρd=
1+e
5.22
( Gs+e ) ρw
Saturated density=ρsat = 5.23
1+e
Where ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
Equation (5.21) may be derived by referring to the soil element shown in Figure
5.11, in which the volume of soil solids is equal to 1 and the volume of voids is
equal to e.
235
Figure 5.11. Three separate phases of soil element showing mass-volume
relationship
Hence, the mass of soil solids, Ms, is equal to Gsρw. The moisture content has been defined in
Eq. (5.8) as
ws Mass of warer Mw
w= = =
ww Massof solid Ms
where Mw = mass of water.
Since the mass of soil in the element is equal to Gsρw, the mass of water
𝑀𝑤= 𝑤𝑀𝑠= 𝑤𝐺𝑠𝜌𝑤
From Eq. (5.13), density
M Ms+ Mw ( Gsρw+ wGsρw ) Gsρw ( 1+ w )
ρ= = = =
V Vs+Vw 1+e 1+e
Equations (5.22) and (5.23) can be derived similarly.
236
Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content
The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be
developed in a manner similar to that presented in the preceding section. Consider
a soil that has a total volume equal to one, as shown in Figure 5.12. From Eq. (5.4),
Vv
n=
V
Figure 5.12. Soil elements with total volume equal to one
If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so 𝑉𝑠=1−𝑛. The weight of soil solids (Ws)

and the weight of water (Ww) can then be expressed as follows:
Ws=Gsγw (1−n) 5.24
237
Ww=wWs=wGsγw (1−n) 5.25
So, the dry unit weight equals
Ws Gsγw ( 1−n )
ρd= = =Gsγw(1−n) 5.26
V 1
The moist unit weight equals

Ws+Ww
γ=
V
=Gsγw (1−n)(1+ w) 5.27
Figure (5.13) shows a soil sample that is saturated and has V = 1. According to this
figure,
Ws+Ww [ ( 1−n ) Gs γw +n γw ]
γsat = = =[ ( 1−n ) Gs+n ] γw 5.28
V 1
The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

Ww nγw n
w= = =
Ws ( 1−n ) γwGs (1−n ) Gs
5.29
238
Figure 5.13. Saturated soil element with total volume equals to one
Various Unit-Weight Relationships
In Sections 3.2 and 3.3, we derived the fundamental relationships for the moist unit
weight, dry unit weight, and saturated unit weight of soil. Several other forms of
relationships that can be obtained for γ, γd, and γsat are given in Table (5.2). Some
typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a saturated condition, and dry unit
weight for soils in a natural state are given in Table (5.3).
Table 5.2. Various forms of relationships for γ, γd, γsat
239
Table 5.3. Void ratio, Moisture content and dry unit weight of some typical
soilin natural state
240
241
242
243
244
245
5.6 Frost action in soils
There are two important aspects of frost action in soils: (1) the frost heave of certain soils in
contact with water and subjected to freezing temperatures, and (2) the loss of strength of the soil
upon thawing.
Frost heave requires a frost-susceptible soil, subfreezing temperatures, and a supply of water for
the growth of ice lenses. The amount of heave is rarely uniform over a significant area and
heaving pressures may damage hydraulic structures, roads, bridges, retaining walls, pipes,
buildings, and other structures. Frost action effects are illustrated on figure 5.14.
In spring, thawing of ice lenses near the ground surface causes the ground to become soft and
saturated with a resulting decrease in the strength and rigidity of the soil. This condition will
exist until the underlying ground completely thaws and the excess water can drain away.
Thawing beneath structural elements can result in structural damage and even failure because the
thawing soil may have little ability to support heavy loads, and differential settlement may occur.
Frost Heave Near the end of the last century, it was thought that frost heave was solely due to the
expansion of water on freezing of the soil. However, two things were observed that could not be
explained by this theory: (I ) the large amount of heave, and (2) the considerable increase in
water content of the soil in the frozen zone. It is now known that the freezing of water is
accompanied by a volume increase of about 9 percent. Therefore, in a saturated soil that becomes
frozen, the void volumes will increase about 9 percent, resulting in an overall increase from 2.5
to 5 percent, depending on the void ratio.
A much greater increase in volume can occur because of the formation of ice lenses, sometimes
causing a soil column to grow several times its original height. Ice lens formation is illustrated
on figure 5.15 (a), where water rises from the ground-water table toward the freezing front. As
ice lenses form, the ground surface heaves. The amount of heave is about equal to the total
thickness of the ice lenses. Figure 5.15 (b) shows the water content prior to and after freezing. As
one would expect with the formation and growth of ice lenses; the water content increases above
the frost line. Perhaps not expected, is the decrease in water content just below the frost line and
the consolidation of that part of the soil.
The necessary conditions for frost heave (availability of water, frost-susceptible soil, and
246
freezing temperatures) must all be present for ice lens formation and growth; each condition is
interrelated. For example, water movement is influenced by the permeability of the soil and
changes in temperature. For the sake of clarity, water, soil, and temperature will be considered
separately.
Water
There must be a supply of water for the growth of ice lenses. The ground-water table is generally
the source of this water although it may be provided by surface infiltration, seepage from canals,
broken waterlines, or other means. The ground-water table needs to be close to the ground
surface-within the height of capillary rise, which is usually about 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft),
depending on soil type, gradation, and density. The smaller the sizes of the interconnected pores
between the solid particles, the higher the water can rise above the water table.
Figure 5.16 illustrates two possible freezing conditions that might be observed in two different
soil columns, A and B. Column A is where there is no source of water available during the
freezing process beyond that originally in the voids of the soil at and near the zone of freezing.
This type of freezing is known as closed-system freezing and may occur where there is a low
water table below the height of capillary rise, or where the upward movement of water is
obstructed by an impermeable member or by a layer of clean, coarse-grained soil which breaks
the capillary rise. This type of freezing occurs in compacted soil linings when water is withdrawn
from a canal or reservoir and in uncompleted earth dams during winter shutdown periods.
A water and density redistribution occurs which may have important effects on these structures.
Depending on the soil moisture and density conditions, thin ice lenses may or may not form.
During such freezing, the ground surface may heave a small amount (soil volume increase up to
5 percent) or the soil volume decreases causing a small amount of settlement and possible crack
formation.
The following tabulation shows the approximate heights of capillary rise for various types of
soil.
247
Table 5.4. The approximate heights of capillary rise for various types of soil
(a.)Heaving of soil in seasonal frost zone causing direct upward thrust on overlying structural
elements.
(b.)Freezing of frost-susceptible soil behind walls causing thrust perpendicular to freezing front.
248
(c.) Force at base of freezing interface tends to lift entire frozen slab by applying jacking forces
to lateral surfaces of embedded structures and creating voids underneath. Structures may not
return to original positions on thawing.
Figure 5.14. Frost action effect
Figure 5.15. Formation of frost heave
What causes water to move into the zone of freezing and form ice lenses during frost heave?
In general, movement occurs because equilibrium has been disturbed by a drop in the ground
surface temperature and a thermal potential has been set up. Energy is available, due to heat
transfer, to draw free water to the ice lenses.
However, in very small openings such as the voids of fine-grained soils, the freezing point may
be depressed as low as - 5 OC (23 OF). Thus, just above the frost-line, water will freeze in the
larger voids but remain liquid in the adjacent smaller ones. When water freezes in a larger void,
the amount of liquid water at that point is decreased. The moisture deficiency and the lower
249
temperature in the freezing zone increase the capillary tension and induce a flow toward the
newly formed ice crystal.
Figure 5.16. Open and Closed system freezing

.
The adjacent small voids are still unfrozen and act as conduits to deliver the water to the ice. The
ice crystal grows until an ice lens or layer forms. The capillary tension induced by the freezing
and the low temperature sucks up water from the water table below or can even dehydrate and
shrink adjacent compressible strata such as clays and micaceous silts when the water table is
beyond reach. The result is a great increase in the amount of water in the frost zone, and
segregation of the water into ice lenses.”
Water in the voids of fine-grained soils exists as free and adsorbed water. Clay consists of
mineral particles that are generally plate-shaped and have large surface areas. Surface forces
attract and hold a thin layer of adsorbed water to each soil particle. Because of surface forces and
dissolved ions, the adsorbed water film remains unfrozen until the temperature drops well below
0 OC (32 OF). For example, clay may have an unfrozen moisture content of 35 percent at 0 OC and
15 percent at - 10 OC (14 OF) with the largest proportion of the decrease occurring between 0 OC
250
and - 5 OC (23 OF), and no significant unfrozen moisture below - 20 OC ( - 4 O). Other soils with
less clay would have smaller unfrozen moisture content at 0 OC and less decrease at lower
temperatures. For example, a clayey silt might have an unfrozen moisture content of 12 percent
at 0 OC and 7 percent at - 5 OC with no significant decrease below the - 5 OC temperature.
A sand might have a small fraction of 1 percent unfrozen moisture at 0 OC and this would not
change significantly as the temperature decreased to - 5 O C.
Three stages in the growth of an ice lens in a fine grained soil are illustrated on figure 4. These
stages are:
(I) An ice crystal bud is formed and grows, supplied by free water within the immediate pore
space.
(2) Free water is drawn from adjacent pores, along with some adsorbed water, as the temperature
decreases and the ice crystal continue to grow. Particle displacement occurs as a result of both
water loss and crystal growth.
(3) A point is reached when the energy required to bring in water to sustain growth becomes too
large and growth stops. When this happens, another bud of crystallization is formed further
ahead of the frost-line. This process is repeated as long as the frost-line moves downward and a
supply of water are available.
STAGE I. Free water within immediate pore supplies water for growth of ice lens.
251
STAGE II. Free water from adjacent pores and adsorbed water, aids growth of ice lens-
STAGE II. A new ice crystal forms
Figure 5.17. Stages in the growth of ice lenses
Soil
In addition to the availability of water, the ease that water can move through a soil (permeability)
is important. For ice lenses to grow and frost heave to occur, water must move from the ground-
water table or other source and pass through the soil pores to reach the freezing front.
Permeability of a soil is markedly affected by the amount of fine-grained particles in the silt and
clay-size range. Particles passing the 75-pm (No. 200) sieve are commonly called fines. Fine
252
grained soils, such as silts and clays, contain more than 50 percent fines by mass. The fines in a
soil exert an influence that is out of all proportion to their mass.
In clays without cracks, water migration is restricted and consequently, ice lens development is
slow. In a coarse-grained soil with little or no fines, pore spaces are large and permeability is
high. Water within the pores is almost all free water, with little adsorbed water, and ice can
extend from one void to the next (fig. 5.18).
Consequently, the soil freezes homogeneously with depth. The only volume increase is due to
the 9 percent increase in the volume of water upon freezing. Soils having a high percentage of
silt-sized particles are the most frost susceptible. Such soils have a network of small pores that
promote migration of water to the freezing front. Silts (ML, MH, silty sands (SM), and clays of
low plasticity CL, CL-ML) fall into this category.
Unfortunately, pore size cannot be measured directly or easily. Pore size is directly related to
particle size and to soil density, and to a lesser degree is a function of gradation, grain shape,
mineral composition, and plasticity. Thus, grain (particle) size criteria have come into common
usage in gaging frost susceptibility.
One of the earliest grain size criterions was proposed in 1932 by A. Casagrande; it is still widely
used today. After extensive laboratory and field studies, Casagrande stated that:
“Under natural freezing conditions and with sufficient water supply, one should expect
considerable ice segregation in non-uniform soils containing more than 3 percent of grains
smaller than 0.02 mm, and in very uniform soils containing more than 10 percent smaller than
0.02 mm. No ice segregation was observed in soils containing less than 1 percent of grains
smaller than 0.02 mm, even if the ground-water level was as high as the frost-line.”
A preliminary estimate of a soil’s frost susceptibility may be obtained in the field without
waiting for laboratory gradation tests. For this estimate, soils are classified into one of three
groups based on type of soil and the characteristics shown in the following tabulation :-
253
Table 5.5. Table for the prelimary estimation of soil's frost susceptibilitt
Tests made from 1950 to 1970 form the basis for figure 6, which relates frost susceptibility in
terms of average rate of heave to percent by mass finer than 0.02 mm. This figure shows that
most soil types have a wide range of frost susceptibility with no sharp dividing line between frost
susceptible and non-frost-susceptible soils.
Nevertheless, silts, clayey silts, and silty sands have the highest potential for frost heave
followed by the gravelly and sandy clay, clayey sand, and clayey gravel. Soils with the lowest
potential to heave are sandy gravels, clean sands, and silty sands with less than 3 percent grains
finer than 0.02 mm.
Figure 5.18. Schematic view of soil freezing in coarse-grained soil
254
Temperature
Freezing temperatures must penetrate into a soil for ice lens buildup to occur. The penetration
depth depends primarily on air temperature and soil thermal properties and to a lesser degree on
ground surface cover, solar radiation, and exposure to wind. Frost penetration depths to 3.6 m
(12 ft) are possible in the colder regions.
For a particular site in question, frost depth can be measured directly or it can be calculated
approximately by various formulas. Direct measurements can be made by frost tubes, coring, test
pits, and temperature sensors. Calculated depths are based on knowledge of the air-freezing
index, type of surface, and thermal properties of the soil. The air-freezing index (fig. 5.19) is a
measure of the freezing temperature duration over 1 year.
The ground temperature is modified by surface conditions. For example, snow cover may retard
or even prevent frost penetration. Vegetation, turf, and organic matter also act as insulation. The
effects of wind, sunlight or shade, and surface color are more difficult to evaluate. Thermal
properties of a soil are complex because soil contains mineral particles, air, and free and
adsorbed water (which undergo phase transitions in the temperature range of concern). In
general, soil thermal properties are related to moisture content; the state of the soil (frozen or
thawed); the size, shape, and nature of the mineral particles; and the temperature. In heat transfer
terminology, the basic thermal properties of soil are thermal conductivity, volumetric heat
capacity, and volumetric latent heat of fusion.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate at which heat moves through a medium under a
unit thermal gradient. Thermal conductivity increases with soil moisture, with density, and when
the soil is frozen. For example, undisturbed dry sand is a much better insulator than moist
compacted sand. The volumetric heat capacity is a measure of the heat required to raise the
temperature of a unit volume of material by 1 O. The volumetric latent heat of fusion is the
heat which is liberated on freezing (or is required to thaw) a unit volume of soil. These three
properties are basic requirements for calculating the depth of freezing, which is covered in more
detail later in this report.
Water content also plays a prominent role in thermal soil considerations. When water changes to
ice, the thermal conductivity of the ice increases by a factor of four, and the volumetric heat
capacity of the water decreases by one-half, and the water releases a latent heat of fusion of 335
kJ/kg (80 Cal/g). The rate of cooling will also affect the amount of frost heave, assuming other
255
factors remain constant. When the temperature is gradually lowered, frost penetration is slow and
ice lenses tend to be thick, 13 mm (0.5 in) or more in thickness is not, uncommon, and the
amount of heave is large. As the rate of cooling increases, the ice layers become thinner and the
amount of heave decreases. A rapid temperature decrease may freeze the soil before the water
has time to migrate to form ice lenses; heave in this case is due only to the volume expansion of
water.
Figure 5.19. Freezing index from annual variation in surface temperature
Instrumentation for measuring frost penetration
Frost penetration in un-compacted soil can usually be determined by penetrating the frozen zone
with an auger or other exploration tool and noting the depth where the penetration resistance
decreases. Also, a rod with a short 90° pointed projection can be used to scratch the side of an
auger hole to determine the frost depth. However, in compacted embankment, the soil may be so
dense that it is difficult to determine the frost depth by these methods. For this condition, it is
necessary to obtain soil temperatures at short intervals as an exploration hole is advanced. This
can be done by taking the temperature of cuttings immediately after their removal from the hole.
A simpler way to follow frost penetration during the winter is to use a shop-made frost
penetration tube of the type shown on figure 20, which can be installed before the onset of
freezing weather. The dye solution in the inner plastic tube will freeze in the frost zone and
256
become clear ice in contrast to the unfrozen blue solution below. This tube can then be removed
from the casing as often as desired and the frost penetration measured.
If only maximum frost penetration is desired, it is possible to install (before freezing conditions)
a frost tube which contains a string of water-filled glass capsules. After the ground has thawed,
the tube can be removed and the approximate frost depth will be registered by the depth of the
lowest capsule broken by freezing.
Figure 5.20. Assembly of frost tube for measuring of frost penetration in soil
257
A more complex system to measure frost penetration is to install a series of thermocouples at
short depth intervals in an auger hole backfilled by tamped native soil or a soil-water slurry. The
thermocouples can be connected to a multiple point switch, and the temperatures can then be
read by a digital thermometer. The frost penetration can be approximated by interpolation
between the temperatures at the thermocouple points.
Thermocouple systems for measuring temperature, and dye-filled frost tubes for frost depth
measurements were used during field experiments on the Rivet-ton Unit. These experiments are
described in field test reports.
If there is an unusual amount of salt in the soil, the freezing point will be depressed and a
temperature-sensing method will not accurately define the freezing level. Also, during the spring
thawing period, the soil may remain at 0 OC (32 OF) for a significant subsurface depth interval
because of the latent heat of fusion in the soil water. At times, unfrozen soil occurs between two
frozen layers.
For an even more accurate method of determining freezing levels, a soil resistivity method has
been developed. This method is based on the fact that the electrical resistance of soil moisture
rises sharply when water freezes.
5.7 Identification and description of soils in the field
The overall aim of a method of soil description is to reduce the subjective nature and variability
of descriptions of materials encountered during the investigation, design and construction of an
engineering project. As such, the method is designed principally for use in the field where
materials are described, and descriptions are recorded on logs. The logging forms and formats
used vary according to the investigation method and the materials being investigated.
Outlining a methodology for the description of materials such that:
 All significant observable properties of soil and rock are described;

 Descriptions of a material consistently use the same terms; and
 Particular properties or groups of properties appear in the same relative position within
any description, so that the user may rapidly locate them.
258
The system is therefore will be based on a list of applicable terms in a set sequence. The terms
used in this note are often based on the results of standard laboratory tests (e.g. Atterberg limits).
It should be emphasized however that such laboratory test results are given as a guide to the
usage of terminology and that descriptions in the field should not wait for or rely on tests
subsequently done in the laboratory. Where laboratory (and/or field) tests are performed,
reference to the test or its results should be made on the logging form separate to the description.
The terms classification and description have the following meanings in this note:
Classification: the identity of the material itself, i.e. what its composition and intrinsic properties
are.
Description: the in-situ properties of the material, i.e. what it is like in its undisturbed state.
Classification systems used in soil mechanics, such as the Casagrande system, refer primarily to
the material itself; they make only passing reference to the state in which the material exists in
the ground.
Descriptive systems used in logging core, investigation pits etc, enable accurate accounts to be
given of the state of the material in-situ. In some situations, for example where borrow sources
are being investigated, or when only disturbed samples are available, then classification of the
material itself is possible (and relevant), but description of its undisturbed state is not possible (or
relevant). A distinction between these two aspects is therefore made when describing a soil.
The framework for the classification and description of soil is provided in the following sections.
For engineering purposes soil is grouped as shown in Table5.6:
Table 5.6. Groips of soil
259
The following notes give a brief outline of the engineering meaning attached to the above terms,
and the basis on which they are identified or differentiated between.
Gravel and Sand
Gravel and sand comprise rock fragments of various sizes and shapes that may be either rock
fragments or single minerals. In some cases there may be only a narrow range of particle sizes
present, in which case the material is described as ‘uniform’. In other cases a broad range of
particle sizes may be present and the material is described as ‘well graded’.
Silt
Silt is intermediate between clay and fine sand. Silt is less plastic and more permeable than clay,
and displays ‘dilatant’ and ‘quick’ behavior. Quick behavior refers to the tendency of silt to
liquefy when shaken or vibrated, and dilatancy refers to the tendency to undergo volume increase
when deformed. A simple test of patting a saturated soil sample in the hand can be undertaken to
assess these properties and distinguish silt from clay. Clay
Clay
Consists of very small particles and exhibits the properties of ‘cohesion’ and ‘plasticity’, which
are not found in sand or gravel. Cohesion refers to the fact that the material sticks together, while
plasticity is the property that allows the material to be deformed without volume change or
rebound, and without cracking or crumbling.
Organic Soil
Organic soil is distinguished in Table 2.1 as a category different from coarse or fine soils, but
should only be identified as such if the organic content is high and the material no longer
behaves like a silt or clay. Soils containing small to moderate amounts of organic material still
retain the properties of silts or clays and should be described within those categories.
Behavior
Soil behavior always depends to some extent on grain size and this forms a starting point for the
engineering classification of soils. On this basis soils are categorized as in Table 5.7.
260
Table 5.7. Grain size criteria
The properties of a coarse soil are closely related to particle size. For this reason, particle size is
the sole criterion used in classifying coarse soils. However, there is no clear relationship between
properties and particle size in a fine soil; this is because the properties are influenced by both the
size and composition of particles. For this reason, other methods, including physical
manipulation of the soil (for visual description), and Atterberg Limit tests (for laboratory
classification) are used to describe and classify them.
In most cases a soil consists of particle sizes spread over more than one category (e.g. sandy
gravel). Sandy gravel is mainly gravel sizes but contains some sand.
It is important to understand the difference between the terms “clay” and “clay fraction” or “silt”
and “silt fraction”. Clay is a descriptive term applied to a fine-grained soil that behaves like clay
(i.e. it has cohesion, plasticity, is not dilatant, and does not contain a noticeable amount of coarse
material). Clay fraction is the proportion by weight of the particles in the soil finer than 0.002
mm.
Similarly silt is a descriptive term for a material displaying the properties of silt and silt fraction
is the proportion by weight of the material between 0.002 mm and 0.06 mm. The character of a
mixed soil is largely dependent on the smallest constituents. Thus a soil containing 30 % sand,
40 % silt, and 30 % clay material is most likely to behave as a clay and would be termed a clay.
Many types of clay contain less than 30 % clay fraction.
261
 Description of in-situ (undisturbed) characteristics
The note outlined above refers only to the material itself; they do not include information
on the state in which it exists in the ground. Note for description of the state in which a
soil is found in the ground are provided in this section.
 Coarse soils – description
o Relative Density
Relative density refers to the “denseness”, or degree of compactness of a

coarse soil in the round, and is expressed as the density index. The terms
very loose through to very dense are used to describe this property. Table
5.8 provides a guide for relating descriptive terms to Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) N-values and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (Scale) values.
Particular care should be exercised in using the descriptors in coarse gravels.

Where the above terms are used without test results, they should be written
in inverted commas. Where no test results are available, a simple field
assessment can be made using the terms loosely packed and tightly
packed.
Loosely packed: - Can be removed from exposures by hand or removed

easily by shovel.
Tightly packed:-Requires a pick for removal, either as lumps or as

disaggregated material.
262
Table 5.8. Density Index (Relative density) terms
 Fine soils – description
Soil Strength or “Consistency” Table 5.9 provides a guide to the terms used to
designate soil strength and related properties in fine soils.
Table 5.9. Consistancy terms for cohessive soil
263
o Sensitivity
This is a measure of the loss of strength that occurs when the soil is
disturbed or remolded
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the undisturbed strength to the remolded

strength as outlined in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10. Sensitivity
 Structure (Applicable to Coarse and Fine Soils)
This refers to the presence or absence of bedding, or any other features such as faults,
fissures, fractures, striations and slickensides (a rock surface that is smooth and marked
with fine scratches caused by friction with another rock surface)surfaces as defined in
Table 5.11.
 Moisture Condition
Terms to describe the moisture condition of soil samples are given in

Table5.12.
264
Table 5.11. Soil structure
Table 5.12. Moisture condition
265
 Order of terms – soil
The descriptive sequence outlined in the preceding sections seeks to place the most
important items first and the least important at the end. Examples are given in
Tables 513 and 5.14
The example in Table 5.13 would be written:
Sandy fine to coarse GRAVEL with minor silt and clay; light greyish brown,
bedded. Loosely packed; dry; well graded; bedding, sub horizontal, thick; sub
angular to surrounded, slightly weathered greywacke gravel; sand, fine to coarse;
silt and clay, slightly plastic; few fine sand lenses.
The example in Table 2.14 would be written:
Clayey SILT, trace of peat; light grey, mottled black. Firm, moist, low plasticity, moderately
sensitive.
 Identification of different types of soils
 Identification of Peat
A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of

decomposition that has a fibrous to amorphous texture, usually a dark brown to
black color, and an organic odor shall be designated as a highly organic soil and
shall be identified as peat, PT, and not subjected to the identification procedures
described hereafter.
o Preparation for Identification
1 The soil identification portion of this practice is based on the portion

of the soil sample that will pass a 3-in. (75-mm) sieve. The larger than
3-in. (75-mm) particles must be removed, manually, for a loose
sample, or mentally, for an intact sample before classifying the soil.
2 Estimate and note the percentage of cobbles and the percentage of

boulders. Performed visually, these estimates will be on the basis of
volume percentage.
266
Table 5.13. Example of description of coarse soil
267
Table 5.14. Example of description of fine soil
3. Of the fraction of the soil smaller than 3 in. (75 mm), estimate and
note the percentage, by dry weight, of the gravel, sand, and fines.
Since the particle-size components appear visually on the basis of

volume, considerable experience is required to estimate the
percentages on the basis of dry weight. Frequent comparisons with
laboratory particle-size analyses should be made.
3.1 The percentages shall be estimated to the closest 5 %. The

percentages of gravel, sand, and fines must add up to 100 %.
268
3.2 If one of the components is present but not in sufficient
quantity to be considered 5 % of the smaller than 3-in. (75-mm)
portion, indicate its presence by the term trace, for example,
trace of fines. A trace is not to be considered in the total of 100
% for the components.
o Preliminary Identification of coarse and fine grained soils
1 The soil is fine grained if it contains 50 % or more fines. Follow the

procedures for identifying fine-grained soils.
2 The soil is coarse grained if it contains less than 50 % fines. Follow

the procedures for identifying coarse-grained soils.
Procedure for Identifying Fine-Grained Soils
1 Select a representative sample of the material for examination.

Remove particles larger than the No. 40 sieve (medium sand and larger)
until a specimen equivalent to about a handful of material is available.
Use this specimen for performing the dry strength, dilatancy, and
toughness tests.
2. Dry Strength:
2.1 From the specimen, select enough material to mold into a ball about
1 in. (25 mm) in diameter. Mold the material until it has the consistency
of putty, adding water if necessary.
2.2 From the molded material, make at least three test specimens. A test
specimen shall be a ball of material about 1⁄2 in. (12 mm) in diameter.
Allow the test specimens to dry in air, or sun, or by artificial means, as
long as the temperature does not exceed 60°C.
2.3 If the test specimen contains natural dry lumps, those that are about
1⁄2 in. (12 mm) in diameter may be used in place of the molded balls.
269
NOTE The process of molding and drying usually produces higher
strengths than are found in natural dry lumps of soil.
2.4 Test the strength of the dry balls or lumps by crushing between the
fingers. Note the strength as none, low, medium, high, or very high in
accordance with the criteria in Table 5.15. If natural dry lumps are
used, do not use the results of any of the lumps that are found to contain
particles of coarse sand.
2.5 The presence of high-strength water-soluble cementing materials,

such as calcium carbonate, may cause exceptionally high dry strengths.
The presence of calcium carbonate can usually be detected from the
intensity of the reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.
3 Dilatancy:
3.1 From the specimen, select enough material to mold into a ball about
1⁄2 in. (12 mm) in diameter. Mold the material, adding water if
necessary, until it has a soft, but not sticky, consistency.
3.2 Smooth the soil ball in the palm of one hand with the blade of a
knife or small spatula. Shake horizontally, striking the side of the hand
vigorously against the other hand several times. Note the reaction of
water appearing on the surface of the soil. Squeeze the sample by
closing the hand or pinching the soil between the fingers, and note the
reaction as none, slow, or rapid in accordance with the criteria in Table
5.16. The reaction is the speed with which water appears while shaking,
and disappears while squeezing.
4. Toughness:
4.1 Following the completion of the dilatancy test, the test specimen is
shaped into an elongated pat and rolled by hand on a smooth surface or
between the palms into a thread about 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) in diameter. (If the
sample is too wet to roll easily, it should be spread into a thin layer and
270
allowed to lose some water by evaporation.) Fold the sample threads
and reroll repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of about
1⁄8 in. The thread will crumble at a diameter of 1⁄8 in. when the soil is
near the plastic limit. Note the pressure required to roll the thread near
the plastic limit. Also, note the strength of the thread. After the thread
crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and kneaded until the
lump crumbles. Note the toughness of the material during kneading.
4.2 Describe the toughness of the thread and lump as low, medium, or
high in accordance with the criteria in Table 5.17
Table 5.14. Criteria for describing dry strength
Table 5.15. Criteria for describing dalatancy
271
Table 5.17. Criteria for describing toughness
5 Plasticity—On the basis of observations made during the toughness

test, describe the plasticity of the material in accordance with the
criteria given in Table 5.18.
6 Decide whether the soil is an inorganic or an organic fine-grained soil
7. Identification of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils:
7.1 Identify the soil as a lean clay, CL, if the soil has medium to high
dry strength, no or slow dilatancy, and medium toughness and plasticity
(see Table 5.18).
7.2 Identify the soil as a fat clay, CH, if the soil has high to very high
dry strength, no dilatancy, and high toughness and plasticity (see Table
5.18).
7.3 Identify the soil as a silt, ML, if the soil has no to low dry strength,
slow to rapid dilatancy, and low toughness and plasticity, or is
nonplastic (see Table 5.18).
7.4 Identify the soil as an elastic silt, MH, if the soil has low to medium
dry strength, no to slow dilatancy, and low to medium toughness and
plasticity (see Table 5.19).
272
NOTE These properties are similar to those for a lean clay. However,
the silt will dry quickly on the hand and have a smooth, silky feel when
dry. Some soils that would classify as MH in accordance with the
criteria in Test Method D2487 are visually difficult to distinguish from
lean clays, CL. It may be necessary to perform laboratory testing for
proper identification.
Table 5.18.riteria for describing plasticity
 Identification of Organic Fine-Grained Soils:
Identify the soil as an organic soil, OL/OH, if the soil contains enough organic
particles to influence the soil properties. Organic soils usually have a dark brown
to black color and may have an organic odor. Often, organic soils will change
color, for example, black to brown, when exposed to the air. Some organic soils
will lighten in color significantly when air dried. Organic soils normally will not
have a high toughness or plasticity. The thread for the toughness test will be
spongy clays, OL or OH. Correlations between the dilatancy, dry strength,
273
toughness tests, and laboratory tests can be made to identify organic soils in
certain deposits of similar materials of known geologic origin.
9 If the soil is estimated to have 15 to 25 % sand or gravel, or both, the words

“with sand” or “with gravel” (whichever is more predominant) shall be added to
the group name. For example: “lean clay with sand, CL” or “silt with gravel,
ML” (see Fig. 5.21a and Fig. 5.2 1b). If the percentage of sand is equal to the
percentage of gravel take “with sand.”
10 If the soil is estimated to have 30 % or more sand or gravel, or both, the

words “sandy” or “gravelly” shall be added to the group name. Add the word
“sandy” if there appears to be more sand than gravel. Add the word “gravelly” if
there appears to be more gravel than sand. For example: “sandy lean clay, CL”,
“gravelly fat clay, CH”, or “sandy silt, ML” (see Fig. 1a and Fig. 1b). If the
percentage of sand is equal to the percent of gravel, use “sandy.”
o Procedure for Identifying Coarse-Grained Soils (Contains less

than 50 % fines)
1 The soil is gravel if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be more

than the percentage of sand.
2 The soil is a sand if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be equal

to or less than the percentage of sand.
3 The soil is a clean gravel or clean sand if the percentage of fines is

estimated to be 5 % or less.
3.1 Identify the soil as well-graded gravel, GW, or as well-graded sand,

SW, if it has a wide range of particle sizes and substantial amounts of
the intermediate particle sizes.
3.2 Identify the soil as a poorly graded gravel, GP, or as a poorly

graded sand, SP, if it consists predominantly of one size (uniformly
graded), or it has a wide range of sizes with some intermediate sizes
obviously missing (gap or skip graded).
274
4 The soil is either a gravel with fines or a sand with fines if the
percentage of fines is estimated to be 15 % or more.
4.1 Identify the soil as a clayey gravel, GC, or a clayey sand, SC, if the
fines are clayey as determined by the procedures above..
4.2 Identify the soil as silty gravel, GM, or silty sand, SM, if the fines
are silty as determined by the procedures above.
5 If the soil is estimated to contain 10 % fines, give the soil a dual

identification using two group symbols.
5.1 The first group symbol shall correspond to a clean gravel or sand
(GW, GP, SW, SP) and the second symbol shall correspond to a gravel
or sand with fines (GC, GM, SC, SM).
5.2 The group name shall correspond to the first group symbol plus the
words “with clay” or “with silt” to indicate the plasticity characteristics
of the fines. For example: “well –graded gravel with clay, GW-GC” or
“poorly graded sand with silt, SP-SM” (see Fig. 5.21 b).
6 If the specimen is predominantly sand or gravel but contains an

estimated 15 % or more of the other coarse-grained constituent, the
words “with gravel” or “with sand” shall be added to the group name.
For example: “poorly graded gravel with sand, GP” or “clayey sand
with gravel, SC” (see Fig. 5.21 b).
7 If the field sample contains any cobbles or boulders, or both, the

words “with cobbles” or “with cobbles and boulders” shall be added to
the group name. For example: “silty gravel with cobbles, GM.”
275
Figure 5.21. (a) Flow chart for identifying Inorganic fine-grained soil (50% or more fines)
276
Figure 5.21. (b) Flow chart for identifying Organic fine-grained soul ( 50% of more fines)
277
5.8 Soil classification
Introduction
Soils are all different, depending on their origins, compositions, locations, geological histories,
and many other factors. Two soils may be quite different, even though they were obtained from
nearby boring holes on the same construction site. And thus, in-situ and laboratory tests on soil
specimens are critically important to obtain their index parameters and engineering
characteristics. However, it is more convenient for engineers when soils are categorized into
several groups with similar engineering behaviors.
Engineers can understand approximate engineering characteristics of those grouped soils without
actual laboratory or field tests. This process is called soil classification, and it helps engineers in
the preliminary design stage of geotechnical engineering problems. Most soil classification
standards use soil indices such as Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit), soil gradation
information (D10, D50, Cu, Cg), etc. In current geotechnical engineering practice, two standards
are widely used in the United States: the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) methods.
 Unified soil classification system (USCS)
First developed by Arthur Casagrande for wartime airfield construction in 1942, the
system was modified and adopted for regular use by the Army Corps of Engineers and
then by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1952 as the Unified Soil Classification System
(Casagrande 1948). Currently, it is adapted in ASTM (designation D 2487) and
periodically updated. This is the most widely used classification system by geotechnical
engineers.
The system uses six simple major symbols and four modifiers as in the following:
Major symbols:
G Gravel
S Sand
278
M Silt
C Clay
O Organic
Pt Peat
Modifiers:
W Well graded (for gravel and sand)
P Poorly graded (for gravel and sand)
H High plasticity (for silt, clay, and organic soils)
L Low plasticity (for silt, clay, and organic soils)
Classified group names are combinations of these characters—for example, GP for

poorly graded gravel, SW for well-graded sand, CH for high-plasticity clay, SM for silty
sand, etc. And thus, GW, GP, GM, and GC are possible group names for gravelly soil;
SW, SP, SM, and SC are for sandy soils; MH and ML are for silty soils; CH and CL are
for clayey soils; OH and OL are for organic soils; and Pt stands alone for peat. Dual
naming is also possible for several boundary soils, such as GW–GM (well-graded gravel
with silt), GC–GM (silty clayey gravel), SW–SM (well-graded sand with silt), etc.
This system uses LL, PL, and PI (= LL − PL), and soils’ gradation information. First,
from a grain size distribution curve, the percentages of each component (gravel [d ≥ 4.75
mm], sand [4.75 mm > d > 0.075 mm], and fine [d ≤ 0.075 mm]) are identified as shown
in Figure 5.22. From this, the values of F200, R200, F4, and R4 are obtained as F200: %
finer than No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) = percentage of fine content R200: percentage
retained on No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) = percentage of sand and gravel content
F4: percentage finer than No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) = percentage of sand and fine content
R4: percentage retained on No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) = percentage of gravel content
Note that in USCS, clay and silt are categorized as fine.
279
Figure 5.22. Definitions of F200, R200, F40, R40, and R4
Next, the coefficient of uniformity Cu (= D60/D10) and the coefficient of gradation
Cg (= (D30)2/(D60 × D10)) are calculated.
Based on these values, the classification procedure is summarized in a flow chart in

Figure 5.23. The chart starts from F200 information as far left in the following steps.
For G or S
1. If F200 < 50% (or R200 ≥ 50%, i.e., gravel and sand content is more than 50%), then
soil is G or S.
2. Then, if R4 ≥ ½F200 (gravel content ≥ sand content), it is G, or if R4 < ½F200 (gravel

content < sand content), it is S.
280
3. In the next step, F200 (fine content) is checked for G and S. If F200 < 5%, naming fine
content is ignored and soils will be GW, GP, SW, or SP.
If F200 > 12%, soils will be GM, GC, SM, or SC. When 5% ≤ F200 ≤ 12%, double
naming comes in as GW–GM, GW–GC, GP–GM, and GP–GC for gravel or SW–SM,
SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–SC for sand. In such double naming cases, modifier M or C is
determined based on a plasticity chart for F40 materials.
Figure 5.23. Flow chart for USCS
4. In the final step for gravel and sand, Cu and Cg values are evaluated formodifiers W or
P. For gravel, Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cg ≤ 3 are conditions for W and the other values of those
281
are for P. For sand, the condition for W is Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cg ≤ 3 and the other values are
for P.
5. For GW and GP soils, if percentage of sand content is at or more than 15%, it is named
as GW (or GP) with sand.
6. Similarly, for SW and SP soils, if percentage of gravel content is at or more than 15%,
it is named as SW (or SP) with gravel.
For C, M, O, or Pt
1. Going back to the F200 value in Figure 5.23, if F200 ≥ 50% (i.e., fine contents are at
or more than 50%), then soil is either M or C (or possibly O or Pt).
2. To classify M or C, plasticity chart (Figure 5.24) is used. It utilizes LL and PI (= LL −

PL) values. LL and PL tests should be performed on the F40 specimen (soil passed No.
40 sieve—0.425 mm), and the LL and PI data point of the soil tested is plotted on the
plasticity chart to identify soil type (CH, CL, MH, ML, or CL-ML) by the zone on which
the data point falls.
3. On the plasticity chart, most natural soils fall below the “U” line and around the “A”
line or CL–ML zone. It should be noted that LL = 50 is the boundary LL for high-plastic
(LL > 50) or low-plastic (LL < 50) soils.
4. The M or C classification method by the plasticity chart is also used in subgroup

names in gravel and sand category soils with their fine contents between 5% and 12%.
These are GM, GC, SM, SC, and dual named soils GW–GM, GW–GC, GP–GM, and
GP–GC for gravel or SW–SM, SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–SC for sand. Note that, for
those gravels and sands, only the F40 specimen is used for LL and PL tests as mentioned
before.
282
Figure 5.24. Plasticity chart for USCS
5. Pt (peat) should be identified by its color, odor, spongy feeling, and, frequently, by its
fibrous texture by testing engineers. O (organic soil) can be identified by observing the
change in LL values from natural soil to oven-dried (burns some organic) soil. If LL
(oven dried)/LL (natural) is <0.75, it is classified as O. If the ratio is ≥0.75, it is non-
organic.
Since USCS uses simple symbols with their meanings, it is easy to understand the nature
of soils from classified group names. Also, this requires only LL and PL tests and sieve
analysis. A hydrometer test is not required since the silt and clay are treated as fine and it
uses the plasticity chart to identify the clay and silt. USCS and its modified versions are
the most widely used soil classification system around the world today. Engineers
provided useful general guidelines for those classified soils in different applications, such
as roadway construction, compaction practice, etc. Table 4.1 shows such an example for
roads and airfields.
283
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
AASHTO soil classification was developed in the late 1920s by the US Bureau of Public Roads
(now the Federal Highway Administration) for road constructions. The current version, which
was revised in 1945, is used for extended applications in road bases, sub-bases, subgrades, and
embankment constructions (AASHTO 1995).
As a reference, the terminology of road construction materials such as base, subbase, subgrade,
etc. is shown in Figure 4.4 for typical rigid (concrete) and flexible (asphalt cement) pavement
systems. The AASHTO method uses Atterberg limits (LL and PL), and information on grain size
distribution curve (F10, F40, and F200), which are the percentage passing on No. 10 sieve, No.
40 sieve, and No. 200 sieve, respectively. The procedure uses an elimination process of columns
in Table5.19, from the upper left corner (F10) toward downward and right. If the condition on
the row is not satisfied, the entire column is eliminated and it is never referred back. After the
last row check for PI, one or possibly more than one column may survive this elimination
process.
If more than one column survived, the first column from the left is selected as a group or
subgroup name. The group names are A-1 through A-7, with some subgroups. In general, the
left-side group is better than the right side one for use as roadway construction materials. In
addition, group index (GI), as defined in the following, should be calculated and reported in the
AASHTO system:
GI = (F200 − 35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)] + 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10) (5.30)
There are some rules in Equation (5.30):
1. When GI is calculated as negative values, report GI = 0.
2. GI is reported in rounded integer numbers. For example, GI = 4.4 should be reported as 4 and
GI = 4.5 should be reported as 5.
3. For A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, use only the second term of Equation (5.30)
and assign the first term always as zero, that is,
284
(4.2) GI =0.01 ( F 200−15 )( PI −10 ) ( 5.31)
The standard says that under average conditions of good drainage and thorough compaction
processes, the supporting value of a material as subgrade may be assumed as an inverse ratio to
the group index; that is, a group index of 0 indicates a “good” subgrade material and a group
index of 20 or greater indicates a “very poor” subgrade material.
Figure 5.25. Typical road pavement system
285
Table 5.19. USCS Grouping and its relationship to various engineering properties
286
Exercise 5.1
A soil gradation curve is shown in Figure 5.26. Classify the soil (a) by USCS, and (b) by
AASHTO classification methods. LL = 46% and PL = 35% were obtained for F40 material of
the specimen.
Figure 5.26. Gradation curve for exercise 5.1
SOLUTION
From the gradation curve, the following values can be read.
Percentage passing No. 4 (4.75 mm) = 92%
F200 = 28%, and thus R200 = 72%
F4 = 92%, and thus R4 = 8%
287
D10 = 0.01 mm
D30 = 0.090 mm
D60 = 0.39 mm
Cu = D60/D10 = 0.39/0.01 = 39
Cg = (D30)2/(D60 × D10) = (0.090)2/(0.01 × 0.39) = 2.08
and
LL = 46
PI = 46 − 35 = 11
288
Table 5.20. AASHTO Classification of soil and soil aggregate mixture
289
(A) USCS Method
By using the flow chart in Figure 5.23, since F200 (28) < 50%, it should be G or S.
R4 (= 8%) < ½R200 (= 72%) = 36%, and thus it should be S.
F200 (= 28%) > 12% and it should be SM or SC.
LL (= 46) and PL (= 11) fall in the region of ML or OL in the plasticity chart (Figure 4.3).
Thus, the soil is classified as SM (silty sand).
(B) AASH TO Method
By using the elimination process in Table 5.20, from top left,
(Percentage passing No. 10 = 87%) eliminates A-1-a
(Percentage passing No. 40 = 63%) eliminates A-1-b, but A-3 survives
(Percentage passing No. 200 = 28%) eliminates A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7
LL = 46 eliminates A-2-4 and A-2-6
PI = 11 eliminates A-2-5
And thus the survived subgroup is A-2-7 (silty or clayey gravel and sand). ←
Since it is A-2-7, Equation (4.2) is used for group index computation.
GI = 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10) = 0.01(28 − 15)(11 − 10) = 0.13 → 0 (rounded integer). GI =

0
And thus, this soil is classified as A-2-7 (GI = 0).
SUMMARY
Widely used soil classification systems, namely, USCS and AASHTO methods, were
presented in this section. Classification systems provide general guidelines of soil types based
on the results of rather simple sieve analysis and Atterberg limits tests. Based on the
accumulated data for many years, many convenient relationships between classified soil
groups and many engineering properties have been prepared. Table 4.1 is such an example.
289
Geotechnical engineers could use those properties for the primary phase of engineering
design and analysis if needed. For detailed and later design phases, however, undisturbed
specimens should be tested in the field (in-situ test), or sampled and tested in laboratories to
obtain more reliable soils’ properties and engineering design values
5.9 Basic soil tests
The following basic soil tests should be performed to determine the physical
and mechanical properties of soil.
 Moisture content
This test shall consist of determination of moisture content on all fine-

grained soil samples in accordance with AASHTO T-265. It is important
to note that the moisture content w is expressed as a percentage in
Equation 5.5. Moisture content is an important soil property that relates
with soil behavior, clay content, organic content, calcium carbonate, shear
strength, compressibility, and other engineering properties. This test may
not be required on soils with less than 35% passing #200 Sieve (0.075
mm).
 Specific gravity test
Specific gravity tests of soils shall be performed in accordance with

AASHTO T-100. Most Indiana soils have specific gravities ranging
between 2.60 to 2.75. Soils with organic content or porous particles may
have lower specific gravities. Coal combustion residuals may have higher
specific gravities.
 Classification tests
 Grain size distribution
290
The results of sieve analyses, plotted in the form of a gradation curve, are used
to estimate soil permeability. The following tests shall be performed on
samples obtained to verify the field classification of the major soil types
encountered during the investigation. The number of tests shall be limited to
reasonably establish the stratification without duplication, unless approved
otherwise. A minor soil type, if not critical, may be given a visual
classification, instead of performing classification tests for reference.
 Sieve analysis
A sieve analysis is a quantitative determination of the distribution of particle

sizes present in the soil sample. The testing will be accompanied by means of a
hydrometer analyses. The method of determining the distribution of particle
sizes in soils shall be in accordance with AASHTO T-88 and INDOT’s
triangular classification chart as given in this section. Soil classification shall
be in accordance with AASHTO M-145.
Sieves shall be U.S. sieve sizes: 75 mm (3 in.), 50 mm (2 in.), 25 mm (1 in.),

9.5 mm (⅜ in.), 4.75 mm (No. 4), 2.00 mm (No. 10), 0.425 mm (No. 40), and
0.075 mm (No. 200).
 Hydrometer analysis
This work shall consist of the hydrometer analysis in accordance with

AASHTO T-88, which includes a determination of specific gravity in
accordance with AASHTO T-100. If more than 20% of a sample passes the No.
200 sieve, a hydrometer analysis shall be performed. A grain size distribution
curve shall be provided and should include the combined results of the sieve
analysis.
Soil behavior changes when the soil’s clay content is greater than 20 % in soil
matrix. Engineering judgment should be used to perform a hydrometer analysis
on each predominant soil type.
 Atterberg limits and plasticity index (PI)

The liquid limit (LL) is determined according to the AASHTO T-89 method.
The plastic limit (PL) and plasticity index (PI) are determined according to
291
AASHTO T-90. At different water contents, fine-grained soils can exist in
several states of consistency. Soil behavior can be predicted with Atterberg
limits. The consistency and the behavior (i.e., the relative ease that fine-grained
soils can be deformed) depend primarily upon the amount of water present in
the soil-water system.
Usually, soils with a higher LL contain a greater clay content. In 1911, A.

Atterberg, a Swedish soil scientist, proposed the boundaries of four states of
consistency in terms of limits. These limits and the zones between the limits are
illustrated in Figure 5.27. Each limit represents a moisture content beyond
which the soil changes from one state to another.
The plasticity index (PI) represents the range of moisture contents, through
which the soil is in the plastic state. The PI is simply the moisture content at the
LL minus the moisture content at the PL.
The limits are useful for soil classification and correlate with the soil’s
engineering behavior, such as compressibility, permeability, shrink-swell, and
strength. The shrinkage limit (SL) can be useful in predicting the maximum
loss of volume. For example, an embankment material may undergo shrinkage
when removed from a wet borrow and subsequently dried after rolled into a fill.
As soil dries to the SL, there is a loss of volume and water. Further drying
removes water only without corresponding volume loss.
The LL, PL and SL vary for each soil, but the procedures for obtaining these
values have been standardized. The LL is determined in the laboratory by
measuring the moisture content at which a standard groove of soil, placed in a
standard brass cup, will close when the cup is dropped 25 times from a 0.394
in. height. The PL is determined by measuring the moisture content at which a
thread of soil begins to crumble, when rolled into a 1/8 in. diameter. The SL is
determined by drying a sample of saturated soil and measuring the limiting
moisture content at which no further volume changes occur with loss of water.
292
Figure 5.27. Consistency of soils as indicated by Attweberg limites
The PI of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL – 30, whereas PI of A-7-6

subgroup is greater than LL – 30. Generally, the optimum moisture content
(OMC) of cohesive soils is a couple percent below the moisture content at the
PL.
Please note that additional parameters of group index (GI) are determined to
classify fine soils.
GI shall be calculated after performing the soil classification and Atterberg

limit. Additionally, the GI is reported along with the classification test. The GI
indicates the percentage and plastic nature of the portion of the material passing
No. 200 sieve. Calculation of the GI is the final part of the AASHTO
classification. Generally the higher the value of the GI for a given classification,
the poorer the performance of the soil. Therefore, GI relates with construction
properties of a soil, such as strength, compressibility, or volume change.
The formula used to calculate the group index is as follows:
GI =¿
GI = Group Index. Reported as a positive whole number or zero
F = Percentage passing the No. 200 sieve
293
LL = Liquid limit
PI = Plasticity index
 PH test
The pH test is performed in accordance with AASHTO T 289 using only
distilled water. The test should be performed on all classification test samples
and others as necessary. When the test is performed on moderate to non-
organic material, sample sizes should be 0.04 lbs (20.0 grams) of material
passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. The samples shall be prepared in
accordance with AASHTO T-87.
 Organic content (loss of ignition)

This test shall determine the organic content in accordance with AASHTO T-
267. High organic content in soils result in high moisture and low shear
strength. Organic soils in foundations or compacted embankments may
decompose or decay over time resulting in settlement. Hence, organic soils are
undesirable in geotechnical engineering. This method will provide a
quantitative estimation of oxidized organic matter in the soil mass. When all
the carbon is burned such as coal or minerals, it overestimates loss on ignition.
Sometimes, loess from southern Indiana will have a higher loss on ignition
due to grass mixed in the soil being burned off.
Based on research, loss on ignition (AASHTO T 267) overestimates the

organic content of the soils approximately 2% higher than the organic content
determine by other methods. Based on the research (Huang et al., 2009), this
overestimation can reach 8 % of loss of ignition. Engineering judgment should
be used while reviewing this test. The organic content of soil correlates well
with moisture content, unit weight, shear strength, and compressibility.
Organic matter present in soil shall be reported as a percentage and rounded to
the nearest whole number. For organic soils, a lower drying temperature of
approximately 1400 F (600 C) is recommended. Tests shall be performed in
accordance with ASTM D 2216 (AASHTO T 265).
294
 Liquid limit ratio test (llr)
The LL is defined by the lowest moisture content where the soil begins to flow
as a viscus liquid. The liquid limit ratio (LLR) is defined by the LL of the
burned off soil (AASHTO T 267) divided by the LL of the natural soil, as
show in the equation below. Determination of the LL is performed in
accordance with AASHTO T 89.
 Density moisture relations
 Standard moisture-density relations (standard proctor)

A minimum of 4 points on the curve with at least 2 points on each side of
optimum shall be performed in accordance with AASHTO T-99. Additionally,
the sample shall be mixed and then cured for 48 hours prior to molding the
specimens. This test is called standard Proctor test.
Generally, this test is used to determine the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content (OMC) of soils that can be compared with density
achieved during construction. Sometimes the soil sample is molded to a
specific density for strength or a resilient modulus test.
Figure 5.28. Standard Proctor compaction curve. Zero air voide curve
represents 100% saturationrepresents 100% saturation.
295
Well-graded soils have higher density whereas poorly or gap graded soils has
a lower density. Cohesive soils have a higher OMC, whereas granular soils
have a lower OMC. It is due to a soil’s specific surface, i.e. the total surface
area of soil grains per volume. Cohesive soils have larger specific surface as
compared to granular soil, which explains why clays exhibit higher OMC than
sands.
 Modified moisture and density relation (modified proctor)

The modified Proctor test is similar to the standard Proctor test. This test is
performed in accordance with AASHTO T 180. Soils are compacted in 5
layers with hammer weighing 10 lbs and a drop height of 18 inches. The
heavier hammer and increased drop height along with increased with layers
significantly increases the compactive effort. The modified Proctor test results
in greater compaction energy, creating higher unit weight at a lower moisture
content. Higher unit weight corresponds to less void space so maximum unit
weight can be achieved using less water.
Clayey and silty soils have a major improvement in densities when compacted
at modified Proctor, whereas density increases are small in sands and gravels.
 Unconfined compressive strength test, qu
This test, commonly referred to as the qu test, shall consist of performing the
unconfined compressive strength test in accordance with AASHTO T 208.
This test includes determination of initial and final moisture contents, unit
weight determination, visual descriptions of the soil, average rate of strain to
failure and strain at failure. The sample shall be undisturbed and have a
minimum diameter of 1.3 inches (33 millimeters) unless other types are
approved in advance for the specific project. The test is a special case of
triaxial compression test in which the confining pressure (σ3) is zero, as
shown in Figure 5.29. It is performed by loading a soil specimen at a constant
rate to the failure load. Test results may be expressed in terms of force per unit
area, commonly tsf or kPa. It is important to note that the angle of internal
friction, φ is assumed to be zero in case of clay. Cohesion or shearing strength,
denoted as c or s, is equal to 𝑞𝑢2 for pure clay. This test is not suitable for
296
granular soils. Failure load is the load at which sample fails or the load
corresponding to 15% strain, whichever occurs first.
Figure 5.29. UCS Loading
 Triaxial compression test
The triaxial compression test is used to determine the shear strength

parameters of a given soil sample. Each test shall consist of at least 3 points for
plotting a Mohr failure envelope and determining the strength parameters.
Test results shall include:
 Initial and final moisture content tests

 Specific gravity
 Atterberg limits
 Initial and final void ratio
 Initial and final degrees of saturation
 Unit weight (density)
 Visual textural description
 Plot of Mohr circles failure envelope and sketch of failure
297
Figure 5.30. Triaxial Tests
 Direct shear test

This work shall consist of determining the consolidating drained shear test of
sandy soils in accordance with AASHTO T 236
 Resilient modulus (mr)

Resilient modulus (MR) of subgrade soil should be determined in accordance
with AASHTO T 307. MR shall be performed at 95% of the standard Proctor
for reconstruction, widening, or new alignment. The specimen shall be
prepared at optimum moisture content. For subgrade foundation, MR shall be
performed either on remolded soils from the embankment fill or on Shelby tube
samples from the subgrade foundation.
MR should be performed on Shelby tube samples for pavement improvement,
pavement rubberization, and FDR projects. In situ modulus shall be performed
on Shelby tube samples. MR shall also be performed on cement and hydrated
lime stabilized soils when project requires stabilization.
Soluble Sulfate test shall be performed in accordance with ITM 510. Sulfate
test shall be performed when soils are used in subgrade construction. When
high sulfate soils are mixed with chemical for the purpose of modification or
stabilization, there is a potential for a subgrade heaving. INDOT Standard
298
Specifications specify the soluble sulfate limit in Section 215. Special attention
shall be given in southeast and southwest areas of Indiana due to the presence
of shale.
 Soluble sulfate test

Sulfate test shall be performed when soils are used in subgrade construction.
When high sulfate soils are mixed with chemical for the purpose of
modification or stabilization, there is a potential for a subgrade heaving.
 Corrosion test
Corrosion or electro chemical classification tests provide the engineer with
quantitative information related to the aggressiveness of the soil conditions
and the potential for deterioration of a foundation material. Corrosion tests
include pH, organic, resistivity, sulfate, and chlorides. Corrosion tests required
when either deep foundation is proposed or any structure may come in contact
with soils. Different standard Specifications require structural backfill to be
tested for the corrosion related tests. Tests that characterize the aggressiveness
of a soil environment are important for design applications that include
metallic elements, especially for ground anchors comprised of high strength
steel and for metallic reinforcements in mechanically stabilized earth walls.
 Sulfate test
A sulfate test shall be performed in accordance with AASHTO T 290. Sulfate
testing is performed as a part of corrosion testing on structural backfill for
mechanically stabilized earth walls.
 Chloride test
This work shall consist of determining the chloride ion content in the soil in
accordance with AASHTO T 291.
 Soils resistivity test

This work shall consist of determining the electric conduction potential of the
surface environment. The resistivity shall be performed in accordance with
AASHTO T 288.
299
Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not the course for the formation of soil due to Physical
disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks?
A) Temperature changes
B) Hydration
C) Wedging action of ice
D) Spreading of roots of plants
D) Abrasion
2. Which one of the following is not the course for the formation of soil due to Chemical
decomposition?
A) Carbonation
B) Oxidation
C) Hydration
D) Temperature changes
E) Hydrolysis
3. The soil is called _____________________________ if the products of rock weathering

are still located at the place where they originated.
A) Transported soil
B) Residual soil
C) Original soil
D) Organic soil
300
E) All
4. Typically very small particles deposit on lakebeds due to the tranquility of water is called
______________________________.
A) Marine deposits
B) Glacier- deposited soils
C) Wind transported soils
D) Lacustrine deposits
E) None
5. Soil deposits by wind are known as _____________________________.
A) Lacustrine deposits
B) Aeolian deposit
C) Glacier- deposited
D) Marine deposits
E) None
6. ____________________________ is the type of soil with size is between 64 to 256mm.
A) Gravels
B) Cobbles
C) Sand
D) Pebble
E) Boulders
7. _________________________ is the type of soil with size between 4.75 and 76.2mm.
A) Gravels
B) Cobbles
301
C) Sand
D) Pebble
E) Boulders
8. q___________________________ is the type of soil whose particles seen by naked eye

and size less than 4.75mm.
A) Gravels
B) Cobbles
C) Sand
D) Pebble
E) Boulders
9. The clay formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash is called

__________________________.
A) Bentonite
B) Kaolin
C) Boulder Clay
D) Varved Clays Shale
E) Shale
10. Fibrous aggregate with decomposed fragments of vegetable matter and very compressible
in nature are called _____________________________.
A) Bentonite
B) Kaolin
C) Boulder Clay
302
D) Peat
E) Shale
11. The uppermost horizon of the soil profile is called ____________________________>
A) A-horizon of Soil profile
B) O-horizon or litter zone
C) B-horizon of Soil profile
D) C-horizon of Soil profile
E) R-horizon of Soil profile
12. The second layer from the top and which is also called a sub-soil
is________________________.
A) A-horizon of Soil profile
B) O-horizon or litter zone
C) B-horizon of Soil profile
D) C-horizon of Soil profile
E) R-horizon of Soil profile
13. __________________________ refers to the movement of air and water through the soil.
A) Saturation
B) Solubility
C) Permeability
D) Water holding capacity
E) None
303
14. Which one of the following capillary water presence in the voids of soil mass is not
included on te classification based on phenomenological basis
_________________________?
A) Ground water
B) Capillary water
C) Pore water
D) Adsorbed water
E) Infiltrated water
15. ___________________and_____________________ comprises rock fragments of

various sizes and shapes that may be either rock fragments or single minerals.
A) Clay and silt
B) Gravel, sand
C) Gravel, peat
D) Gravel, clay
E) Sand and clay ,
16. ________________________ is the type of soil consists of very small particles and
exhibits the properties of ‘cohesion’ and ‘plasticity’.
A) sand
B) Silt
C) Clay
D) Gravel
E) Peat
17. ________________________ is a measure of the loss of strength that occurs when the
soil is disturbed or remolded.
304
A) Structure
B) Sensitivity
C) Dilatancy
D) Toughness
E) Plasticity
18. According to the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHTO)

classification system, soil is classified into _____ major groups.
A) 3
B) 5
C) 7
D) 9
19. . According to the AASHTO soil classification, the general subgrade rating for soils of
group A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7 is
A) Fair to excellent.
B) Fair to poor.
C) Excellent to good.
D) Excellent to poor.
20. The original form of Unified Soil Classification System was proposed by
A) Terzaghi in 1925.
B) Taylor in 1948.
C) Casagrande in 1948.
D) none of the above
21. According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), the fine-grained soils have
305
A) 50% passing through 75μm sieve.
B) 50% or more passing through 75μm sieve.
C) Less than 50% passing through 75μm sieve.
D) None of the above
22. The symbol for silt is
A) C.
B) M.
C) S.
23. . The symbol O is used for
A) Organic silts and clays.
B) Organic soils.
C) Peat.
24. The group symbol for silty sand is
A) SS
B) SM
C) MS.
25. The group symbol SC stands for
A) Silty clay. B) Clayey silt. C) Sandy clay. D) Clayey sand.
306
1. Mention and explaine the different physical properties of soil.

2. Give brief explanation about the formation of soil.
3. Mention and explain the processes of the physical disintegration or mechanical weathering
of rocks during the formation of soil.
4. Mention and explain chemical processes by which the soil is formed.
5. Give brief explanation about the two type’s formation of soil based on their origin
6. Give brief explanation about the types of soil based on grain size.
7. What do we mean by soil profile? Explain briefly
8. Mention and explain the five types of soil profile.
9. What do we mean by permeability of soil?
10. What do we mean by soil is a three phase system?
11. What is Frost action in soils?
12. A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and Gs= 2.72. Determine its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c) Amount of water to be added per m3 to make it saturated.
13. The dry density of sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void ratio of the
soil and the specific gravity of the soil solids. [Take 𝛾𝜔 = 1000 𝑘𝑔 /𝑚3]
14. A sample of saturated soil has a water content of 35%. The specific gravity of soil solids
is 2.65. Determine its voids ratio, porosity, saturated unit weight and dry unit weight.
15. A sample of clay taken from a natural stratum was found to be partially saturated and
when tested in the laboratory gave the following results. Specific gravity of soil particle
=2.6, wet weight of sample =2.50 N, dry weight of sample =2.10 N and volume of sample
=150 cm3. Determine the degree of saturation.
16. Prove the following relationship
wG
a) S=
e
Υ
b) Υd=
1+ w
Gs Υw ( 1+ w )
c) Υ =
1+e
307
17. A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was 6 N.
The clay in its container was placed in an oven for 24 hours at lOSOC.
The weight reduced to a constant value of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N. If Gs
= 2.7, determine the (a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit weight, (d) dry unit
weight, and (e) effective unit weight.
18. An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil compacted to a dry unit
weight of 18 kN/m3. The clay has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk
unit weight of the soil in the borrow pit is 17 kN/m3 and it natural water content is 5%.
Calculate the volume of clay from the borrow p.' re uired for 1 cubic meter of
embankment. Assume Gs = 2.7.
19. A sample of dry coarse-grained material of mass 500gm was shaken through a nest of
sieves and the following results are obtained
a) Plot the particle size distribution curve

b) Determine 1) The effective size 2) Te average particle size 3) the coefficient of uniformity
4) The coefficient curvature
20. A liquid limit test c results:
Two detrminations for te plastic limit gave water content of 20.3 % and 20.8%. Detrmine
a) The liquid limit and plastic limit b) The plastic index c) The void ratio at the liquid limit
if Gs=
308
References
[1]. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1n49-yztgon9eUhdJ3ia4nZKIHOBQdSDc/view
[2]. https://civilengineeringbible.com/subtopics.php?i=6
[3]. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/5-472/apb.pdf
[4]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781119130888.app1
[5]. https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/5/5_2021_02_01!12_11_25_AM.pdf
[6]. https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/rec/REC-ERC-82-17.pdf
[7]. https://socwisconsin.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/ASTM-D-2488-visual-USCS.pdf
[8]. https://wisconsindot.gov/Documents/doing-bus/eng-consultants/cnslt-rsrces/
geotechmanual/gt-03-03.pdf
[9]. https://www.in.gov/indot/engineering/files/geotech_design_manual_ch05-lab_testing.pdf
[10]. https://www.geoengineer.org/storage/education/10/general_file_collection/7906/siva-
classification.pdf
[11]. https://www.simplifiedcivil.com/2021/07/frost-action-in-soil-freezing-and-thawing-
pdf.html
[12]. https://www.ndltap.org/resources/downloads/local-roads-frost-heave-boil-memo.pdf
[13]. https://www.lrrb.org/pdf/RIS-27.pdf
[14]. https://www.elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-engineering/soil-mechanics/field-
identification-of-soil
[15]. https://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMech/classification/default.htm
309
310
Chapter Six: Bitumen or asphalt
6.1 General
Bitumen & Asphalt

There may be confusion in defining the terms Bitumen & Asphalt. As per
ASTM: D8-13 the definition of Bitumen and Asphalt are the same. Asphalt is
the term used in North America but in Europe and most of other parts of the
world the term Bitumen is used.
ASTM: D8-13 defines asphalt as dark brown to black cement like residuum
obtained from the distillation of suitable crude oils.
The distillation process may involve one or more of the following:
- Atmospheric distillation,
- Vacuum distillation,
- Stream distillation.
Further processing of distillation residuum may be needed to yield a material
whose physical properties are suitable for commercial applications. The
additional process can involve air oxidation, solvent stripping or blending of
residua of different stiffness characteristics.
Figure 6.1. Natural bitumen /asphalt Figure 6.2. Refined bitumen/asphalt

311
In general bituminous material may be defined as a class of black or dark
colored solid, semisolid or viscous cementations substances, natural or
manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons of
which asphalts, tars, pitches and asphaltites are typical. (ASTM D 8-97-2000)
Types of Bitumen or Asphalt based on their source
Principally asphalt is classified into two types based on their source:-
 Natural Asphalt: - Available in three forms: - (1) Lake Asphalt (2) Rock
Asphalt and (3) Gilsonite
 Lake Asphalt: The primary source of lake asphalt is a deposit in a
lake in the southern part of Trinidad. This is a result of surface
seepage in the bed of the lake. It is a mixture of different materials
including pure asphalt binder and is known as Trinidad Lake
Asphalt (TLA). The refined product of TLA has about 54% binder,
36% mineral matter and 10% organic material with a penetration of
about 20 dmm and softening point of 95 0C. These days, its use is
confined to mostly high-stiffness asphalt mixes for pavements and
roofing applications like Mastic Asphalt in North and Central
America.
312
Figure 6.3. Picture of Trindad Lake Asphalt
 Rock Asphalt: Rock asphalts are obtained from generally lime
stone, sand stone variety of rock those are impregnated with
asphalts. They are forms by entrapment of asphalt in impervious
rock formation. Rock asphalt was used in the earliest construction
of today’s paved road in Europe and United States.
Figure 6.4. Natural rock asphalt
313
 Gilsonite : Gilsonite is the hardest variety of natural asphalt. It has
penetration of zero with a softening point of 115-190 0C. It is mixed
with regular asphalt to increase the softening point and reduce the
penetration to suit the particular purpose of mainly high-stiffness
asphalt mixes and waterproofing, bridge deck surfacing. It is also
used as a coat to preserve the asphalt pavement without changing
its texture
Figure 6.5. Gilsonite
 Refined Asphalt from Crude Oil is obtained by a process called

fractional distillation.
 Refinery Processing of Bitumen : More than 99% of the bitumen
used in highways around the world are produced by refining crude
petroleum. The primary process used is distillation. The choice of
manufacturing methods depends on the properties of crude
available.
Property of Crude oil is judged with the index called API Gravity
(American Petrochemical Institute). It is an arbitrary expression
314
of material density at 15.50C and is obtained by the following
equation:
141 .5
API Gravity = ( SpecificGravity ) – 131.5
As API Gravity of Crude oil increases, the yield of residuum
decreases and the yield of distillate subsequently increases.
Crude oil is defined as heavy when its API Gravity is less than 25.
These low API gravity crude oils are also called “Sour” Crude oils
if their sulphur content is high. The Sour Crude have high bitumen
content. If a crude oil has an API Gravity greater than about 25 and
is generally low in sulpher content, it is called a light and sweet
crude oil. The sweet crude have low percentage of bitumen.
Refiners around the world prefer heavy crude oils for processing
bitumen out of them.
Distillation of Crude Oil: -
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. It is a brownish black
liquid, highly inflammable and lighter than water, crude oil is boiled in the
range of -1650C to +7500C.Contains C-1 to C-120. Crude oil is the generic
term for petroleum.
 Constitution (Chemical Composition) of Bitumen
Bitumen is a complex chemical mixture of molecules that are
predominantly hydrocarbons with a small amount of structurally
analogous heterocyclic species and functional groups containing sulphur,
nitrogen and oxygen atoms.
Analysis of bitumen from a variety of Crude oil shows, most bitumen
contain:-
 Carbon : 82 – 88%
 Hydrogen : 8 – 11%
315
 Sulphur : 0 – 6%
 Oxygen : 0 – 1.5%
 Nitrogen : 0 – 1%
To correlate the rheological properties of the bitumen, two broad chemical
groups of bitumen is done: Asphaltenes and maltenes. Asphalt
microstructure may be described as a dispersed polar fluid (DPF) which
explains asphalt microstructure as a continuous 3-D association of polar
molecules generally referred to as asphaltenes, dispersed in a fluid of non-
polar or relatively low-porosity molecules generally referred to as
maltenes. The maltenes can be further sub-divided into saturates,
aromatics and resins.
Asphaltenes are generally considered to be highly polar and complex
aromatic materials of fairly high molecular weight. The asphaltene content
produces harder, more viscous bitumen with a lower penetration, higher
softening point and consequently higher viscosity. It constitutes 5 to 25%
of the bitumen.
Resins are soluble in n-heptane. Like asphaltenes they are largely
composed of hydrogen and carbon and contain small amount of oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen. They are dark brown in color, solid and semi-solid
and being polar in nature, they are strongly adhesive. Resins are dispersing
agents or peptisers for asphaltenes. It constitutes 15-30 % of the bitumen.
 Aromatics comprise the lowest molecular weight naphthenic
aromatic compounds in the bitumen and represent the major
proportion of the dispersion medium for the peptised asphaltenes.
They constitute 40% to 65% of total bitumen and are dark brown
viscous liquids.
 Saturates are non-polar viscous oils which are straw or white in
colour. This fraction forms 5 to 20% of the bitumen.
316
 Physical Properties of Bitumen
Bitumen behavior can be described in terms of failure mechanism.
(Robertson et al. 1991) Each failure mechanism can be described as a
function of bitumen’s basic molecular or intermolecular chemistry.
However, from civil engineering point of view, the physical properties
of bitumen are more of concern.
 Rheology: It is the study of deformation and flow of matter.
Deformation and flow characteristics of bituminous pavement is
very important which is turn is closely related to the rheology of
the binder i.e., bitumen. Bituminous pavement that deform and
flow much is susceptible to rutting and bleeding while those are
stiff, are susceptible to fatigue or thermal cracking.
Since the rheological properties of bitumen vary with temperature,
rheological characterization involves two key considerations:
To compare different types bitumen, their rheological properties
must be measured at some common reference temperature. To fully
characterize bitumen, its rheological properties must be examined
over the range of temperature that it may encounter during its
service life.
The most ancient way to judge the bitumen stiffness is by chewing
with teeth. The temperature at which it was done was quite
naturally near to the normal human body temperature i.e., +370C.
o Penetration Test: In 1888, H.C. Bowen of Barber Asphalt
Paving Company invented the forerunner to the modern
day’s penetration test – the Bowen Penetration Machine. In
1915, ASTM Codified it. The current publication of ASTM
on Penetration test was published in 1959.
317
It is an empirical test that measures the consistency
(hardness) of bitumen at a specified test condition. In a
standard test condition, a standard needle of a total load of
100 gm. is applied to the surface of bitumen sample
(processed at 250C for one hour) for 5 seconds. The amount
of penetration of the needle at the end of 5 seconds is
measured in units of 0.1 mm (or penetration unit). Softer
bitumen will have a higher penetration, while a harder
bitumen will have a lower penetration. The other test
conditions at which the tests are carried out are :- 0 0C, 200
gm, 60 sec and 450C, 50 gm, 5 sec.
After checking, the penetration grading system was used to
characterize bitumen and generally designated like 40/50,
60/70, 80/100 etc. These are upper and lower limit of
penetration unit of a particular grade of bitumen.
318
Figure 6.6 Penetration test
Figure 6.7. Schematic diagram of Penetration test

o Softening Point Test: It is also an empirical test that
denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a
particular degree of softening. As bitumen is a thermo
viscous material without sharply denied melting point, it
gradually becomes softer and less viscous as the temperature
rises. For this reason, softening point of bitumen is required
to be determined by an arbitrary but a closely denied method
so that the bitumens are classified with this parameter.
Standard test method for determination of softening point of
bitumen is Ring and Ball Apparatus.
Figure 6.8. Schematic diagram of Softening point detrmination test

319
Figure 6.9. Sample preparation for Softening point test
Figure 6.10. Softening point test by Ring & Ball apparatus
o Ductility Test: Ductility is the property of bitumen that

permits it to undergo deformation or elongation without
cracking or breaking. It is also defined by an empirical test
320
method as the distance in cm to which a standard sample or
briquette of bitumen processed at 270C for 90 minutes will
be elongated without breaking. More will be the ductility of
bitumen, lesser is the rate of oxidation or aging and lesser
will be softening point but more will be penetration value. A
direct co-relation between the values of penetration test,
softening point value and ductility of bitumen could not be
established, even then it is well known that as the bitumen is
getting harder i.e., penetration value decreases, its softening
point increases but ductility value decreases.
Figure 5.11 Schematic diagram for Ductility test
Figure 6.12 Ductility test (measured in centimeter)
321
Figure 6.13. Sample briquettefor ductility test
o Viscosity: Unlike the previous three tests, viscosity is a

fundamental property that determines the rheological
property of bitumen. It is a measure of a fluid’s resistance of
flow. There are two types of viscosity: Absolute or Dynamic
Viscosity & Kinematic Viscosity.
 Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity at 600C: The viscosity of
bitumen is typically measured at 600C (1400F) because it
approximates the maximum bituminous pavement surface
temperature during summer in U.S. (However, it may be
a bit more in India, anyway it. Has been standardized at
600C by ASTM and same temperature has been adopted
by Indian standard also)
There is another significance of selecting 60 0C. At 600C,
generally all paving grade bitumen change from solid
state to liquid state, thus, at this temperature, viscosity
322
can be measured. But, the bitumen is not enough
flowable at 600C under the action of gravity only. Flow of
bitumen is induced with the help of external aid generally
by creating vacuum and it is governed by Newton’s Law
of Viscosity.
Shear stress (τ) = Absolute or dynamic Viscosity (µ)×rate
of shear strain(du/dy)
Shear µ For Newtonean fluid

stress, τ
Rate of shear strain, du/dy
Figure 6.14. The relatiomship between shear stress and shear rate in
Newtonian fluid
In CGS unit, µ (viscosity) is measured in poise = dyne-

sec/cm2 = gm/cm-sec
In SI unit, it is measured in Pa-sec = N-sec/m2 = 10 poise
The method is called vacuum capillary viscometer.
N.B.: For a Newtonian fluid, the relationship between
shear stress and shear rate is linear, and thus the viscosity
is constant at different shear rates or shear stresses.
However, for a non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship
323
between Shear Stress and Shear Rate is not linear; thus,
the viscosity will change as the shear rate or shear stress
changes.
Bitumen tends to behave slightly as non-Newtonian fluid
at medium to low temperature. [At higher temperature
bitumen behaves as a Newtonian fluid.] When different
methods are used to measure the viscosity of a bitumen,
the test result might be significantly different, since the
different methods might be measuring the viscosity at
different shear rates. It is thus, very important to indicate
the test method used when viscosity results are presented.
Figure 6.15. Absolute viscosity testing equipment
Absolute viscosity testing equipment showing bath with

viscometers(on the left) and vacuum controller with
manometer (right).
324
Figure 6.16. The figure shows equipment for measuring flow time
Flow time is being measured with a stop watch which is

multiplied by a constant supplied by the equipment
manufacturer to get viscosity value.
A close up picture for Cannon-Manning Vacuum viscometer;
flow is taking place in the left viscometer under vacuum.
 Kinamic Viscosity at 1350C (2750F) : The Kinematic
Viscosity of a liquid is the absolute viscosity (or
dynamic viscosity) divided by the density of the liquid
at the temperature of measurement. The 135 0C (2750F)
temperature was chosen to simulate the mixing and
laydown temperature typically encountered in HMA
pavement construction.
poise
The unit of kinematic viscosity is stokes = gm/cm 3 (CGS
Unit) = 10 -4m2/sec
325
Fifure 6.17. Testing of Kinematic viscosity at 135 0 C
6.2 Asphalt cement
Asphalt cement (Penetration Grade Bitumen) is standard bitumen usually used as a Paving
Grade Bitumen essential for road construction and for the production of asphalt pavements
with superior properties, and it's very important once it bounds the aggregates and creates a
unique cohesion and stability to the bituminous mix. This grade of Bitumen is mainly used in
the manufacture of hot mix asphalt for bases and wearing courses. Penetration Grade
Bitumen supplied by is petroleum grade bitumen, manufactured from fractional / vacuum
distillation of crude oil. Penetration Grade bitumen is specified by the penetration and
softening point test. The designation is by penetration range only. The penetration grade
bitumen has a thermoplastic property which causes the material to soften at high temperatures
and to harden at lower temperatures. This unique temperature/viscosity relationship is
important when determining the performance parameters such as the adhesion, rheology,
durability and application temperatures of bitumen.
The major Penetration Grade Bitumen is Bitumen 60/70 that is generally used for all the
markets. Penetration grading’s basic assumption is that the less viscous the asphalt, the
326
deeper the needle will penetrate. This penetration depth is empirically (albeit only roughly)
correlated with asphalt binder performance. Therefore, asphalt binders with high penetration
numbers (called “soft”) are used for cold climates while asphalt binders with low penetration
numbers (called “hard”) are used for warm climates.
The penetration grading system was developed in the early 1900s to characterize the
consistency of semi-solid asphalts. Penetration grading quantifies the following asphalt
concrete characteristics:
 Penetration depth of a 100 g needle 25° C (77° F).
 Flashpoint temperature. Ductility at 25°C (77°F).
 Solubility in trichloroethylene.
 Thin film oven test(accounts for the effects of short-term aging that occurs during
mixing with hot aggregate).
 Retained penetration.
 Ductility at 25° C (77° F)
Penetration is determined using an empirical test method. A sample of the bitumen in a small
container is stabilized in a water bath at a standard temperature (normally 250 C). A
prescribed needle, weighing 100g, is allowed to bear on the surface of the bitumen for 5 sec.
The bitumen is defined as the distance, in units of 0.1mm that the needle penetrates into the
bitumen.
Bitumen is obtained by fractioning in a distillation column. Fractioning is the extracting of
vapors of different density during the heating of oil. This bitumen is classified according to
hardness. The hardness of a sample is determined by inserting a specific type of needle into it
and measuring the depth to which the needle is able to penetrate the sample within a given
time and temperature. This test is called the standard penetration test, and the bitumen that is
tested in this way is called penetration grade bitumen or road grade bitumen.
Because different samples of bitumen grade bitumen have different chemical compositions
and their manufacturing is controlled in different ways, they may vary in consistency from
semi-solid at room temperature to semi-liquid under the same conditions.
The penetration numbers obtained by means of the penetration test indicate the hardness of
the bitumen. 15 "pen" bitumen is the hardest and 450 pen bitumen the softest. In the
construction industry, the term "penetration grade bitumen" is often abbreviated to "pen
bitumen" or simply "pen bit".
327
Penetration grade bitumen forms the basis of other road binders such as cutbacks, emulsions,
and polymer-modified binders, which are all discussed below.
Bitumen grades are specified primarily in terms of their needle penetration (referred to as
'pen'). Soft bitumen has high pen numbers and hard bitumen has low pen numbers. Within
specifications, however, there are certain other criteria which must be met including softening
point, solubility, and resistance to hardening. Descriptions of these test methods, which form
the basis for most bitumen specifications, now follow.
 Penetration test
The Tests involves subjecting a sample of bitumen to needle bitumen under specified
conditions of time, temperature and load. In most cases, the test is carried out at 25°C
with a load of 100g for a duration of 5 s. Low-temperature bitumen is also measured
occasionally with the usual conditions being 5°C with a load of 200 g for the 60s. The
depth of bitumen of the needle into the surface of the bitumen is measured in tenths of
a millimeter (dmm); hence 200 pen bitumen has a needle penetration of 200 dmm
at 25°C when measured with a load of 100g for 5 s. It is common practice to describe
the penetration of a particular bitumen.
 The Softening Point Test
The Softening Point Test involves preparing discs of bitumen and determining the
temperature at which these discs are unable to support a standard metal ball (Fig. 2.8).
At the softening point, all unmodified bitumens have approximately equal penetration
(800 dmm) and viscosity (1200 Pas). The softening point is, therefore, an
approximation of the equi-viscous temperature (EVT) for bitumen. It is possible to
obtain an estimate for the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen from a knowledge
of the penetration and softening point. Equations developed by Pfeiffer and Van
Doormal2() demonstrate that a Penetration-Index (PI), which estimates the effect of
temperature on the properties of the bitumen, can be determined. The higher the PI, the
328
more temperature susceptible will be the bitumen. The PI has traditionally been used as
part of the specification for bitumen, particularly in mainland Europe.
 Advantages of penetration grade bitumen
- The test is done at 25° C (77° F), which is reasonably close to a typical
pavement average temperature.
- May also provide a better correlation with low-temperature asphalt binder
properties than the viscosity test, which is performed at 60° C (140° F).
- Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with
temperature) can be determined by conducting the test at temperatures other
than 25° C (77° F).
- The test is quick and inexpensive. Therefore, it can easily be used in the field.
 Disadvantages of penetration grade bitumen
- The test is empirical and does not measure any fundamental engineering
parameter such as viscosity.
- Shear rate is variable and high during the test. Since asphalt binders typically
behave as a non-Newtonian fluid at 25° C (77° F), this will affect test results.
- Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with
temperature) cannot be determined by a single test at 25° C (77° F).
 - The test does not provide information with which to establish mixing and
compaction temperatures.
6.3. Cutback asphalt
Cutback bitumen is a range of binders that are produced by blending (mixing) penetration
grade bitumen and a hydrocarbon solvent, such as paraffin or mineral turpentine.
When the solvent has evaporated, the binder returns to its original penetration grade to tie the
particles together. Cutback bitumen gets its name from the solvent that is involved in the
process, because the solvent "cuts back" or evaporates, leaving behind the binder to "get on
with the job". The solvent used in cutback bitumen is called the "cutter" or "flux".
Three types of solvents are used for the blending process: slow-curing, medium-curing or
rapid-curing solvents. The latter two are the most common in South Africa. The choice of the
329
solvent determines the rate at which the bitumen will cure when exposed to air. A rapid-
curing (RC) solvent will evaporate faster than a medium-curing (MC) solvent. Curing relates
to the evaporation rate of the solvent which influences the setting time of the bitumen. The
viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the proportion of solvent added: the higher
the proportion of solvent, the lower the viscosity of the cutback.
Cutbacks differ from penetration grade bitumen in that they are more workable , in other
words, they can be more easily reshaped. Less heat is required to liquefy cutback bitumen
than penetration bitumen, making it easier to use at lower temperatures.
Typical cutback bitumen is MC 30 and RC 250. The letters in the name refer to the curing
action of the solvent, and the number to the viscosity of the binder.
The advantage Cutbacks have over Emulsions is a much higher residual Bitumen percent,
typically over 80% compares with over 40-65% for Bitumen emulsions. The result is more
Bitumen left on the roadway after curing, for the same volume of binder applied.
Environmental regulations.
Cutback asphalts contain volatile chemicals that evaporate into the atmosphere. Emulsified
asphalts evaporate water into the atmosphere.
Loss of high-energy products.
The petroleum solvents used require higher amounts of energy to manufacture and are
expensive compared to the water and emulsifying agents used in emulsified asphalts.
 Manufacture of cutback bitumen

Cutback bitumen are manufactured by blending either 70/100 pen or 160/220 pen
bitumen with kerosene to comply with a viscosity specification. In the UK, cutback
bitumens are specified and designated by the flow time (in seconds) through a
standard tar viscometer (STV)1611. Three grades are available: 50 sec, 100 sec,
and 200 sec. The majority of cutback bitumen is used in the surface dressing but a
significant amount is also used for the Manufacture of both standard and deferred set
asphalts.
In addition to STV tests and solubility, cutback bitumens have to comply with a
distillation specificationI621 and a penetration requirement on the residual bitumen.
This ensures that during application and in service, the diluent will evaporate at a
consistent and predictable rate and that the residual bitumen will have the appropriate
properties in service.
330
The suffix X on the SHELPHALT range of cutback bitumens indicates that they have
been doped with a specially formulated heat-stable passive adhesion agent. This
additive assists 'wetting' of the aggregate and resists stripping of the binder from the
aggregate in the presence of water.
AASHTO specifies three groups of cutback bitumen: rapid curing (RC) where
petrol/gasoline is used as a solvent, medium curing (MC) containing kerosene and
slow curing (SC) made with diesel oil. The viscosity is measured with a capillary tube
viscometer at 60C. The flow through the viscometer is induced by the gravity, and
vacuum is not needed. The viscosity is expressed in centistokes whereas, for pure
bitumen, the viscosity is expressed in poise. The units of poise and strokes are related
to each other through the density of the tested material.
The British Standard provides specifications for three viscosity grades of cutback
bitumen intended for use in surface dressings. Measurement is with a discharge
viscometer, and viscosity is defined as the time in seconds for 50millilitres of the
binder to flow through a standard orifice at 40C.
 Advantage of cutback bitumen
It can be applied at lower temperatures than penetration grades because of its lower
Bitumen Solvents viscosity. A disadvantage is that cutback bitumen consumes non-
renewable energy resources which are ultimately lost through evaporation.
 Applications of Cutback Bitumen in Bituminous (asphalt) Pavement
Construction and Maintenance:
Prime and Tack Coating The process of priming involves applying a low viscosity
binder to a prepared but usually unbound aggregate base. It is intended to be absorbed
by the top layers of the base and provide a surface more easily ‘wetted’ by a
subsequent bituminous covering. The primer will be able to carry traffic for a short
time (although this practice is uncommon) and help control dust. Generally, primers
are applied at rates between 0.5 and 1.4 L/m2. Cutback bitumens suitable for priming
are also used for tack coats, which are applied to an underlying surface to help with the
adhesion of subsequent asphalt layer. A typical application rate is
between 0.2 and 0.4 L/m2.
 Prime Sealing
Where temperatures are too cool for an effective priming operation, or where
traffic is likely to upset a primed surface before the final seal can be sprayed,
331
a primer seal can be used to give adequate protection of the pavement for
periods of up to 6 to 12 months. Cutback bitumens suitable for primer sealing
can also be used in the manufacture of pre-mix asphalt, which is used in
patch repairs.
 Spray Sealing
Cutback bitumen is used extensively in sprayed sealing applications,
particularly in cooler weather where they provide improved initial stone
retention due to their lower viscosity. Typically, a single application of the
appropriate cutback bitumen is sprayed onto the primed pavement onto which
aggregate is laid.
6.4. Emulsified asphalt
Emulsified asphalt, like cutback asphalt, is also designated as liquid asphalt to distinguish this
product from the typical semisolid to solid asphalt binders. It is a mixture of two normally
immiscible components (asphalt and water) and an emulsifying agent (usually soap).
However, it is important to note that the asphalt binder is the base material that has been
liquefied by cutting back with a solvent.
In the emulsification process, hot binder (the discontinuous phase) is mechanically (using a
colloid mill) separated into minute globules and dispersed in water (the continuous phase)
treated with a small quantity of emulsifying agent. By proper selection of an emulsifying
agent and other manufacturing controls, emulsified asphalts are produced in several types and
grades. Through the choice of emulsifying agent, the emulsified asphalt may be: (i) anoxic, in
which the binder globules are electro-negatively charged in the water (the continuous phase)
and (ii) cationic, in which the binder globules are electro-positively charged. Because
particles having a like electrostatic charge repel each other, asphalt globules are kept apart
until the emulsion is deposited on the surface of the soil or aggregate particles. At this time,
the asphalt globules coalesce through neutralization of the electrostatic charges or water
evaporation. Coalescence of asphalt globules occurs in rapid and medium setting grades,
resulting in a phase separation between asphalt and water. When this coalescence occurs, it is
usually referred to as the break or set.
332
Emulsified asphalt is used to seal coats on asphalt pavements, built-up roofs, and other
waterproof coverings. Emulsified asphalt is further graded according to its setting rate (i.e.,
rapid, medium, and slow). Rapid-setting grades are used for surface treatment and seal
coating, whereas medium-setting grades are used for patch mixtures, and slow-setting grades
are used for mix-in-place road mixtures, patch mixtures, tack coats, fog coats, slurry seals,
and soil stabilization (Speight, 1992).
Asphalt emulsion, as used in road construction and maintenance, is a homogeneous mixture
of minute asphalt droplets suspended in a continuous water phase . The preparation of these
oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions involves use of a high-speed, high-shear mechanical device,
such as a colloid mill which breaks down molten asphalt into minute droplets in the presence
of water and a chemical, surface-active emulsifier. The emulsifier imparts its properties to the
dispersed asphalt which is influential in maintaining stable asphalt droplet suspension.
For use in construction operations, asphalt emulsions must remain fluid enough for proper
application and stable enough to keep the asphalt particles suspended in the water phase until
it is in contact with the aggregate or pavement surface. After it is applied, the asphalt droplets
coalesce (come together) because of water evaporation and neutralization of the electrostatic
charges—the time in which the asphalt droplets coalesce is referred to as the breaking
time or setting time.
Foamed asphalt is formed by combining hot asphalt binder with small amounts of cold water.
When the cold water comes in contact with the hot asphalt binder it turns to steam, which
becomes trapped in tiny asphalt binder bubbles. The asphalt expands many times its original
volume and the viscosity is lowered significantly. In this condition, the asphalt is ideally
suited for mixing with cold and damp aggregates and/or recycled asphalt pavement (RAP).
However, the high-volume foam state only lasts for a few minutes, after which the asphalt
binder resumes its original properties. Foamed asphalt can be used as a binder in soil or base
course stabilization, and is often used as the stabilizing agent in cold in-place recycling
(CIPR).
Two parameters: (i) expansion ratio and (ii) half-life measure the quality of foamed asphalt.
The expansion ratio is the ratio of maximum volume of the foamed asphalt to the original
volume of the nonfoamed asphalt. Typically asphalt expands 10–20 times with eight times
being the minimum acceptable. The half-life is the time it takes for the foamed asphalt to be
reduced to half its maximum achieved volume. The minimum acceptable half-life is on the
order of 12 s, which ensures that in the full-depth reclamation and/or CIPR processes, where
333
foamed asphalt is most commonly used, there will be a sufficient volume of asphalt and
sufficient time for mixing and coating. The amount of water to be injected in the field
foaming operation is the one that gives the maximum expansion ratio with a half-life that
exceeds the 12-s minimum.
 General Description of Cationic Emulsion Asphalt
Bitumen emulsion consists of three basic ingredients: bitumen, water, and an
emulsifying agent. Based on specifications it may contain other additives, such as
stabilizers, coating improvers, anti-strips, or break control agents. It is well known that
water and asphalt will not mix, except under carefully controlled conditions using
highly specialized equipment and chemical additives.
Emulsion asphalt is a cationic emulsion. Emulsion asphalt CMS-2 are usually made by
passing the mixture of hot bitumen and water phase between a rotating disc, cone or
wheel and a stator. In the emulsification process, the hot binder is mechanically
separated into minute globules and dispersed in water treated with a small quantity of
emulsifying agent. The water is called the continuous phase and the globules of the
binder are called the discontinuous phase.by proper selection of an emulsifying agent
and other manufacturing controls.
 Application of emulsion asphalt
Cationic emulsions may be used at ambient temperatures with aggregates, which need
not be completely dry. Emulsions are less hazardous to use in comparing with the
cutback and can be applied in a wider range of conditions. Most applications are listed
below:
 (Chip seal)
 (Seal coat)
Also, ideally suited and designed for
 Pot hole filling/patch work

334
 Premix carpet work
 Strong bonding with existing surface
 High stability of patches
Successful performance of emulsion asphalt requires selecting the proper type and
grade for the intended use. The first consideration in picking the right type and grade
of the emulsion is how the emulsion will be used. Is it for a planned mix (central or
mixed-in-place), a recycled mix, or a prime coat application? Is it for some type of
surface application, such as a fog seal, slurry seal, micro surfacing, or chip seal? Is it
for a maintenance mix? Once this decision is made, other project variables must then
be considered. Some other factors that affect the selection are:
 General Description of Cationic Bitumen Emulsion

A stable dispersion of bitumen in water is the continuous phase. The bitumen globules
are positively charged due to the NH3 + group cover which is formed around bitumen
droplets and provide stability for emulsion by electrostatic repulsion. These bitumen
droplets have an affinity with the negatively charged aggregate, which is usually
available in India. Dispersion is obtained by processing bitumen & water-based
solution under controlled conditions through a colloidal mill having a high-speed rotor
in the presence of scientifically selected surfactants/emulsifier. Selection of emulsifier
& its quality is significant for emulsion stability, it's breaking & curing when applied
over aggregates. The Cationic Bitumen Emulsion is chocolate brown and free-flowing
at normal temperature. Once it breaks the bitumen breaks out and color changes to
black. An Emulsion is said to break when the organic and the aqueous phase separate
into two distinct layers i.e. the dispersion ceases to exist. Emulsions are classified as
Rapid Setting-1(RS-1), Rapid Setting-2(RS-2), Medium Setting (MS), Slow Setting-
1 (SS-1) and Slow Setting-1 h (SS-1h). The breaking time varies according to the
designation of Emulsion although being largely dependent upon the climatic condition
i.e. temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
The term cationic is derived from the migration of particles of bitumen under an
electric field also. The droplets migrate toward the cathode (negative electrode), and
335
hence the emulsion is called cationic. The cationic emulsifying agent functions
similarly to the anionic; the negative portion of the head floats around in the water
leaving a positively charged head. This imparts a positive charge to all the droplets.
Since positives repel each other, all the droplets repel each other and remain as distinct
bitumen drops in suspension. A typical cationic emulsifying agent is shown below
showing the orientation of the agent at the bitumen-water interface and the positive
charge imparted to each drop.
Cationic type: In which the bitumen particles are positively charged and the emulsifier
used is a long chain amine. These are suitable for use with siliceous aggregates like
quartzite, sandstone, granite etc.
When the emulsion is being produced the cations are adsorbed by bitumen droplets,
negatively ions remain in the water. The undeniably most complete field of use is
represented by the rapid setting emulsions.
The choice of bitumen emulsion (i.e. whether anionic or cationic) to be used depends
upon the mineral composition of aggregate used for construction. In the case of silica-
rich aggregates, the surface of the aggregates is electro negatively charged. Therefore a
cationic bitumen emulsion should be used. This will help better spreading and binding
of bitumen with aggregates.
6.5. Asphalt concert mix-design
HMA consists of two basic ingredients: aggregate and asphalt binder. HMA mix design is
the process of determining what aggregate to use, what asphalt binder to use and what the
optimum combination of these two ingredients ought to be.
When aggregate and asphalt binder are combined to produce a homogenous substance, that
substance, HMA, takes on new physical properties that are related to but not identical to the
physical properties of its components. Mechanical laboratory tests can be used to
characterize the basic mixture or predict mixture properties. HMA mix design has evolved as
a laboratory procedure that uses several critical tests to make key characterizations of each
trial HMA blend. Although these characterizations are not comprehensive, they can give the
mix designer a good understanding of how a particular mix will perform in the field during
construction and under subsequent traffic loading.
336
This section covers mix design fundamentals common to all mix design methods. First, two
basic concepts (mix design as a simulation and weight-volume terms and relationships) are
discussed to set a framework for subsequent discussion. Second, the variables that mix
design may manipulate are presented. Third, the fundamental objectives of mix design are
presented. Finally, a generic mix design procedure (which Hveem, Marshall and Superpave
methods all use) is presented.
 Concepts
Before discussing any mix design specifics, it is important to understand a couple of
basic mix design concepts:
 Mix design is a simulation

 HMA weight-volume terms and relationships
 Mix Design is a Simulation
First, and foremost, mix design is a laboratory simulation. Mix design is
meant to simulate actual HMA manufacturing, construction and performance
to the extent possible. Then, from this simulation we can predict (with
reasonable certainty) what type of mix design is best for the particular
application in question and how it will perform.
Being a simulation, mix design has its limitations. Specifically, there are
substantial differences between laboratory and field conditions. Certainly, a
small laboratory setup consisting of several 100 – 150 mm (4 – 6 inch)
samples, a compaction machine and a couple of testing devices cannot fully
recreate actual manufacturing, construction and performance conditions. For
instance, mix design compaction should create the same general density (void
content) to which the traffic will finally compact a mix in the field under
service conditions. However, it is difficult to calibrate a number of tamper
blows (laboratory compaction) to a specific construction compaction and
subsequent traffic loading (field compaction). Currently used correlations
between these densities are empirical in nature and extremely rough (e.g.,
high, medium and low traffic categories). However, despite limitations such
as the preceding, mix design procedures can provide a cost effective and
reasonably accurate simulation that is useful in making mix design decisions.
337
 HMA Weight-Volume Terms and Relationships
Mix design, and specifically Superpave mix design, is volumetric in nature. That is, it
seeks to combine aggregate and asphalt on a volume basis (as opposed to a weight
basis). Volume measurements are usually made indirectly by determining a
material’s weight and specific gravity and then calculating its volume. Therefore, mix
design involves several different void and specific gravity measurements. It is
important to have a clear understanding of these terms before proceeding.
 Variables
HMA is a rather complex material upon which many different, and sometimes
conflicting, performance demands are placed. It must
resist deformation and cracking, be durable over time, resist water
damage, provide a good tractive surface, and yet be inexpensive, readily made
and easily placed. In order to meet these demands, the mix designer can
manipulate all of three variables:
1. Aggregate. Items such as type (source), gradation and

size, toughness and abrasion resistance, durability and soundness, shape
and texture as well as cleanliness can be measured, judged and altered to
some degree.
2. Asphalt binder. Items such as type, durability, rheology, purity as
well as additional modifying agents can be measured, judged and altered
to some degree.
3. The ratio of asphalt binder to aggregate. Usually expressed in
terms of percent asphalt binder by total weight of HMA, this ratio has a
profound effect on HMA pavement performance. Because of the wide
differences in aggregate specific gravity, the proportion of asphalt
binder expressed as a percentage of total weight can vary widely even
though the volume of asphalt binder as a percentage of total
volume remains quite constant.
 Objectives
Before embarking on a mix design procedure it is important to understand what
its objectives are. This section presents the typical qualities of a well-made
338
HMA mix. By manipulating the variables of aggregate, asphalt binder and the
ratio between the two, mix design seeks to achieve the following qualities in
the final HMA product:
o Deformation resistance (stability). HMA should not distort

(rut) or deform (shove) under traffic loading. HMA
deformation is related to one or more of the following:
-Aggregate surface and abrasion characteristics.
Rounded particles tend to slip by one another causing
HMA distortion under load while angular particles
interlock with one another providing a good deformation
resistant structure. Brittle particles cause mix distortion
because they tend to break apart under agitation or load.
Tests for particle shape and texture as well as durability
and soundness can identify problem aggregate sources.
These sources can be avoided, or at a minimum,
aggregate with good surface and abrasion characteristics
can be blended in to provide better overall
characteristics.
- Aggregate gradation. Gradations with excessive fines
(either naturally occurring or caused by excessive
abrasion) cause distortion because the large amount of
fine particles tend to push the larger particles apart and
act as lubricating ball-bearings between these larger
particles. A gradation resulting in low VMA or excessive
asphalt binder content can have the same
effect. Gradation specifications are used to ensure
acceptable aggregate gradation.
- Asphalt binder content. Excess asphalt binder content
tends to lubricate and push aggregate particles apart
making their rearrangement under load easier. The
optimum asphalt binder content as determined by mix
design should prevent this.
339
- Asphalt binder viscosity at high temperatures. In the
hot summer months, asphalt binder viscosity is at its lowest
and the pavement will deform more easily under load.
Specifying an asphalt binder with a minimum high
temperature viscosity (as can be done in the Superpave
asphalt binder selection process) ensures adequate high
temperature viscosity.
o Fatigue resistance. HMA should not crack when subjected to
repeated loads over time. HMA fatigue cracking is related to
asphalt binder content and stiffness. Higher asphalt binder
contents will result in a mix that has a greater tendency to
deform elastically (or at least deform) rather than fracture
under repeated load. The optimum asphalt binder content as
determined by mix design should be high enough to prevent
excessive fatigue cracking. The use of an asphalt binder with
a lower stiffness will increase a mixture’s fatigue life by
providing greater flexibility. However, the potential
for rutting must also be considered in the selection of an
asphalt binder. Note that fatigue resistance is also highly
dependent upon the relationship between structural layer
thickness and loading. However, this section only addresses
mix design issues.
o Low temperature cracking resistance. HMA should not
crack when subjected to low ambient temperatures. Low
temperature cracking is primarily a function of the asphalt
binder low temperature stiffness. Specifying asphalt binder
with adequate low temperature properties (as can be done in
the Superpave asphalt binder selection process) should
prevent, or at least limit, low temperature cracking.
o Durability. HMA should not suffer excessive aging during
production and service life. HMA durability is related to one
or more of the following:
340
- The asphalt binder film thickness around each
aggregate particle. If the film thickness surrounding the
aggregate particles is insufficient, it is possible that the
aggregate may become accessible to water through holes
in the film. If the aggregate is hydrophilic, water will
displace the asphalt film and asphalt-aggregate cohesion
will be lost. This process is typically referred to
as stripping. The optimum asphalt binder content as
determined by mix design should provide adequate film
thickness.
- Air voids. Excessive air voids (on the order of 8 percent
or more) increase HMA permeability and allow oxygen
easier access to more asphalt binder thus accelerating
oxidation and volatilization. To address this, HMA mix
design seeks to adjust items such as asphalt content and
aggregate gradation to produce design air voids of about 4
percent. Excessive air voids can be either a mix design or
a construction problem and this section only addresses the
mix design problem.
o Moisture damage resistance. HMA should not degrade
substantially from moisture penetration into the mix. Moisture
damage resistance is related to one or more of the following:
- Aggregate mineral and chemical properties. Some
aggregates attract moisture to their surfaces, which can
cause stripping. To address this, either stripping-
susceptible aggregates can be avoided or
- Air voids. When HMA air voids exceed about 8 percent
by volume, they may become interconnected and allow
water to easily penetrate the HMA and cause moisture
damage through pore pressure or ice expansion. To
address this, HMA mix design adjusts asphalt binder
content and aggregate gradation to produce design air
voids of about 4 percent. Excessive air voids can be either
341
a mix design or a construction problem and this section
only addresses the mix design problem.
o Skid resistance. HMA placed as a surface course should
provide sufficient friction when in contact with a vehicle’s tire.
Low skid resistance is generally related to one or more of the
following:
- Aggregate characteristics such as texture, shape, size and
resistance to polish. Smooth, rounded or polish-susceptible
aggregates are less skid resistant. Tests for particle shape
and texture can identify problem aggregate sources. These
sources can be avoided, or at a minimum, aggregate with
good surface and abrasion characteristics can be blended in
to provide better overall characteristics.
- Asphalt binder content. Excessive asphalt binder can
cause HMA bleeding. Using the optimum asphalt binder
content as determined by mix design should
prevent bleeding.
o Workability. HMA must be capable of being placed and
compacted with reasonable effort. Workability is generally
related to one or both of the following:
- Aggregate texture, shape and size. Flat, elongated or
angular particles tend to interlock rather than slip by one
another making placement and compaction more difficult
(notice that this is almost in direct contrast with the
desirable aggregate properties for deformation
resistance). Although no specific mix design tests are
available to quantify workability, tests for particle shape
and texture can identify possible workability problems.
- Aggregate gradation. Gradations with excess fines
(especially in the 0.60 to 0.30 mm (No. 30 to 50) size
range when using natural, rounded sand) can cause
a tender mix. A gradation resulting in low VMA or excess
asphalt binder content can have the same effect. Gradation
342
specifications are used to ensure acceptable aggregate
gradation.
- Asphalt binder content. At laydown temperatures (above
about 120 °C (250 °F)) asphalt binder works as a lubricant
between aggregate particles as they are compacted.
Therefore, low asphalt binder content reduces this
lubrication resulting in a less workable mix. Note that a
higher asphalt binder content is generally good for
workability but generally bad for deformation resistance.
- Asphalt binder viscosity at mixing/laydown temperatures.
If the asphalt binder viscosity is too high at mixing and
laydown temperatures, the HMA becomes difficult to
dump, spread and compact. The Superpave rotational
viscometer specifically tests for mixing/laydown
temperature asphalt binder viscosity.
Knowing these objectives, the challenge in mix design is then to develop a relatively simple
procedure with a minimal amount of tests and samples that will produce a mix with all the
above HMA qualities.
 Basic Procedure
HMA mix design is the process of determining what aggregate to use, what asphalt
binder to use and what the optimum combination of these two ingredients ought to
be. In order to meet the demands placed by the preceding desirable HMA properties,
all mix design processes involve three basic steps:
 Aggregate selection. No matter the specific method, the overall mix design
procedure begins with evaluation and selection of aggregate and asphalt
binder sources. Different authorities specify different methods of
aggregate acceptance. Typically, a battery of aggregate physical tests is run
periodically on each particular aggregate source. Then, for each mix
design, gradation and size requirements are checked. Normally, aggregate
from more than one source is required to meet gradation requirements.
343
 Asphalt binder selection. Although different authorities can and do specify
different methods of asphalt binder evaluation, the Superpave asphalt binder
specification has been or will be adopted by most as the standard.
 Optimum asphalt binder content determination. Mix design methods are
generally distinguished by the method with which they determine the
optimum asphalt binder content. This process can be subdivided as follows:
 Make several trial mixes with different asphalt binder contents.
 Compact these trial mixes in the laboratory. It is important to
understand that this step is at best a rough simulation of field
conditions.
 Run several laboratory tests to determine key sample characteristics.
These tests represent a starting point for defining the mixture
properties but they are not comprehensive nor are they exact
reproductions of actual field conditions.
 Pick the asphalt binder content that best satisfies the mix design
objectives.

 Job Mix Formula
The end result of a successful mix design is a recommended mixture of
aggregate and asphalt binder. This recommended mixture, which also includes
aggregate gradation and asphalt binder type is often referred to as the job mix
formula (JMF) or recipe.
Summary
HMA mix design is a laboratory process used to determine the appropriate aggregate, asphalt
binder and their proportions for use in HMA. Mix design is a process to manipulate three
variables: (1) aggregate, (2) asphalt binder content and (3) the ratio of aggregate to asphalt
binder with the objective of obtaining an HMA that is deformation resistant, fatigue resistant,
low temperature crack resistant, durable, moisture damage resistant, skid resistant and
workable. Although mix design has many limitations it has proven to be a cost-effective
method to provide crucial information that can be used to formulate a high-performance
HMA.
344
Assessment
Objective type question
1. Which one of the following type of natural asphalt the hardest variety of natural asphalt?
A) Rock Asphalt
B) Gilsonite
C) Lake Asphalt
D) A and C
2. Refined Asphalt from Crude Oil is obtained by a process called

________________________.
A) Crystallization
B) Decomposition
C) Fractional distillation
D) Oxidation
3. Crude oil is defined as heavy when its API Gravity is ________________________.
A) Greater than 25
B) Less than 25
C) Greater than 30
D) Between 25 and 30
4. The API gravity of light and sweet crude oil is _________________________.
A) Greater than 25
B) Less than 25
C) Greater than 30
345
D) Between 25 and 30
5. The carbon content of bitumen is __________________________.
A) 15-20%
B) 8 – 11%
C) 82 – 88%
D) More than 90%
6. Which one of the following is true about the asphaltene content in bitumen?
A) The asphaltene content produces harder, more viscous bitumen with a lower penetration,
B) The asphaltene content produces softer, less viscous bitumen with a lower penetration,
C) The asphaltene content produces harder, less viscous bitumen with a higher penetration,
D) The asphaltene content produces softerr, more viscous bitumen with a higher penetration,
7. _________________________ is the study of deformation and flow of matter.
A) Penetration
B) Viscosity
C) Rheology
D) Softening Point
8. _________________________is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo

deformation or elongation without cracking or breaking.
A) Penetration
B) Ductility
C) Softening point
D) Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity
346
9. The temperature at which all paving grade bitumen change from solid state to liquid state
is ________0C.
A) 105
B) 45
C) 60
D) 25
10. Penetration test of bitumen is conducted at the temperature of __________________0C.
A) 105
B) 45
C) 60
D) 25
11. Which one of the following is not the advantage of penetration grade bitumen?
A) The test is done at 25° C (77° F), which is reasonably close to a typical pavement average
temperature.
B) May also provide a better correlation with low-temperature asphalt binder properties than
the viscosity test, which is performed at 60° C (140° F).
C) Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can
be determined by conducting the test at temperatures other than 25° C (77° F).
D) The test is empirical and does not measure any fundamental engineering parameter such
as viscosity.
12. Which one of the following is true about cut back asphalt?
A) A rapid-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate slower than a medium-curing (MC) solvent.
B) A rapid-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate faster than a medium-curing (MC) solvent.
C) A Slow-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate faster than a medium-curing (MC) solvent.
347
D) A medium-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate faster than a rapid-curing (MC) solvent.
13. Which one of the following true?
A) Cutbacks differ from penetration grade bitumen in that they are more workable
B) Cutbacks differ from penetration grade bitumen in that they are less workable
14. Which one of the following is the advantage of cut back bitumen?
A) cutback bitumen consumes non-renewable energy resources which are ultimately lost
through evaporation.
B) It can be applied at lower temperatures than penetration grades because of its lower
Bitumen Solvents viscosity.
15. __________________________bitumen is a bitumen in which the binder globules are

electro-negatively charged in the water (the continuous phase).
A) Anoxic
B) Cationic
16. Emulsified asphalt can o=not be used for __________________________________.
A) To seal coats on asphalt pavements
B) HMA (Hot Mix Asphalt)
C) Built-up roofs
D) Waterproof coverings
17. What do we mean by Deformation resistance (stability) of bitumen?
A) HMA should not distort (rut) or deform (shove) due to low temperature.
B) HMA should not distort (rut) or deform (shove) under traffic loading.
C) HMA should not distort (rut) or deform (shove) due to high temperature.
D) HMA should not distort (rut) or deform (shove) freezing.
348
18. What do we mean by Fatigue resistance of HMA?
A). HMA should not crack when subjected to repeated loads over time.
B). HMA should not crack when the asphalt is exposed to high atmospheric temperature.
C) HMA should not crack when the asphalt is exposed to lower atmospheric temperature.
D) HMA should not crack as a result of thawing of ice during hot weather.
349
References
[1]. https://rahabitumen.com/emulsion-asphalt-cms-2/
[2].https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/design/mix-design/hma-mix-design-
fundamentals/
[3]. https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circulars/ec124.pdf
[4].https://www.ksdot.org/Assets/wwwksdotorg/bureaus/burConsMain/Connections/
ConstManual/2010/5.3.2%20HMA%20Mix%20Designs%2003.22.pdf
[6]. https://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/txdot-info/cst/TMS/200-F_series/archives/204-0900.pdf
[7]. https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/design/mix-design/hma-mix-design-
fundamentals/
[8]. Practical Approaches to Hot-Mix Asphalt Mix Design and Production Quality Control
Testing, Transportation Research Board Washington, D.C. December 2007
350
Chapter Seven: Stabilizing agent for subgrade soil
7.1 Introduction
Since ancient times, mankind has used the natural earth surface for transportation. The soil
surface roads have been compacted by human and animal traffic and the tracks were
developed as a natural result of the movement of traffic. These road surfaces were widened
and covered with rock and gravel, and thus made suitable to tackle the traffic better.
However, these road surfaces were transformed in to masses of mud by the spring and rain,
where as in the summer season the carts created clouds of dust. Several attempts were made
to take care of these problems. The outcome of these techniques subsequently results in
various pavement design concepts and guidelines.
Most of the pavement design guidelines are based on the assumption that aggregates are
important ingredients of pavement structure. However, availability of good quality aggregates
may be a constraint in some locations. To transport good quality aggregates from long
distance may not be economically feasible. Due to the excessive investment and maintenance
cost, new methods of design had to be sought and new building materials are introduced.
Some researchers tried with soil, which is available everywhere. The engineering properties
of soil were modified using certain treatment. At the same time various waste products are
created by several industrial plants. These waste products could be used in the road
construction projects after following certain treatment procedure. By treating natural soil or
fly-ash, or by addition of certain materials to it, new road construction materials can be
developed. Thus use of stabilized soil/waste product as a base/sub-base material of pavement
leads not only economic solution, but also offers a potential use of the industrial/domestic
waste materials. Thus cemented bases and sub-bases can be designed to economize the design
where, locally available inferior quality materials are stabilized using cemented material.
Some soils are characterized by high swelling on wetting and excessive shrinkage on drying.
When swelling is restricted, it results in development of swell pressure. On account of these
peculiar properties, this soil poses serious problems in the construction of roads. Even at
places where condition for development of swell pressure do not exist, the road still fails
351
because of poor supporting power of the sub grade in wet condition. Therefore there is need
of a technique for an effective and economic stabilization of such type of soil.
Stabilization of low quality aggregate or soil can be done by mechanical, chemical, electrical
or thermal means. Chemical stabilization involves addition of cement, lime, fly-ash, bitumen,
chemical compounds etc. In this research work, it is proposed to investigate the best
combination of soil-cement-water and fly-ash-lime-water-sodium chloride-fiber-bitumen for
the purpose of deciding its performance as pavement base/sub-base material. Fly-ash is
stabilized by adding water, lime, sodium chloride, fibers, and bitumen. Combination of
soil-cement in the presence of water is considered as another material for pavement base or
sub-base.
 What is Soil Stabilization?
Soil is one of nature’s most abundant construction materials. Almost all construction
is built with or upon soil. When unsuitable construction conditions are encountered, a
contractor has four options;
1. Find a new construction site

2. Redesign the structure so it can be constructed on the poor soil.
3. Remove the poor soil and replace it with good soil.
4. Improve the engineering properties of the site soils.
In general option 1 and 2 tends to be impracticable today. While in the past, option 3
has been mostly commonly used method. However, due to improvement in
technology coupled with increased transportation costs, option 4 is being used more
often today and is expected to dramatically increase in the future.
Improving an on-site (in situ) soil’s engineering properties is referred to as either “soil
modification” or “soil stabilization.” The term “modification” implies a minor change
in the properties of a soil, while stabilization means that the engineering properties of
the soil have been changed enough to allow field construction to take place.
There are two primary methods of soil stabilization used today:
352
 Mechanical
 Chemical or additive
Nearly every road construction project will utilize one or both of these stabilization
techniques. The most common form of “mechanical” soil stabilization is compaction
of the soil, while the addition of cement, lime, bituminous, or other agents is referred
to as a “chemical” or “additive” method of soil stabilization. There are two basic
types of additives used during chemical soil stabilization: mechanical additives and
chemical additives. Mechanical additives, such as soil cement, mechanically alter the
soil by adding a quantity of a material that has the engineering characteristics to
upgrade the load-bearing capacity of the existing soil. Chemical additives, such as
lime, chemically alter the soil itself, thereby improving the load-bearing capacity of
the soil.
 Why and when is it used?
Traditionally, stable sub-grades, sub-bases and /or bases have been constructed by
using selected, well-graded aggregates, making it fairly easy to predict the load-
bearing capacity of the constructed layers. By using select material, the engineer
knows that the foundation will be able to support the design loading.
Gradation is an important soil characteristic to understand. A soil is considered either

“ well-graded” or “uniformly-graded” (also referred to as “poorly-graded”). This is a
reference to the sizes of the particles in the materials. Uniformly-graded materials are
made up of individual particles of roughly the same size. Well-graded materials are
made up of an optimal range of different sized particles.
It is desirable from an engineering standpoint to build upon a foundation of ideal and

consistent density. Thus, the goal of soil stabilization is to provide a solid, stable
foundation. “Density” is the measure of weight by volume of a material, and is one of
the relied-upon measures of the suitability of a material, and is one of the relied-upon
measures of the suitability of a material for construction purposes. The more density
a material possesses, the fewer voids are present.
353
Voids are the enemy of road construction; voids provide a place for moisture to go,
and make the material less stable by allowing it to shift under changing pressure,
temperature and moisture conditions.
Uniformly-graded materials, because of their uniform size, are much less dense than
well-graded materials. The high proportion of voids per volume of uniformly-graded
material makes it unsuitable for construction purposes. In well-graded materials,
smaller particles pack in to the voids between the larger particles, enabling the material
to achieve high degrees of density. Therefore, well-graded materials offer higher
stability, and are in high demand for construction. With the increased global demand
for energy and increasing local demand for aggregates, it has become expensive from a
material cost and energy use
Standpoint to remove inferior soils and replace them with choice, well-graded
aggregates, ”One way to reduce the amount of select material needed for base
construction is to improve the existing soil enough to provide strength and conform to
engineering standards. This is where soil stabilization has become a cost-effective
alternative essentially; soil stabilization allows engineers to distribute a larger load
with less material over a longer life cycle.
 Advantages to soil stabilization:
 Stabilized soil functions as a working platform for the project

 Stabilization waterproofs the soil
 Stabilization improves soil strength
 Stabilization helps reduce soil volume change due to temperature or moisture
 Stabilization improves soil workability
 Stabilization reduces dust in work environment
 Stabilization upgrades marginal materials
 Stabilization improves durability
 Stabilization dries wet soils
 Stabilization conserves aggregate materials
 Stabilization reduces cost
 Stabilization conserves energy
354
 Need of Stabilization
The aggregates are important ingredients of pavement structure. Good quality

aggregates may not always be available nearby road construction site. Transporting
the aggregates from long distance may not be economically feasible. Under such
circumstances, locally available inferior quality material like soil or industrial waste
material like fly-ash may be proposed to be used in pavement as base/sub-base
material. These materials are of inferior quality, and hence may not satisfy the
requirement as pavement material. Therefore engineering properties of these materials
are modified by means of a process, known as stabilization. This is not only economic
solution, but also offers a potential use of the industrial/domestic waste materials.
Advantages of stabilization are summarized in the following.
1. Improved stiffness and tensile strength of the material.

2. Reduction in pavement thickness.
3. Improved durability and resistance to the effect of water.
4. Reduction is swelling potential
Mechanism of stabilization can be broadly divided into two categories, mechanical

and chemical stabilization. Mechanical stabilization includes compaction, blending of
aggregates to improve gradation, and addition of asphalt. Asphalt, as a stabilizer, does
not generally react chemically with the materials being stabilized, but coats the
particles and imparts adhesion and helps waterproofing. Chemical stabilization
includes addition of materials such as lime, cement or fly-ash in combination or alone
and bitumen. These materials either react chemically with materials being stabilized
(for example, lime reacts with clays) or react on their own to form cementing
compounds (for example, Portland cement).
355
7.2. Lime stabilization
 Types of limes used for soil stabilization

Most of the lime used for road stabilization to date has been hydrated lime (calcium
and/or calcium-magnesium hydroxide) although some quicklime (calcium and/or
calcium-magnesium oxide) and waste lime have been used with success. Both high
calcium and dolomitic or magnesium limes have been used successfully. Hydrated
limes have been applied both in the powder and slurry forms. So far as is known,
quicklime has been applied only in the powder form and has been known to burn some
workmen who were not properly protected. In order to overcome this difficulty,
quicklime probably could be slurried sufficiently to avoid severe burns, but for best
mixing the lime particles after slurrying should be as finely divided as hydrated lime.
Waste lime may contain quicklime, hydrated lime and impurities, and its use has been
limited to small experimental jobs. It is difficult to plan on the use of such limited and
erratic sources for stabilization on a scale of any considerable magnitude. The
chemical constituents of lime are quite definite and there should be no doubt as to what
lime is; however, the words "lime" and "limestone" have been so loosely used that
many people, including engineers, mistake limestone dust or screenings for lime.
Limestone is calcium-carbonate and not calcium-oxide or lime; it cannot become a
lime except by having its carbon dioxide removed by heating. Some metamorphic
limestones may have a trace of free lime available in them due to their past geological
history, but their lime content cannot be expected to produce stabilization results which
are comparable to those obtained when commercial lime is used.
 Types of lime stabilization

Generally, there are two main types of lime stabilization which can be accomplished
out of a variety of combinations. One consists of treating granular or aggregate bearing
materials for final course of base upon which a wearing course or siu-facing is to be
placed. Such mixtures usually contain less than 50 percent soil binder and are treated
with from 2 to 4 percent lime based on dry weight of soil aggregate material. The other
consists of treating soil materials to serve as subbase. Usually, clay soils are treated for
this purpose by the addition of from 4 to 8 percent lime based on dry weight of soil.
Due to the effects of weathering conditions, clay-lime mixtures which are adequate for
356
subbase purposes probably will not prove to be satisfactory if used as final course of
base upon which a thin surfacing is to be placed. Many types of soils react favorably to
lime stabilization regardless of whether they are acid or alkaline.
The treatment of granular soils for final course of base to be surfaced, which do not
react well with lime alone, can be enhanced by the addition of flyash, expanded shale
fines, volcanic ash, portland cement and bituminous materials. A class of high type
pavements probably could be opened up by pursuing the use of aggregates treated with
lime and flyash or expanded shale (burned clay) or some volcanic ashes. This type of
stabilization could probably be pursued further by using dolomitic or magnesium lime
in conjunction with calcium chloride or gypsum to form oxychloride or oxysulphate
cementation. If adequate methods of injecting carbon dioxide after completion of
compaction could be developed, a different type of hardening and increase in strength
could be accomplished.
 Chemical reactions
There are many chemical reactions which take place in soil-lime mixtures and the
following discussion probably covers only a few of them. The first reaction which
takes place is of a Base Exchange nature which lowers the plasticity index of the soil
and gives the soil a loose friable appearance. Various small amounts of mixing,
depending on the nature of the soil, are required to obtain this consistency. This texture
is similar to good tilth in farm land and will remain friable unless compacted. If
compacted however, another reaction is believed to be effected which consists of
calcium reacting with available silica and alumina (colloidal sizes) to form
complicated compounds of non-slaking monocalcium silicates and alumlnates. This is
a form of slow setting cement which continues to gain strength over long periods of
time and is commonly referred to as a pozzolanic reaction. The rate of this cementation
varies a great deal with the type of soil being treated and with climatic conditions. The
third reaction is the slowest and involves the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air
so as to react with the calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate or limestone. For
either of these last two reactions to produce effective hardening by cementation, the
mixture must be thoroughly compacted prior to time of reactions.
357
 Testing of soil-lime mixtures
In running tests on such mixtures, it is important to always use a fresh supply of good
lime. The soil constants of highly plastic, clay material to be treated with lime should
be run as an indication of the degree of mixing required. If lime will not lower the PI
of a heavy clay effectively, mixing difficulties may be anticipated. H lime hardens a
low PI material, it is not necessary to require a decrease in PI.
The strengths of soil-lime mixtures are usually evaluated by such tests as the CBR,
unconfined compression, resistance value, triaxial, etc. In attempting to evaluate the
test results, it should be kept in mind that the mixes which are hardest at an early age
are not necessarily the best, because some of the differences in strength may be due
only to the rate of setting having been speeded up. It should also be kept in mind that if
a mixture has sufficient hardness, strength or toughness to withstand the climates and
extensive repetitions of the stresses imposed, it may serve just as well as a much
stronger layer. There is a need for fast-setting mixtures where the lack of detours
makes it necessary to carry heavy traffic over existing roads. There is danger that such
mixtures under heavy traffic may be susceptible to cracking. Regardless of the type of
strength test used, it is common practice to plot strength versus percent lime.
In this case, plotting test results by the aforementioned methods would seem to
indicate an optimum lime content of 5, 7 and 9 percent for 7, 21 and 60 day old
specimens, respectively. The strength values for the 180 day old specimens show that
there really is no optimum lime content to be gained from such an analysis. Strength
tests are necessary to see if a proposed mixture will harden sufficiently but experience
and good judgment are also essential tools for selecting percentage of lime to be used.
There is also a noticeable discrepancy between road and laboratory strengths of clay-
lime mixtures. Laboratory strengths may indicate a Class 1 mix but the same clay-lime
mix may not obtain such strengths in the road due to delayed mixing, compacting and
weathering. Cores cut from old roads consisting of old, lime-granular soil mixtures
show that field strengths are higher than are found from laboratory tests on specimens
up to 60 days old. In selecting the percentage of lime for use, it should be kept in mind
that some lime will be lost in construction operations by blowing, carbonation, etc., so
it is advisable to use a little more lime than short-time tests indicate to be sufficient. It
358
will be very advantageous to have some extra lime in mixtures which have to be
reworked. Very low percentages of lime are practical to use for temporary effects on
haul roads and detours. Of any combination of materials selected for use as base
course, Texas test method THD-82 suggests a minimum unconflned compressive
strength of 100 psi after 7 days moist curing and 10 days soaking or capillary wetting
at room temperature. Mixtures that set slower than this may be difficult to handle,
particularly during cold or adverse weather conditions. Laboratory personnel often
observe a fast rate of wetting in moist-cured, partially dried specimens. This should not
be mistaken as an indication of a high rate of permeability. Capillarity and
permeability are two different things. Compacted lime mixtures are particularly
effective for repelling water percolation.
 Construction methods
The quality and behavior of soil-lime stabilization mixtures are highly dependent
upon the technique used during construction. If the material to be treated Is in place,
some scarification and pulverization, prior to addition of lime, are indicated. Rooters,
disc harrows and rotary speed pulverizers are very useful tools for these types of
operation.
 Application of Lime
As stated before, lime may be added in either the powder or slurry form. The
choice of which to use often depends upon the moisture content of the soil to be
treated and location of the project with respect to creating a dust hazard to
homes and business establishments. Powdered lime may be added by proper
spacing of bags or by mechanical spreaders, or with transport trucks equipped
with auger unloaders and flexible downspouts. Hydrated lime slurries have
been made by blending water to lime with pugmills, compressed air, and
circulating pumps as stirring devices. Blending may be effected during or prior
to loading truck tanks. The cost of satisfactory plants of this type have ranged
from 3 to 7 thousand dollars which becomes a small item if used on several
jobs or if parts are converted to other uses. It has been found that lime slurry
can be handled through ordinary water tank truck spray bars when 2 or 3 lbs or
more of water per lb of hydrated lime are properly blended. Occasionally, truck
tanks not equipped with circulating devices will accumulate a layer of lime
359
sediment in the bottom of such tanks. Compressed air is usually effective in
stirring-up these sediments so the tanks can be flushed out.
 Mixing
In the case of sandy or aggregate bearing soils, lime is usually added to the
surface and mixed with motor patrol graders or rotary speed pulverizers. In
case lime slurry is being added, thin layers are bladed aside as each increment
of slurry is added by sprinkling until windrows are formed. After windrows are
bladed back across the road, the mix is usually ready for compaction if its
moisture content is near optimum. If the moisture content is below optimum
moisture when spread, additional water will need to be added by sprinkling and
blade mixing. If the mixture is too wet to roll, further aeration is indicated. This
can be accomplished by additional blading or by use of rotary speed pulverizers
fixed so as to throw the material into the air. In the case of mixing dry lime
with clay soils it is often necessary to blade part of the soil to be treated into
windrows and form a sandwich by adding the lime, sprinkling, and covering
with soil from the windrows. This procedure protects the lime from the
elements and at the same time does not delay application of lime. Delaying of
mixing for two days when necessary will help to smooth extremely lumpy
clays and decrease difficulty of mixing.
The remainder of mixing and adding of water may be carried out by sprinkling,
and mixing with blade and/or rotary pulverizers over a period of time not to
exceed four days.
Although the pugmill type road mixer has not been used frequently in lime
stabilization, it is possible that this type of mixer will help to eliminate unequal
transverse distribution of lime. Clay-lime mixtures should be pulverized to pass
the 1-in. screen and at least 60 percent to pass the -in. screen (No. 4 sieve) prior
to compaction.
 Compaction
Delay of compaction of thin windrows of all types of soil-lime mixtures which
dry and become carbonated probably will decrease hardening of the mix
subsequent to compaction. For best hardening results, compaction to high
360
density at the proper time is essential for all lime mixtures. Naturally, close
control of moisture content will be of great aid to density control. Experience
has shown that a few rules for compaction of soil-lime mixtures have been
helpful when followed. All soil-lime mixtures, except lime-treated heavy
clays, may be compacted promptly after mixing or at any time within two
days. Ordinarily, such soil aggregate bearing lime mixtures should not be
recompacted if previous rolling is over four days old without adding new
water, lime and/or soil. There are two exceptions to this rule: one is when the
mixture contains a high percentage of lime and the other is in the case of
stabilizing heavy plastic clays treated with high percentages. In the latter case
some delay in compaction after mixing can be advantageous but this delay
should not be in excess of four days. Mixtures may be compacted with various
types of pneumatic, tamping or vibratory rollers in various layer thicknesses.
The layer thickness and weight of roller will usually depend upon the type of
soil being stabilized and the supporting power of the various sub-layers.
Reworking of clay-lime mixtures which have been compacted for more than 7
days should be avoided unless additional lime and/or soil in incorporated.
 Curing
Proper curing is an essential step in obtaining hardening effects. The lime
stabilized base can be cured satisfactorily by sprinkling for 7 days or by sealing
with a bituminous treatment within one day after final rolling. Since lime
stabilized soils absorb very small amounts of asphalt, the usual quantities of
prime used for untreated bases probably will be excessive. Generally, the
application of heavy loads should be avoided for a period of 7 days after
completion of rolling. If it is necessary to haul over a stabilized layer during
this period, least damage will occur if loads are applied immediately after
compaction. Treated subbase layers may be sprinkled for periods of time
exceeding 7 days or until covered with subsequent material. Light rolling is
usually applied during this period to keep the surface knitted together.
361
Benefits of lime stabilization
There are several characteristics of lime that make it a good stabilizer:
1. It is easy to mix with soil.
2. It quickly reduces the plastic properties of soil when wetted.
3. It sets slowly, the time interval between mixing and compacting is not critical,
especially if the mixture is not allowed to remain spread in a thin windrow for long
periods of time.
4. Compaction can be done over a period of two or three days, bases need not be rolled
all at once allowing time for base to adjust to subgrade.
5. Costs are reasonably low.
There are also a number of benefits being derived from clay-lime subbase treatments.
Some are as follows:
1. The lime-treated subbases form a working table upon which contractors can
continue construction of pavements shortly after rains.
2. Wetting operations for such treatments transfer enough water into subgrade soils to
cause their subgrade to lose some of its swelling characteristics.
3. The treated layers form a water barrier to prevent excessive shrinkage cracking of
subsoils due to drying or infiltration of water during rainy weather.
4. Last, but not least, such lime-treated layers form a subsection of the total depth of
pavement.
7.3. Cement as stabilization

Stabilization with cement is a common treatment technology for the safe management, reuse
and treatment for disposal of contaminated waste. Portland cement is composed of calcium-
silicates and calcium-aluminates that, when combined with water, hydrate to form the
cementing compounds of calcium-silicate hydrate and calcium-aluminates-hydrate, as well as
excess calcium hydroxide. Because of the cementations material, as well as the calcium
362
hydroxide (lime) formed, Portland cement may be successful in stabilizing both granular and
fine-grained soils, as well as aggregates and miscellaneous materials. A pozzolanic reaction
between the calcium hydroxide released during hydration and soil alumina and soil silica
occurs in fine-grained clay soils and is an important aspect of the stabilization of these soils.
The permeability of cement stabilized material is greatly reduced. The result is a moisture-
resistant material that is highly durable and resistant to leaching over the long term. Cement-
soil Stabilization is another technique, The required quantity of Portland cement is mixed
with soil, which is to be stabilized, followed by mixing with water uniformly, preferably with
a pulverize-type machine like pug mill, and transported and deposited at the site and spread to
the specified depth, followed by fine grading compaction. The principal materials used for
the cementations stabilization of highway pavement materials with Portland cement.
Stabilization projects are almost always site-specific, requiring the application of standard
test methods, along with fundamental analysis and design procedures, to develop an
acceptable solution. As with any such process, adherence to strict environmental constraints
is vital to project success. The use of cementations materials makes a positive contribution to
economic and resource sustainability because it allows enhancement of both standard and
substandard in situ soils to levels consistent with the requirements of a given application.
 What is Stabilization with cement?
Stabilization protects human health and the environment by immobilizing hazardous

contaminants within the treated material. The technology involves mixing Portland
cement into contaminated material. The cement chemically reacts with water in the
material being treated, creating changes in its physical and chemical properties.
Physical changes include making the treated material more solid, thereby reducing its
permeability and encapsulating contaminants. Chemical changes to the contaminants
themselves stabilize these hazardous constituents within the treated material. These
physical and chemical changes prevent movement of hazardous contaminants into the
environment.
 Advantages of Cement Stabilization

 While several reagents can be used for CSB, Portland cement has advantages
that make it more economical and easy to use than others:
363
 Cement is manufactured under strict ASTM standards, ensuring uniformity of
quality and performance.
 Cement’s success in CSB is supported by more than 50 years of use on a
variety of projects.
 Cement has a long-term performance record.
 Using cement can minimize volume increase compared with other reagents.
 Cement is a non-proprietary manufactured product, readily available across
the country in bag or bulk quantities.
 Strength requirements for stabilization
The reaction of soil cement is important for stabilization and design methodology.
The methodology shall be based on an increase in the unconfined compression
strength test data. To determine the reactivity of the soils for cement stabilization with
2- 4% cement by dry weight of the soils and tested as described above.
The criteria for cement percentage required for stabilization shall be as follows. The
following methodology shall be used for quality control and soil-cement stabilization.
 Perform the mechanical and physical property tests of the soils.

 Select the Cement Content based on the following:
Figure 7.1. AASHTO Classification Usual Ranges for Stablization (% by

weight of soil)
A-1-a 3–5
A-1-b 5–8
A-2 5–9
A-3 7 – 10
Suggested Cement Contents
1. Perform the Standard Proctor on soil-cement mixtures for the change in

maximum dry unit weight in accordance with AASTO T -180.
364
2. Perform the unconfined compression and CBR tests on the pair of specimens
molded at 98% of the standard Proctor in case of stabilization. A gain of 100 psi of
cement stabilization is adequate enough for stabilization and % cement shall be
adjusted. Although, there is no test requirement for the optimum cement content
when using cement to modify the sub-grade.
 Mix design
Mix design is the process of choosing the optimum stabilized content of various
ingredients of the pavement. The general principle of mix design is that the mixture
should provide satisfactory performance when constructed in the desired position in
the pavement structure of sub-grade. Design proportions of the ingredients are
generally based on an analysis of the effect of various proportions on selected
engineering properties of the mix. Engineering properties which are considered,
depending on the objective are-
 Attenberg limits
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR),
 Swell potential, unconfined compression strength (UCS) of cured or uncured
mixtures, Freeze-thaw and wet-dry test etc.
 The mix design procedure includes the testing for strength and for durability.
 Mix Design Considerations
Mix design requirements vary depending on the objective. Soil-cement bases generally
have more stringent requirements than cement-modified soil sub-grades. For soil-
cement bases, two types of testing have typically been used:- durability tests and
strength tests. The Portland Cement Association has developed requirements for
AASHTO soils A-1 to A-7 that make it possible to determine the durability of cement
on the basis of maximum weight losses under wet-dry (ASTM D559) and freeze-thaw
(ASTM D560) tests. This requirement is often based on many years of experience with
soil-cement. The advantage of using these strength tests is that they can be conducted
more rapidly than the durability tests in 7 days and require less laboratory equipment
and technician training. However, achievement of a specified strength does not always
365
ensure durability. For cement-modified soils, the engineer selects an objective and
defines the cement requirements accordingly. Objectives may include one or more of
the following:
 Reducing the plasticity index (Atterberg limits, ASTM D4318);

 increasing the shrinkage limit;
 reducing the volume change of the soil (AASHTO T116);
 reducing clay/silt-sized particles (hydrometer analysis);
 meeting strength values/indexes such as the California Bearing Ratio (ASTM
D1883) CBR> 80 for bases.
 Surface Preparation
The shoulder is constructed on sub base surface before the Cement Stabilized Base
(CSB) constructed since shoulder materials are different from CSB and after
completing the shoulder, sub base surface will be prepared to the levels conforming to
the required. After the levels are confirmed by the Surveyor, the laboratory is
requested to carry on the test of compaction on sub base which is expected to be
above 98 %. Once the surfaces satisfied the requirements are accepted to continue the
CSB construction. The surface is confined and protected from traffic and other
damage till the CSB is complete.
 Material Handling and Transport
The soil for CSB is stock piled at the yard near the Pug Mill Plant (The Plant which
produces CSB material) after screening for over sizes and other impurities. Regular
testing of raw materials stock piled is carried out and the Pug Mill Plant is under
observation of Consultancy staff regularly. The Pug Mill plant is producing CSB
materials continuously by adding all raw materials (Soil, Cement & Water) to the
required proportions. The plant is calibrated to the required proportions after doing
plant trials and site trials we use 2.5% CSB. Materials transported to the site by Dump
trucks covered with tarpaulin and unloaded to the location.
 Method of Construction of CSB
366
The approved confined surface of sub base is sprinkled with water just before the CSB
is laid to have a proper bonding with previous layer. The unloaded CSB materials is
leveled at the site by using a JCB and followed with a Motor Grader for fine leveling.
The laying levels are predetermined after doing trials to achieve required compaction
factor. A 20T Double Drum Vibratory Roller is used to compact the leveled surface to
achieve the required compaction of 98% or more. After the compaction the levels and
test for compaction is carried out. The surface is applied with water and covered with
sand or Geo-textile for curing purposes. Curing of surface with application of water is
continued for 7 days
 Cement Stabilization process
The soil stabilization process is carried out in layers and consists of:
 Excavation and spreading of material to the required layer thickness for

stabilizing
 Lime or cement spreading, with regular checks to control dosage
 Mixing, to a depth depending on the soil and on the design requirements
 Sealing the material, preventing carbonization of the lime while it reacts
with the moisture in the soil. This involves trimming of the treated layer
using bulldozers and passing over by a smooth roller
 Allowing (or maturation) period - to allow time for the exothermic
chemical reaction to take place between the lime and clay
 Compacting the treated layer with a roller until required compaction is
achieved 7 days curing
 Assessment and Testing
The soils of the site are thoroughly tested to determine the existing conditions. Based
on analysis of existing conditions, additives are selected and specified. Generally, a
target chemical percentage by weight and a design mix depth are defined for the sub-
base constructed. The selected additives are subsequently mixed with soil samples
and allowed to cure. The cured sample is then tested to ensure that the additives will
produce the desired results.
367
 Curing
Sufficient curing will allow the additive to fully achieve its engineering potential. For
cement, lime, and fly ash stabilization, weather and moisture are critical factors, as the
curing can have a direct bearing on the strength of the stabilized base. Bituminous-
stabilized based often require a final membrane of medium-curing cutback asphalt or
slow-curing emulsified asphalt as a moisture seal. Generally, a minimum of seven days
are required to ensure proper curing. During the curing period, samples taken from the
stabilized base will reveal when the moisture content is appropriate for surfacing.
7.4. Bitumenious stabilization

Bitumens are non-aqueous systems of hydrocarbon soluble in carbon di-sulphide. Bituminous
substances such as asphaltic bitumen, tar, emulsions, etc. can be utilized to stabilized soil
especially to serve as sub-grades or bases of roads particularly effective for granular sandy
soils. Tars are obtained by the destructive distillation of organic materials such as coal.
Asphalts are materials gotten primarily from natural or refined petroleum bitumens. These
bitumen additives when spread over the soil layer, acts as a binder and a water proofing
agents. As asphalts are usually too viscous to be used directly, these are used as cut back with
some solvent such as gasoline used also as emulsion but require a longer drying period.
Moderately cohesive road bases with such sprays would give satisfactory service during dry
periods though maybe slippery after rains. Cut-back bitumens may also be mixed and
pulverized with soils like that of cement so as to obtain stabled soils. Any inorganic soil
which can be mixed with asphalt is suitable for bituminous stabilization although dry
conditions are properly together. In cohesionless soils, asphalt binds the soil particles together
and this serves as a bonding or cementing agent whereas in cohesive soils, the asphalt
protects the soil by plugging its voids and proofing it, aiding it to maintain low moisture
content and to increase the bearing capacity with the amount of bitumen required varying
between 4 to 7% by weight as determined by trial.
 Types of Soil Bitumen
There are four types of soil bitumen.
368
 Soil bitumen (proper): This is a water proofing, cohesive soil system. The
best results are obtained if the soil satisfies the following criteria:
- Passing No.: 4 (4.76mm) sieve 50%
- Passing No.: 40 (0.425mm) sieve 35 to 100%
- Passing No.: 200 (0.074mm) sieve 10 to 50%
- Plastic limit less than 18%
- Liquid limit less than 40%
- The maximum size of the particle should not be greater than third the
compacted thickness of the soil bitumen.
 Sand bitumen: This is a bitumen stabilized cohesionless soil system. The
sand should be free from vegetal matter or lumps clay, may require filtering
and should not contain more than 25% minus No.: 200 sieve materials for
dune sands and not more than 12% in case in other types of sands.
 Water proofed clay concrete: A soil passing a good gradation is water
proofed by a uniform distribution of 1 to 3% of bitumen in this system. Soils
of 3 different gradations have been recommended for which the percentage
passing through No.: 200 sieve varies between i. 8 to 12 ii. 10 to 16 iii. 13 to
30.
 Oiled earth: Here a soil surface consisting of silt-clay material is made water
proof by spraying bitumen in two or three applications with slow or medium
curing bitumen or emulsion used. The bitumen penetrates only a short depth
into the soil.
 Factors Affecting Bituminous Stabilization
 Type soil: Bituminous stabilization is very effective in stabilizing sandy soils
having little or no fines. If a cohesive soil has the plastic limit less than about
20% and liquid limit less than 40%, it can be effectively stabilized. However,
plastic clays cannot be properly treated because of the mixing problem and
large quantity of asphalt required. Fine grained soils of the arid regions have
values and contain dissolved component which do not respond to bituminous
stabilization.
b. Amount of asphalt: The quality of the bitumen stabilized soil improves with
the amount of asphalt up to a certain limit. However, if the amount of the
369
asphalt is excessive, it results in a highly fluid mixture that cannot be properly
compacted.
 Mixing: The quality of the product improves with more thorough mixing.
 Compaction: The dry density of the bitumen soil depends on the amount and
type of compaction. It also depends upon the volatile content.
7.5. Mechanical stabilization
Mechanical stabilization produces by compaction an interlocking of soil-aggregate particles.

The grading of the soil-aggregate mixture must be such that a dense mass is produced when it
is compacted. Mechanical stabilization can be accomplished by uniformly mixing the
material and then compacting the mixture. As an alternative, additional fines or aggregates
maybe blended before compaction to form a uniform, well-graded, dense soil-aggregate
mixture after compaction. The choice of methods should be based on the gradation of the
material. In some instances, geotextiles can be used to improve a soil’s engineering
characteristics.
The three essentials for obtaining a properly stabilized soil mixture are—
 Proper gradation.
 A satisfactory binder soil.
 Proper control of the mixture content.
To obtain uniform bearing capacity, uniform mixture and blending of all materials is
essential. The mixture will normally be compacted at or near OMC to obtain satisfactory
densities. The primary function of the portion of a mechanically stabilized soil mixture that is
retained on a Number 200 sieve is to contribute internal friction. Practically all materials of a
granular nature that do not soften when wet or pulverize under traffic can be used; however,
the best aggregates are those that are made up of hard, durable, angular particles. The
gradation of this portion of the mixture is important, as the most suitable aggregates generally
are well-graded from coarse to fine. Well-graded mixtures are preferred because of their
greater stability when compacted and because they can be compacted more easily. They also
have greater increases in stability with corresponding increases in density. Satisfactory
materials for this use include:-
 Crushed stone.
370
 Crushed and uncrushed gravel.
 Sand.
 Crushed slag.
Many other locally available materials have been successfully used, including disintegrated
granite, talus rock, mine tailings, caliche, coral, limerock, tuff, shell, slinkers, cinders, and
iron ore. When local materials are used, proper gradation requirements cannot always be met.
NOTE: If conditions are encountered in which the gradation obtained by blending local
materials is either finer or coarser than the specified gradation, the size requirements of the
finer fractions should be satisfied and the gradation of the coarser sizes should be neglected.
The portion of the soil that passes a Number 200 sieve functions as filler for the rest of the
mixture and supplies cohesion. This aids in the retention of stability during dry weather. The
swelling of clay material serves somewhat to retard the penetration of moisture during wet
weather. Clay or dust from rock- rushing operations is commonly used as binders. The nature
and amount of this finer material must be carefully controlled, since too much of it results in
an unacceptable change in volume with change in moisture content and other undesirable
properties. The properties of the soil binder are usually controlled by controlling the plasticity
characteristics, as evidenced by the LL and PI. These tests are performed on the portion of the
material that passes a Number 40 sieve. The amount of fines is controlled by limiting the
amount of material that may pass a Number 200 sieve. When the stabilized soil is to be
subjected to frost action, this factor must be kept in mind when designing the soil mixture.
 Uses
Mechanical soil stabilization may be used in preparing soils to function as:-
 Subgrades
 Bases
 Surfaces
Several commonly encountered situations may be visualized to indicate the usefulness
of this method. One of these situations occurs when the surface soil is a loose sand that
is incapable of providing support for wheeled vehicles, particularly in dry weather. If
suitable binder soil is available in the area, it may be brought in and mixed in the
proper proportions with the existing sand to provide an expedient all-weather surface
for light traffic. This would be a sand-clay road. This also may be done in some cases
371
to provide a “working platform” during construction operations. A somewhat similar
situation may occur in areas where natural gravels suitable for the production of a
well-graded sand-aggregate material are not readily available. Crushed stone, slag, or
other materials may then be stabilized by the addition of suitable clay binder to
produce a satisfactory base or surface. A common method of mechanically stabilizing
an existing clay soil is to add gravel, sand, or other granular materials. The objectives
here are to:-
 Increase the drainability of the soil.

 Increase stability.
 Reduce volume changes.
 Control the undesirable effects associated with clays.
 Objective
The objective of mechanical stabilization is to blend available soils so that, when
properly compacted, they give the desired stability. In certain areas, for example, the
natural soil at a selected location may have low load-bearing strength because of an
excess of clay, silt, or fine sand. Within a reasonable distance, suitable granular
materials may occur that may be blended with the existing soils to markedly improve
the soil at a much lower cost in manpower and materials than is involved in applying
imported surfacing. The mechanical stabilization of soils in road construction is very
important. The engineer needs to be aware of the possibilities of this type of
construction and to understand the principles of soil action previously presented. The
engineer must fully investigate the possibilities of using locally available materials.
 Limitations
Without minimizing the importance of mechanical stabilization, the limitations of this
method should also be realized. The principles of mechanical stabilization have
frequently been misused, particularly in areas where frost action is a factor in the
design. For example, clay has been added to “stabilize” soils, when in reality all that
was needed was adequate compaction to provide a strong, easily drained base that
would not be susceptible to detrimental frost action. An understanding of the
densification that can be achieved by modern compaction equipment should prevent a
mistake of this sort. Somewhat similarly, poor trafficability of a soil during construction
because of lack of fines should not necessarily provide an excuse for mixing in clay
372
binder. The problem may possibly be solved by applying a thin surface treatment or
using some other expedient method.
 Soil Base Requirements

Experience in civil highway construction indicates that best results are obtained with
this type of mixture if the fraction passing the Number 200 sieve is not greater than
two-thirds of the fraction passing the Number 40 sieve. The size of the largest particles
should not exceed two-thirds of the thickness of the layer in which they are
incorporated. The mixture should be well-graded from coarse to fine.
A basic requirement of soil mixtures that are to be used as base courses is that the PI
should not exceed 5. Under certain circumstances, this requirement may be relaxed if a
satisfactory bearing ratio is developed; Experience also indicates that under ideal
circumstances the LL should not exceed 25.
These requirements may be relaxed in theater-of-operations construction. The

requirements may be lowered to a LL of 35 and a PI of 10 for fully operational airfields.
For emergency and minimally operational airfields, the requirements may be lowered to
a LL of 45 and a PI of 15, when drainage is good.
 Proportioning
Mixtures of this type are difficult to design and build satisfactorily without laboratory
control. A rough estimate of the proper proportions of available soils in the field is
possible and depends on manual and visual inspection. For example, suppose that a
loose sand is the existing subgrade soil and it is desired to add silty clay from a nearby
borrow source to achieve a stabilized mixture. Each soil should be moistened to the
point where it is moist, but not wet; in a wet soil, the moisture can be seen as a shiny
film on the surface, What is desired is a mixture that feels gritty and in which the sand
grains can be seen. Also, when the soils are combined in the proper proportion, a cast
formed by squeezing the moist soil mixture in the hand will not be either too strong or
too weak; it should just be able to withstand normal handling without breaking. Several
trial mixtures should be made until this consistency is obtained. The proportion of each
of the two soils should be carefully noted. If gravel is available, this may be added,
although there is no real rule of thumb to tell how much should be added. It is better to
have too much gravel than too little.
373
374
References
[1]. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/413/1/012023/pdf
[2]. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cement-stabilization-road-bases-veluppillai-
mohan#:~:text=The%20soil%20stabilization%20process%20is,and%20on%20the
%20design%20requirements
[3]. https://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/hrbbulletin/231/231-004.pdf
[4]. http://www.gpcet.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/GIT_UNIT-3.pdf
[5]. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/5-410/ch9.pdf
375
Part II Laboratories and Practical works
Week 1
Session Plan 1
1. Learning objectives
 Manage the environment of the laboratory
 Abide by the laboratory safety rules and regulation
 Apply general safety rules
 Use Protective Clothing and Equipment
 Take measure when he/she is affected by accidents and injuries
 Get sufficient ideas about how to handle chemicals
 Properly handle Glassware and Lab Equipment
 Take care of him/her against heating substances
 Provide information regarding allergies and other related problems to his/her
instructor
2. Motivation
• Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction on

construction materials and testing by providing the testing procedures; letting the
students to do the laboratory works by themselves
3. Expectations or Outcomes
 Explain the basic terminologies regarding to classification of road construction
materials, understand and differentiate among physical properties , chemical
properties and mechanical properties of road construction materials
 The assessment standard attached at the end of the job task sheet.
4. Equipment
 Laboratory Safety Rules, Procedures and Practices manual
5. Practice contents/Activities/Safety
 Managing the environment of the laboratory
 Abiding the laboratory safety rules and regulation
 Applying the general safety rules
 Using Protective Clothing and Equipment
 Taking measure when he/she is affected by accidents and injuries
 Getting sufficient ideas about how to handle chemicals
 Properly handling Glassware and Lab Equipment
 Taking care of him/her against heating substances
376
 Providing information regarding allergies and other related problems to his/her
instructor
7. Assessments
 Measurement is done based on the evaluation sheet.
7. Clean-up
 After finishing practice, all tools and equipment utilized in the practice shall be
returned back to the proper storage place.
 Clean up the work bench and practice shop.
8. Independent practice/Follow-up activities
• Learning through assignment
9. Review/Reflection
• Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure and previous reflected
opinions.
377
Lab 1
Lab orientation and safety requirements
Laboratory Safety Rules
Road Construction Materials and Testing is a hands-on laboratory class. You will be doing
many laboratory activities which require the use of hazardous chemicals. Safety in the
classroom is the number one priority for students and teachers. To ensure a safe in laboratory
and classroom, a list of rules has been developed and provided to you in this student safety
contract. These laboratory safety rules must be followed at all times. You must submit a
signed laboratory safety contract before you can participate in laboratory experiments,
demonstrations, and other activities.
General Rules
1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.
2. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or
part of a procedure, ask the instructor before proceeding.
3. Never work alone. No student may work in the laboratory without an instructor present.
4. When first entering a laboratory room, do not touch any equipment, chemicals, or other
materials in the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.
5. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory
glassware as containers for food or beverages. Do not bring any food or drink into the
laboratory. Any food or drink brought into the laboratory will be immediately disposed of
in the interest of safety.
6. Perform only those experiments authorized by the instructor. Never do anything in the
laboratory that is not called for in the laboratory procedures or by your instructor.
Carefully follow all instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are
prohibited.
7. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory. Read all procedures thoroughly before
entering the laboratory.
378
8. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are dangerous
and prohibited.
9. Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all
times. Bring only your laboratory instructions, worksheets, and/or reports to the work area.
Other materials (books, purses, backpacks, etc.) should be stored in the laboratory area.
10. Keep walkways clear. Push your chair under the desk when not in use.
11. Know the locations and operating procedures, where appropriate, for all safety equipment
including first aid kit, eyewash station, safety shower, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket.
Know where the fire alarm and exits are located.
12. Always work in a well-ventilated area. Use the fume hood when working with volatile
substances or poisonous vapors. Never place your head into the fume hood.
13. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Notify the instructor
immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.
14. Dispose of all chemical waste properly. Never mix chemicals in sink drains. Sinks are to
be used only for water and those solutions designated by the instructor. Solid chemicals,
metals, matches, filter paper, and all other insoluble materials are to be disposed of in the
proper waste containers, not in the sink. Check the label of all waste containers twice
before adding your chemical waste to the container.
15. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use. Set up and use the
prescribed apparatus as directed in the laboratory instructions or by your instructor.
16. Keep hands away from face, eyes, mouth and body while using chemicals or preserved
specimens. Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments. Clean
all work surfaces and apparatus at the end of the experiment. Return all equipment clean
and in working order to the proper storage area.
17. Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. You will be assigned a laboratory
station at which to work. Do not wander around the room, distract other students, or
interfere with the laboratory experiments of others.
379
18. Students are never permitted in the laboratory storage rooms or preparation areas unless
given specific permission by their instructor.
19. Know what to do if there is a fire drill or alarm during a laboratory period; containers
must be closed, gas valves turned off, fume hoods turned off, and any electrical
equipment turned off.
20. When using knives and other sharp instruments, always carry with tips and points
pointing down and away. Always cut away from your body. Never try to catch falling
sharp instruments. Grasp sharp instruments only by the handles.
21. If you have a medical condition (e.g., allergies, pregnancy, etc.), check with your
physician prior to working in lab.
Protective Clothing and Equipment
22. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware are used, students will wear laboratory goggles.
There will be no exceptions to this rule.
23. Contact lenses may be worn provided adequate face and eye protection is provided by
specially marked, non-vented safety goggles. The instructor should know which students
are wearing contact lenses in the event of eye exposure to hazardous chemicals.
24. Dress properly for lab activities. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy clothing
are hazardous. Long hair must be tied back and dangling jewelry and loose or baggy
clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the foot. No sandals allowed.
Accidents and Injuries
25. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor
immediately, no matter how trivial it may appear.
26. If you or your lab partners are hurt, immediately yell out to get the instructor’s attention.
27. If a chemical splashes in your eye(s) or on your skin, immediately flush with running
water from the eyewash station or safety shower for at least 20 minutes. Chemically
contaminated clothing and contact lenses must be removed during the flushing process.
Notify the instructor immediately.
380
28. When mercury thermometers are broken, mercury must not be touched. Notify the
instructor immediately so that the mercury can be properly disposed.
Handling Chemicals
29. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Do not touch, taste, or
smell any chemicals unless specifically instructed to do so. The proper technique for
wafting chemical vapors will be demonstrated to you. Never stick your nose into a
container to smell a chemical.
30. Check the label on chemical bottles twice before removing any of the contents. Take only
as much chemical as you need.
31. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.
32. Never use mouth suction to fill a pipet. Use a rubber bulb or pipet pump.
33. When transferring reagents from one container to another, hold the containers away from
your body.
34. Acids must be handled with extreme care. You will be shown the proper method for
diluting strong acids. Always add acid to water, swirl or stir the solution and be careful of
the heat produced, particularly with sulfuric acid. Never add water to concentrated acids.
35. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never dispense or work
with flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.
36. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.
37. Take great care when transporting acids and other chemicals from one part of the
laboratory to another. Hold them securely and walk carefully.
Proper Handling of Glassware and Lab Equipment
38. Carry glass tubing, especially long pieces, in a vertical position to minimize the
likelihood of breakage and injury.
381
39. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. Use a brush and dustpan to clean up
broken glass. Place broken or waste glassware in the designated glass disposal container.
Never place broken glass in the normal garbage can.
40. Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers can be dangerous. Always
lubricate glassware (tubing, thistle tubes, thermometers, etc.) before attempting to insert
it in a stopper. Always protect your hands with towels or cotton gloves when inserting
glass tubing into, or removing it from, a rubber stopper. If a piece of glassware becomes
“frozen” in a stopper, take it to your instructor for removal.
41. Fill wash bottles only with distilled water and use only as intended, e.g., rinsing glassware
and equipment, or adding water to a container.
42. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not the electrical cord.
Hands must be completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or outlet.
43. Examine glassware carefully before each use. Never use chipped or cracked glassware.
Never use dirty glassware.
44. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things such as frayed cords,
exposed wires, and loose connections. Do not use damaged electrical equipment.
45. If you do not understand how to use a piece of equipment, ask the instructor for help
before attempting to use it.
46. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may shatter.
Heating Substances
47. Exercise extreme caution when using a gas burner. Take care that hair, clothing and hands
are a safe distance from the flame at all times. Do not put any substance into the flame
unless specifically instructed to do so. Never reach over an exposed flame. Light gas (or
alcohol) burners only as instructed by the teacher.
48. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or is visibly
reacting unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not in use.
382
49. You will be instructed in the proper method of heating and boiling liquids in test tubes.
Do not point the open end of a test tube being heated at yourself or anyone else.
50. Heated metals, glass, and ceramic remain very hot for a long time. If in doubt, always
treat metal, glassware, and ceramic as if it is hot. They should be set aside to cool and
picked up with caution. Use tongs or heat-protective gloves if necessary.
51. Never look into a container that is being heated.
52. Do not place hot apparatus directly on the laboratory desktop. Always use an insulating
pad or tile square. Allow plenty of time for hot apparatus to cool before touching it.
53. When bending glass, allow time for the glass to cool before further handling. Hot and
cold glass has the same visual appearance. Determine if an object is hot by bringing the
back of your hand close to it prior to grasping it.
Health Information
56. Many experiments involve the use of foods and other consumer items. Students must
make the teacher aware of any allergies prior to experiments to help avoid possible
allergic reactions. These allergies should be listed on the signed laboratory contract that is
handed into the teacher.
57. Female students must inform the teacher if they have become pregnant before
participating in laboratory experiments. Pregnant women and their developing child can
be more sensitive to or at a greater risk of complication when exposed to certain
chemicals. This information will remain confidential.
383
Student Laboratory Agreement
Read all of the following items and initial in the blank next to each statement to indicate that
you understand and agree to abide by it. If you have questions about the items, please ask
your instructor for clarification. Once you read all items, complete the information at the
bottom of the sheet.
1. I have received a copy of the Laboratory Safety Rules, Procedures and Practices. They
have been explained to me by the laboratory instructor. I understand these rules and
recognize it as my responsibility to follow at all times.
2. I recognized that my instructor may give me additional safety instructions, either verbally
or in writing, during the laboratory period. I agree to follow these additional instructions and
accept this as my responsibility.
3. I accept the authority of the laboratory instructor, the technical assistant, stockroom
personnel or any other official of the Federal Technical Training Institute (Faculty or Staff). I
understand that failure to follow the safety rules, procedures and practices presented to me
may result in dismissal from teaching laboratories with the consent of the Department.
4. Check-in Day: I have inspected the equipment provided in the BIN assigned to me and my
group and I acknowledge that all equipment is in good condition. I consulted with my
instructor to replace damaged equipment, if any.
Check-in Day
Name (Print): __________________________________________
Institute ID Number: _____________________________
BIN Number: ______
Course Number: ________ Lab Section Number: __________ Room Number: _________
Lab Schedule (Day/time): ___________/_____________
Date: ______/______/________
Signature: ________________________________________
384
Week 2
Session Plan 2
 Use tensile strength machine (UTM) for the application of tensile strength of
plane and deformed steel bar
 Fill data for original and final length of steel bar before and after the
application of load at the failure point of steel bar
 Read and fill gradually increased load data
 Prepare stress-strain curve and determine the elastic modulus of the steel bar
(under test)
 Report the test result
2. Motivation
 Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction on

 Explain the basic terminologies regarding to classification of road construction

materials, understand and differentiate among physical properties , chemical
properties and mechanical properties of road construction materials
 The assessment standard attached at the end of the job task sheet.
4. Equipment
 UTM (Universal Testing Machine )

 Using UTM for measuring stress and strain of deformed steel bar
 Recording data on incremental length of steel bar
 Recording gradually incremental load
 Drawing stress-strain curve
 Calculating elastic modulus
 Reporting the test result
7. Assessments
 Assessment is done based on the evaluation sheet.
385
8. Clean-up
 After finishing practice, all tools and equipment utilized in the practice shall be
 Clean up the work bench and practice shop.
 Learning through assignment

 Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure and previous reflected
opinions.
386
Lab 2
Determination of tensile strength of deformed and plain reinforcement bar
Steel Tensile Test:
2. Objectives
The objective of this lab experiments is to incrementally load a steel bar till failure, recording
the value of the load and the change in length of the steel bar at each stage. Then based on the
collated data, determine:
 Modulus of Elasticity of Steel, E of Steel & Compare it to the theoretical value.
 Yield strength of Steel, σ yield
 Ultimate strength of steel, σ Ultimate
 Plot Stress vs. Strain Curve for steel
Related theory:
The most common material in construction besides concrete is steel. Steel, though it has a
high compressive strength, its tensile strength is usually much lower and mounts up to 8 – 12
% of its compressive strength. Steel, therefore, is used in concrete structural elements to bare
tensile loads and bending moments.
The major components of steel are Iron and carbon which ranges between 0.01 and 1 percent.
Sulfur, phosphorus, manganese, silicon and as much as 20 other alloys are present in steel
and are added in various quantities to steel during its manufacturing process depending on the
desired hardness, toughness and tensile strength of steel.
Reinforcing steel bars are usually manufactured in 3 different forms:
– Plain bars
– Deformed bars
– Plain & deformed wires
Figure 1: Plain Bars Figur2: Deformed Bars Figure 3:Plain &

Deformed wires
387
The deformation in deformed steel bars is intended to increase the bonding between steel and
concrete and to prevent slippage of the steel reinforcement bars.
Steel reinforcement bars are produced mainly with four different yield strengths, shown in the
table below. The grade of steel indicates its yield strength in Ksi.
Table 1: Reinforcement Steel Strength
Type σ yield σ yield Grade
(psi) (MPa)
Type1 40,000 300 40
Type 2 50,000 350 50
Type 3 60,000 400 60
Type 4 75,000 500 75
4. apparatus
 Universal Testing Machine
 Dial Gauge / Extensometer
Figure 4: Universal Testing Machine Figure 5: Dial Gauge

5. Procedure
1. Load a Steel bar into the machine, with a 6” length of steel between the testing machine
clamps.
2. Mount the dial gauge and reset to Zero
3. Apply load with in stages, starting with 250 lb and gradually increase the load
4. At each load stage record the applied load and the Change in bar length (read from gauge).
388
5. Keep incrementing the load till failure.
P.s.: At failure notice the tip & cone failure mode of the steel bar.
6. Equations:
7 Calculation Sheet
P δ Ϭ ε E
KN (lb) mm(in) Kpa( psi) Kpa ( psi)
8. Strain Curve
9. Discussion
389
Fig. Theoretical Stress-Strain diagram for typical ductile metal
390
Evaluation sheet
Out of
Evaluation Score* Remark
5
Working
Principle
End result of
stress-strain
Result relationship
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
391
Week 3
Session Plan 3
 Select appropriate cement for setting time test

 Prepare the cement paste for setting time test
 Arrange the testing apparatus for setting time test
 Able to take measurement for initial and final setting time
 Determine initial setting time of cement
 Determine final setting time
2. Motivation

 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to initial and final setting time,
 Measuring initial and final setting time of a given sample of cement paste,
 Reporting the result including conclusion and discussion.
The assessment standard attached at the end of the job task sheet.
4. Equipment
 Balance
 Vacate apparatus
 Identifying the appropriate testing equipment and materials

 Prepare the required cement for the preparation of cement paste for testing initial and
final seating time.
 Handling and using the testing apparatus
 Determining initial and final seating time
6. Assessments
392
7. Clean-up
Learning through assignment
Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure and previous reflected opinions.
393
Lab 3
Setting time of cement

Objective:-
To determine the initial and final setting time of a given cement sample by Vicat apparatus.
Significance: - Cement is widely used material for making mortar and concrete for
construction projects. After mixing cement with water, it takes time to place the cement paste
in position. Initial setting time of cement possesses a primary role in strength and it is
mandated that cement paste should be placed in position before it finishes its initial setting
time that is approximately 30 minutes. And it should not be disturbed until the final setting
time is reached that is around 10 hrs to gain its rigidity and tensile strength for ordinary
Portland cement. This is the reason that the determination of initial and final setting time
important.
Theory and Scope:-
In order that the concrete may be placed in position conveniently, it is necessary that the
initial setting time of cement is not too quick and after it has been laid hardening should be
rapid so that the structure can be made use of as early as possible. The initial set is a stage in
the process of hardening after which any cracks that may appear will not re-unite. The
concrete is said to be finally set when it has obtained sufficient strength and hardness.
Therefore certain limits for initial and final setting times have to be specified.
Apparatus required:-
1. Vicat apparatus with needle for the initial setting time and annular collar for final setting
time, Vicat mould with glass plate. The vicat mould is of single piece truncated conical form
with internal dia 70±5 mm at top, 80±5 mm at the bottom and a height of 40±2 mm.
2. Gauging trowel, measuring jar (100 ml), weighing balance of capacity 1 kg (sensitive up to
0.1 gm w), stop watch, non-porous plate, standard spatula.
Materials required:-
Cement free from any air lump, water
Procedure:-
Preparation of Test Block:
 Prepare a neat cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85P water, where
P= standard consistency as found. The gauging time is kept between 3 to 5
394
minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant when the water is added to the
cement.
 Fill the Vicat mould and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level
with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is known as test
block.
Procedure for determination of Initial Setting Time:
 For the determination of initial setting time, place the test block confined in
the mould and resting on non-porous plate under the rod attached with the
needle B.
 Lower the needle gently in contact with the surface of the test blocks and
release quickly, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
 Repeat this procedure until the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5
mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The period elapsed between
the time when water is added to the cement and the time at which the
needle fails to pierce the test block by about 5 mm is the initial setting
time.
Procedure for Determination of Final Setting Time:
 For the determination of final setting time replace the needle B of the Vicat
apparatus by the needle with an annular attachment C.
 The cement is considered finally set when, upon applying the needle C gently
to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an impression thereon,
while the attachment fails to do so.
395
Observations and calculations:-
Observation
Setting time measurement
Time Penetration
Where,
T1 =Time at which water is first added to cement
T2 =Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mold
T3 =Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.
Calculation
Initial setting time =T2-T1
Final setting time =T3-T1
Discussion about the result:-
396
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
initial and final
Result seating time
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
storage of the
Work
tools and
Evaluatio
materials
n
Economical
usage of the
consumable
materials
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
397
Week 4
Session Plan 4
 Differentiate between fine aggregate and coarse aggregate

 Prepare the sieve testing apparatuses
 Prepare the appropriate material of aggregate for test
 Performs sieve analyses test
 Determine fineness modulus of fine and coarse aggregate
 Draw particle size distribution curve
 Report the test result
2. Motivation
 Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction on sieve
analysis ,particle size distribution of aggregate, determination of fineness modulus of
fine and coarse aggregate and plotting of particle size distribution curve.
Explain the basic terminologies regarding to particle size distribution, grading of aggregate
calculate the fineness modulus of aggregate, plotting of particle size distribution curve. The
assessment standard attached at the end of the job task sheet.
4. Equipment
 Balance
 Sieves with opening of 63mm, 37.5 mm, 19 mm, 9.5 mm, and 4.75 mm. 2.36, 1.18,
600 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron, pan
 Sieve shaker
 brush

 Prepare the required material of aggregate for test
 Arrange the sieves according to descending order of their size
398
 Operating the sieve shaking machine
 Measuring the amount of aggregate retain on each sieve
 Perform calculations on percentage retained and percentage passing in each sieve
 Calculate fineness modulus of fine and coarse aggregate
 Plot the particle size distribution curve
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
 Learning through assignment

399
Lab 4
Particle Size Distribution of Aggregates
Dry sieving test
Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to determine the particle size distribution of aggregate
using sieve analysis
Significance:-
The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of aggregate. Grain
size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is important in grading of aggregate.
THEORY
Coarse aggregate is the one retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve. When the aggregate contains sizes
differently in suitable proportions, it is called graded aggregate. The workability of concrete
is also improved with well graded aggregate. Single size aggregates make the concrete harsh
and does not work well with trowel and between the cables, strands or sheathing. The coarse
aggregate may be of the following types –
 Crushed ravel or stone which is obtained by crushing of hard stone or gravel.
 Uncrushed stone or gravel resulting from natural disintegration of rock.
 Partially crushed stone or gravel which is obtained by blending of above two types.
The graded coarse aggregate is defined by its nominal size i.e., 40 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5
mm, etc. For example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 12.5 mm means an aggregate most
of which passes the 12.5 mm Sieve. Because the aggregates are formed due to natural
disintegration of rocks or by the artificial crushing of rock or gravel, they derive their many
of the properties from the parent rocks. These properties are chemical, mineral composition,
petrographic description, hardness, strength, pore structure, colour, etc. Other properties
which are not possessed by parent rock or gravel are shape, size, texture, absorption, etc.
400
Furthermore, sub-classifications are there like in shape, round, angular varieties are there, in
unit weight classification normal weight, lightweight is there and many more. All these
properties may have a considerable effect on the quality in fresh and hardened states.
Within these limits, the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate may be as large as
possible for low to moderately high strength concrete. The bigger the size of aggregate, lesser
is the surface area and hence less amount of water is required for wetting the surface and less
matrix or paste is required that lubricates the surface so as to reduce internal friction. For a
given quantity of water and paste, bigger size of aggregate will give higher workability.
Coarse aggregates are used in various tests like slump test, vee bee test, etc. in order to
ascertain the suitability of coarse aggregate in making better quality of concrete.
Apparatus used:
 Balance
 Sieve of sizes – 63mm, 37.5 mm, 19 mm, 9.5 mm, and 4.75 mm. 2.36, 1.18, 600
micron, 300 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron,
 Round pans to fit sieve
 Brushes
 Sieve Shaker
401
Fig 1: Sieve Shaker motor operated
PROCEDURE
1. The sample should be oven dried at temperature 100 0C to 1100C before weighing and
sieving.
2. The dried sample of coarse aggregate is weighed.
3. The weighed sample is placed on the uppermost sieve. The sieve is arranged according to
sizes.
4. The sieve with biggest opening is kept on top while the sieve with smallest opening is
kept at bottom.
5. Below the sieve of smallest opening, pan is kept in order to collect the remaining sample
which does not conform to the sieve sizes above.
6. A brush is used to clean the additional particles or impurities remaining on the sieve
shaker.
7. After making all the arrangement the sieve shaker is turned on and it is operated
continuously for around 10 – 15 minutes in order to obtain correct results.
402
8. After operating the shaker is turned off and the sieves are taken out for weighing the
remaining samples on each of the respective sieves.
9. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve sizes are calculated as a percentage of the
total sample weighed.
RESULT
DISCUSSION
PRECAUTIONS
• The hand gloves should be worn during the experiment so as to avoid any injury.
• Safety shoes and aprons at the time of test must be worn for protection.
• Cleaning and drying before the commencement of test is recommended.
• Careful sieving should be adopted.
• The electric balance should be checked before weighing.
• Sieves should be arranged in correct order.
403
Lab No. 4
Test Data Sheet
Particle size distribution
Sample No. _____________________ Description of Material: _________________
Tested by: ______________________ Date of Testing: ______________________
Sample number: _______________ Weight of bulk sample _________________ kg
Sample weight before weight _______ kg Moisture content _______________
Sieve size in Weight Percentage Cumulative %

mm retained in g retained % retained passing
75
63
50
37.5
19
9.5
404
4.75
2.36
1.18
600 micron
300 micron
150 micron
75 micron
Pan weight
Total weight
Fineness modulus = /100
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
particle size
Result distribution
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Work Tool Setup

Evaluatio
Usage and
n
storage of the
405
tools and
materials
Economical
usage of the
consumable
materials
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
Week 5
Session Plan 5
 Prepare the required materials for flakiness and elongation test

 Select appropriate apparatus for flakiness and elongation test
 Arrange the testing apparatus for flakiness and elongation test
 Perform flakiness and elongation test
 Determine flakiness and elongation for a given aggregate sample
2. Motivation
406
flakiness and elongation testing by providing the testing procedures; letting the
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to flakiness and elongation,

 Determining flakiness and elongation for a particular given aggregate sample,
4. Equipment
1. Thickness gauge
2. Weighing Balance
3. Gauging Trowel
4. Sieves required are 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm (Based on
requirement and Gradation of Aggregate).

 Prepare the required aggregate for flakiness and elongation test
 Determining flakiness and elongation
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
407
Lab 5
Flakiness and elongation test
Objective
The objective of this test is to determining the flakiness an elongation test Thickness Gauge.
Significance
Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more
than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles
require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate.
408
Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio.
Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 % by weight of
the total aggregate.
Theory
The flakiness index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose least
dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension. Particle shape and
surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the properties of
hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require more water to
produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the
cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio. Generally, flat and
elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 % by weight of the total aggregate.
1. Thickness gauge
2. Weighing Balance
3. Gauging Trowel
4. Sieves required are 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm (Based on
requirement and Gradation of Aggregate).
Procedure
1. A quantity of aggregate shall be taken sufficient to provide the minimum number of 200
pieces of any fraction to be tested.
2. The sample shall be sieved with sieves specified in Table.
3. Then each fraction shall be gauged in turn for thickness on a metal gauge of the pattern
shown in Fig or in bulk on sieves having elongated slots. The width of the slot used in the
gauge or sieve shall be of the dimensions specified in column 3 of Table for the appropriate
size of material.
4. The total amount passing the gauge shall be weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent
of the weight of the test sample.
409
Observation and calculation
Calculation
Σw
Flakiness Index=100 x ( )
ΣW
Where, w is the weights of material passing the various thickness gauges and W is the total
weights of aggregate passing and retained on the specified sieves.
Dimensions of thickness
Size of aggregate in mm Weight Thickness Weight

Retained on
Passing through sieve Retained on Gauge of flaky
Thickness
Gauge (mm) particles
Wg
63 50 33.9
50 40 27
40 31.5 21.5
31.5 25 16.95
25 20 13.5
20 16 10.8
16 12.5 8.55
12.5 10 6.75
10 6.3 4.89
410
Fig.: Thickness Gauge
Results: Flakiness index=........................................
Elongation index
411
Objective: To determining the elongation index of the coarse aggregate.
Theory
The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose

greatest dimension (thickness) is greater than one and four-fifths of their mean dimension.
The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm.
Procedure:
1. A quantity of aggregate shall be taken sufficient to provide the minimum number of 200
pieces of any fraction to be tested.
2. The sample shall be sieved with sieves specified in Table.
3. Each fraction shall be gauged in turn for length on a metal gauge of the pattern shown in
Fig. The gauge length used shall be of the dimensions specified in column 4 of Table for the
appropriate size of material.
4. The total amount of aggregate retained by the length gauge shall be weighed to an
accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
Calculations:
Elon gationindex=100 x (x /W )%
Where, x is the weight of materials retained on specified gauges and W is the total weights of
aggregate passing and retained on the specified sieves.
412
Fig.: Length Gauge
Dimensions of Length gauge
Size of aggregate in mm Weight Length Weight

Retained on
Passing through sieve Retained on Gauge of elongated
Thickness
Gauge (mm) particles
Wg
63 50 33.9
50 40 27
40 31.5 21.5
31.5 25 16.95
25 20 13.5
20 16 10.8
16 12.5 8.55
12.5 10 6.75
10 6.3 4.89
RESULTS: Elongation Particles=………………………………………. %
413
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
flakiness and
Result elongation
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
storage of the
Work
tools and
Evaluatio
materials
n
Economical
usage of the
consumable
materials
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
414
Week 6
Session Plan 6
 Prepare the required materials for determination of bulk specific gravity of fine
aggregate test
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of bulk specific gravity of fine
aggregate
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of bulk specific gravity of fine
aggregate test
 Perform bulk specific gravity fine aggregate test
 Determine the bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate
2. Motivation

determination of bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate testing by providing the
testing procedures; letting the students to do the laboratory works by themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to bulk specific gravity of fine

aggregate,
 Determining the bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate for a particular given
aggregate sample,
4. Equipment
 Pycnometer bottle
 Taping rod
 Funnel
 Balance

415
 Prepare the required aggregate for bulk Specific gravity of fine aggregate test
 Determining bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
416
Lab 6
Bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate
Objective
The objective of this lab is to determine specific gravity of a given sample of fine aggregate.
Theory
The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled
water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids,
so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
⁃ Apparent specific gravity and

⁃ Bulk specific gravity
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5
to 2.9.
Definitions
Specific Gravity –is the ratio of the mass (or weight) in air of a unit volume of material to
the mass of the same volume of water at a specified temperature. Specific gravity is a
dimensionless term.
Apparent Specific Gravity - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of aggregate to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled
water at specified temperature.
417
Bulk Specific Gravity - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate
(including the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the voids
between particles) to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at
specified temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate,
including the weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submersion in
water for 24 hour (but not including the voids between particles) to the weight in air of an
equal volume of gas-free distilled water at specified temperature.
1. Pycnometer bottle
2. Taping rod
3. Funnel
4. Balance
Procedure:-
1. Take the empty pycnometer (w1) gms.

2. Take a sample of fine aggregate for which specific gravity is to be find out and transfer
that to the pycnometer and weight (w2).
3. Pour distilled water into pycnometer.
4. Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer.
5. Wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weight it (w3).
6. Transfer the aggregate of the pycnometer into a try care being taken to ensure that all the
aggregate is transferred.
7. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water upto the mark and it shoukd be completely dry
from outside and take the weight w4.
418
Trail Weight of Weight of empty Weight of empty Weight of
No empty bottle bottle + Fine bottle + water + empty bottle +
(W1) gms aggregate Fine aggregate water
(W2) gms (W3) Gms (W4) gms
1
2
(w 2−w 1)
SpecificGravity of Fine Aggregate=
( w 2−w 1 )( w 3−w 4 )
Fig.: Pycnometer
Result: The Specific Gravity of a given sample of fine aggregate is = __________
Disccussion
419
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
bulk specific
gravity of the
Result given fine
Evaluatio aggregate
n
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
storage of the
Work
tools and
Evaluatio
materials
n
Economical
usage of the
consumable
materials
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
420
Week 7
Session Plan 7
 Prepare the required materials for determination of specific gravity and water
absorption of coarse aggregate test
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of specific gravity and water
 Arrange the testing apparatus for etermination of specific gravity and water
 Perform specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate test
 Determine the specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
2. Motivation

determination of specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate testing by
providing the testing procedures; letting the students to do the laboratory works by
themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to specific gravity and water absorption
of coarse aggregate,
 Determining the specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate for a
particular given aggregate sample,
4. Equipment
 Balance of capacity 5kg weight,

 Box wire basket 200mm in diameter,
 Water container for immersing the wire basket,
 Absorbent cloth for surface drying of the sample and
 Thermostatic drying oven
421

 Prepare the required aggregate for Specific gravity and water absorption of coarse
aggregate test
 Determining specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
422
Lab 7
Determination of specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
Objective
The objective of this test is To determine specific gravity and water absorption of coarse
aggregate.
Significance
For design of concrete mix, information about the specific gravity and water absorption of the
coarse aggregates are required. Specific gravity of aggregate provides valuable information
on its quality and properties. If the specific gravity is above or below than the value normally
assigned to a particular type of aggregate; it may indicate that shape and grading of aggregate
has altered. It is also important in determination of moisture contact and in many concrete
mix design calculations. It is also required for the calculation of volume yield of concrete.
Theory
The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled
water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids,
so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
⁃ Apparent specific gravity and

⁃ Bulk specific gravity
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
423
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5
to 2.9.
Definitions
Specific Gravity –is the ratio of the mass (or weight) in air of a unit volume of material to
the mass of the same volume of water at a specified temperature. Specific gravity is a
dimensionless term.
Apparent Specific Gravity - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of aggregate to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled
water at specified temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate
(including the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the voids
between particles) to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at
specified temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) - the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate,
including the weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submersion in
water for 24 hour (but not including the voids between particles) to the weight in air of an
equal volume of gas-free distilled water at specified temperature.
1. Balance of capacity 5kg weight,
2. Box wire basket 200mm in diameter,
3. Water container for immersing the wire basket,
4. Absorbent cloth for surface drying of the sample and
5. Thermostatic drying oven
Material required
Coarse aggregates (5 Kg),
Procedure:
424
1. A sample of not less than 2 Kg of the aggregate shall be thoroughly washed to remove
finer particles and dust, drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled
water at a temperature between 22°C to 32°C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the
top of the basket.
2. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air shall be removed from the sample by lifting
the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25 times at
the rate of about one drop per second.
3. The basket and aggregate shall remain completely immersed during the operation and for a
period of 24 ± l/2 hours afterwards.
4. The basket and the sample shall then be jolted and weighed in water at a temperature of
22°C to 32°C (weight A).
5. The basket and the aggregate shall then be removed from the water and allowed to drain
for a few minutes, after which the, aggregate shall be gently emptied from the basket on to
one of the dry clothes, and the empty basket shall be returned to the water and weighed in
water ( weight B ).
6. The aggregate placed on the dry cloth shall be gently surface dried with the cloth,
transferring it to the second dry cloth when the first will remove no further moisture. The
aggregate shall then be weighed (weight C).
7. The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a temperature of 100
to 110°C and maintained at this temperature for 24 ± l/2 hours. It shall then be removed from
the oven, cooled in the airtight container and weighed (weight D).
8. The specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and water &sorption shall be calculated as.
D
Specific gravity =
C−( A−B )
D
Apparent specific gravity=
D− ( A−B )
C−D
Water absorption=100 x
D
425
Observations:
Weight of aggregate and basket in water (A)

Weight of empty basket in water (B)
Weight of the saturated surface - dry aggregate in air
(C)
Weight of oven dried aggregate in air (D)
D
Specific gravity =
C−( A−B )
D
pparent specific gravity =
D−( A−B )
Water absorption=100x (C-D)/D
Results and discussions:
Following results are obtained for the provided coarse aggregate specimen:
a) Specific gravity : __________.
b) Apparent specific gravity : __________.
c) Water absorption : __________ %.
426
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
specific gravity
and water
absorption of a
Result
given coarse
Evaluatio
aggregate
n
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
storage of the
Work
tools and
Evaluatio
materials
n
Economical
usage of the
consumable
materials
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
427
Week 9
Session Plan 9
 Prepare the required materials for determination of Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse
Aggregates
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse
Aggregates
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse
AggregatesPerform specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate test
 Determine the Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse Aggregates
2. Motivation

determination of Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse Aggregatesby providing the
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse

Aggregates
 Determining the Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse Aggregates
4. Equipment
 A testing machine for measuring coarse aggregate impact value.

 A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and minimum
thickness 6.3 mm.
 A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being cylindrical in
shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge
and case hardened.
428
 A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth 50 mm for
measuring aggregates.
 Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.
 A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to 0.1 g.

 Prepare the required aggregate for coarse aggregate impacxt value test
 Determining the coarse aggregate impact value
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
429
Lab 9
Aggregate Impact Value on Coarse Aggregates

Objective
The aggregate impact value test is done to test the compressive strength of aggregate when
sudden and immediate impact force acted on it. It is expressed in percentage (%). It should be
less for high impact bearing aggregate for pavement.
Significance and Use:
Aggregate impact value test gives an indication of aggregate's toughness property (i.e.
property of a material to resist impact). Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact
value shouldn't exceed 30 per cent. For bituminous macadam, the maximum permissible
value is 35 per cent
Relevant Theory
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement of
vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down
into smaller pieces. The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their
disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test. The
aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may
differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load.
Apparatus for Aggregate Impact Test
The apparatus for aggregate Impact value consists of:
(i) A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a painted lower
surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on level and plane concrete
floor of minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine should also have provisions for fixing
its base.
430
(ii) A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and minimum
thickness 6.3 mm.
(iii) A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being cylindrical in
shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge and
case hardened. The hammer should slide freely between vertical guides and be
concentric with the cup. Free fall of hammer should be within 380±5 mm.
(iv) A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth 50 mm for
measuring aggregates.
(v) Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.
(vi) A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to 0.1 g.
Procedure of Aggregate Impact Test
The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates may be dried by
heating at 100-110° C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.
(i) Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm sieves. The aggregates passing through
12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the test material.
(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.
(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the tamping
rod. (iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.
(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram (W).
(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the level plate,
block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the test sample
in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of aggregate sample
in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample. Give 15 such blows at an
interval of not less than one second between successive falls.
(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm sieves until no
further significant amount passes in one minute. Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to
an accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the fraction retained in the sieve. Compute the
aggregate impact value. The mean of two observations, rounded to nearest whole
number is reported as the Aggregate Impact Value.
431
Observations of Impact Test
Observations Sample 1 Sample 2
Total weight of dry sample (W1 gm)
Weight of portion passing 2.36 mm sieve (W2 gm)
Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 / W1 X 100
Mean =
Result of Impact Test
Aggregate Impact Value =
Recommended Aggregate Impact Test Values
Classification of aggregates using Aggregate Impact Value is as given below:
Aggregate Impact Value Classification
<20% Exceptionally Strong
10 – 20% Strong
20-30% Satisfactory for road surfacing
>35% Weak for road surfacing
Specified limits of percent aggregate impact value for different types of road construction by
Indian Roads Congress is given below.
Sl Aggregate impact value not more

Type of pavement
No than
432
1. Wearing Course
a) Bituminous surface dressing
b) Penetration macadam 30
c) Bituminous carpet concrete
d) Cement concrete
2. Bitumen bound macadam base course 35
WBM base course with bitumen

3. 40
surfacing
45
4 Cement concrete base course
Recommendation
433
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Aggregate
Impact Value on
Result Coarse
Evaluatio Aggregates test
n
Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
434
Week 10
Session Plan 10
 Prepare the required materials for determination of Aggregate Crushing value test
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of Aggregate Crushing value test
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of Aggregate Crushing value test
 Determine the Aggregate aggregate crush value
2. Motivation

determination of Aggregate Crushing value test by providing the testing procedures;
letting the students to do the laboratory works by themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to Aggregate Crushing value test

 Determining the Aggregate Crushing value test
4. Equipment
 ACV machine
 Plunger
 Cylinder
 Bass Plate
 Container
 Tray
 Balance
435

 Prepare the required aggregate for aggregate crush value test
 Determining the aggregate crush value
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
436
Lab 10
Aggregate Crushing value test
Objective:
The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. With aggregate of aggregate crushing
value 30 or higher, the result may be anomalous, and in such cases the ten percent fines value
should be determined instead.
Significance
The strength of coarse aggregates is assessed by aggregates crushing test. The aggregate
crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing low
aggregate crushing value should be preferred.
Relevant Theory:
The “aggregate crushing value” give a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
crushing under gradually applied compressive load. It’s the percentage by weight of the
crushed(finer) material obtained when the test aggregates are subjected to a specified load
under standardized conditions, and is a numerical index of the strength of the aggregate used
in road construction. Aggregates with lower crushing value indicate a lower crushed fraction
under load and would give a longer service life to the load and hence a more economical
performance. Weaker aggregates if used would get crushed under traffic loads, would
produce smaller pieces not coated with binder and these would be easily loosened out
resulting in loss of the surface. In short, the aggregates used in road construction must be
strong enough to withstand crushing under traffic.
437
Apparatus:
 ACV machine
 Plunger
 Cylinder
 Bass Plate
 Container
 Tray
 Balance
Sample: 14.0 sieves passing = 10.0 sieves retained = 2500 grams
Procedure:
 Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it.
 Put the sample in 3 layers, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using the
tamping rod. Care being taken in the case of weak materials not to break the
particles and weigh it. (W1)
 Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that it rests
horizontally on the surface. Care being taken to ensure that the plunger does
not jam in the cylinder.
 Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the compression
testing machine.
 Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40KN is applied in 10
minutes.
 Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.
 Sieve the material with 2.36mm sieve, care being taken to avoid loss of fines.
 Weigh the fraction passing through the sieve. (W2)
Calculation: After 2.36 mm sieves retained = 1990 gram.
W 1−W 2
ACV = × 100
W1
Result: Aggregate crushing value =
Result Analysis:
438
1. The value is higher when more percentage of aggregates crush and break into smaller
pieces which indicates the aggregates are of a lower quality.
2. Aggregate crushing value < 45% for aggregates used for concrete for non-wearing
surfaces and <25% for wearing surfaces like runways and roadways.
Discussion:
1. Sample can expel from the mound because the mound not closed. Mound can affect the
error measuring reading.
2. Heavy crushing mound and machine may not relevance to do the work outside the
laboratory.
3. The crushing machine is damage and can’t do the experiment.
439
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Aggregate
Crushing value
Result
test
Evaluatio
n Discussion
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
440
Week 11
Session Plan 11
 Prepare the required materials for determination of slump test

 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of slump test
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of slump test
 Determine theworkability of fresh concrete by slump test
2. Motivation

determination of workability by using slump test by providing the testing procedures;
letting the students to do the laboratory works by themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding toslump test

 Determining the Aggregate workability by using slump test
4. Equipment
 Slum cone
 Graduated cylinder
 Balance
 Vibrator
441
 Vee bee apparatus
 stop watch

 Prepare the required materials for performing slump test
 Determining workability
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
442
Lab 11
Slump cone test
Objective: To assess the workability of given concrete mix by slump test.
Significance
The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is
performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with
which concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.
Relevant Theory
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of
concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the
work. Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of
concrete during construction. The slump test is the most simple workability test for concrete,
involves low cost and provides immediate results. Due to this fact, it has been widely used for
workability tests since 1922. The slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in ASTM
C143 in the United States, IS: 1199 – 1959 in India and EN 12350-2 in Europe. Generally
concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement ratio, but
443
there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage,
admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value
Equipment and apparatus
 Slum cone
 Graduated cylinder
 Balance
 Vibrator
 Vee bee apparatus
 stop watch
Procedure:
1. Place the fresh concrete mix in the clean slump cone in four equal layers, tamping each
layer 25 times with the tamping rod in a uniform manner the cross section. For the 2 nd
and subsequent layers the rod should penetrate into the under lying layers during such
tamping.
2. Strike - off the top of concrete flush with the mould with a trowel so that it is exactly filled.
3. Remove the metallic cone by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction.
4. As soon as the concrete settlement stop measure the subsidence of concrete in mm. This
substance is slump.
TABLE 1
S. no Degree of Slump (mm) Situation
Workability
1 Very Low 0-25 Roads vibrated by power operated

444
machines. Concrete may be
compacted with hand
2 Low 25-50 Road vibrated by hand operated
machine For more workability mix
concrete may be manually
compacted in road using rounded
Or irregular shapes. Mass concrete
Foundations without vibration or
lightly Reinforced sections with
vibrations.
3 Medium 50-100 For less workable concrete’s,
manually Compacted flat slabs
using crushed Aggregate. Normal
reinforced concrete Manually
compacted and highly reinforced
Section with vibration.
4 High 100-175 For section with congested
reinforcement. Not normally
suitable for vibration.
Safety & Precautions:
 Use hand gloves, safety shoes & apron at the time of test.
 After test switch off the machine.
 Keep all the exposed metal parts greased.

445
 Keep the guide rods firmly fixed to the base & top plate.
 Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing.
Result and discussion
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Slump cone test
Result
Evaluatio Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
446
Week 12
Session Plan 12
determining the homogeneity, compressive stress and strength of concrete using PUNDIT
which can be operated using internal or external battery or A.C lines.
 Prepare the required materials for determination of the homogeneity, compressive

stress and strength of concrete using PUNDIT
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of the homogeneity, compressive
stress and strength of concrete using PUNDIT
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of the homogeneity, compressive
stress and strength of concrete using PUNDIT test
 Determine the the homogeneity, compressive stress and strength of concrete
2. Motivation

determination of the homogeneity, compressive stress and strength of concrete using
PUNDIT by providing the testing procedures; letting the students to do the laboratory
works by themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding toslump Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
 Determining the homogeneity, compressive stress and strength of concrete using
PUNDIT
447
4. Equipment
Apparatus
 PUNDIT,
 concrete specimen,
 grease oil

 Prepare the required materials for performing Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
 Determining homogeneity, compressive stress and strength of concrete using
PUNDIT
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
448
Lab 12
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
Objective
The objective of this experiment is determining the homogeneity, compressive stress and
strength of concrete using PUNDIT which can be operated using internal or external battery
or A.C lines.
Scope
PUNDIT can be used in the laboratory or on site to detect uniformity, cavities, cracks, freeze
thaw damage, delaminating, deterioration and strength of the sample. It is accepted to be the
Standard test method for ultrasonic pulse velocity testing in terms of accuracy and reliability.
Concrete, ceramics, timber and many other materials can be tested with this method without
any damage as it is a nondestructive test.
The underlying principle of this test is method consist of measuring the time of travel of
ultrasonic pulse passing through concrete. Comparatively higher velocity of ultrasonic pulses
demonstrates the better quality in terms of density, uniformity and homogeneity of concrete.
Relevant Theory
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test consists of measuring travel time, T of ultrasonic pulse of 50 to
54 kHz, produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, held in contact with one surface of the
concrete member under test and receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the
surface at the other end. With the path length L, (i.e. the distance between the two probes)
449
and time of travel T, the pulse velocity (V=L/T) is calculated. Higher the elastic modulus,
density and integrity of the concrete, higher is the pulse velocity. The ultrasonic pulse
velocity depends on the density and elastic properties of the material being tested.
Apparatus
 PUNDIT,
 concrete specimen,
 grease oil
Test Procedure
1. Before switching on the V meter the transducer should be connected to the socket marked
TRAN (transmitter)and REC (receiver)
2. Turn on the device by put the switch on MAINS sign if you are going to use AC line
otherwise by putting the switch on BATT to use internal battery of the device and CH sign
demonstrates charging on the device.
3. Select the necessary range: for max accuracy it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond
range be selected for path length up to 400mm.you can select the range from 0.1, 1 and 10
depend on the length of specimen.
4. A reference bar is provided to check the calibration of instrument. The pulse time for the
bar is engraved on its body (26.3).apply a smear of grease to the transducers faces before
placing it on the opposite ends of the bar to prevent existing air on the bar. Adjust the SET
REF control until the reference bar transit time is obtained (26.3) on the instrument read out.
This procedure (calibration) should be applied every time we switch off the device.
5. Find the center of each surface of the specimen that you are supposed to pass the pulse
through.
6. Measure the length of specimen.
7. Put receiver and transmitter perpendicular to the end surfaces of the concrete sample.
8. Having determined the most suitable test point on the material to be tested , make careful
measurement of the path length L . Read the time from the screen of the PUNDIT and do not
450
move the transducers until a reading is being taken as it can generate noise, signal and errors
in measurement. Once the consistent reading appears on the screen you can move the
transducers.
9. Record the time. It is the time in microsecond for the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance
of L. So the mean value of display reading should be taken when the units digit hunts
between two values. NOTE: in separation of transducers leads be aware of taking leads into
close contact to each other when the transit time measurement is being taken because the
receiver lead can pick up unwanted signal from transmitter lead which causes an error in
displaying the transit time.
10. By using velocity time equation find the velocity and from graph find the strength of the
concrete.
Calculations
X= V.t
Where
X: Length of the concrete specimen is based on either CM or MM so they have to be

converted to KM by multiplying them in either 10-5 or 10-7
t: Time read from PUNDIT screen is in MS so they also have to be converted to S by

multiplying them into 10-6
V: Pulse velocity should be calculated in KM/S
X
V=
t
Once we calculated pulse velocity we refer to the graph to find the strength of specimen.
On the graph two axis are provided which shows the pulse velocity on X axis and the strength
on Y axis. We already founds the V so we draw the vertical line from the point on X axis
once we reach the diagonal line from that point onward we draw a horizontal line to find
corresponding strength for that specific pulse velocity.
451
Typical strength –Velocity Correlation for concrete
452
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Ultrasonic pulse
Result velocity test
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
453
Week 13
Session Plan 13
 Prepare the required materials for determination of resistance to pressure of

manufactured concrete products.
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of resistance to pressure of
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of resistance to pressure of
 Determine the the resistance to pressure of manufactured concrete products.
2. Motivation

determination of resistance to pressure of manufactured concrete products by using
Schmidt hammer (mechanical concrete test hammer) test by providing the testing
procedures; letting the students to do the laboratory works by themselves
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to Schmidt hammer (mechanical

concrete test hammer) test
 Determining the resistance to pressure of manufactured concrete products.
4. Equipment
Apparatus
 Schmidt hammer,
 Concrete specimen ,
 Graph,
 Compression machine
454
 Prepare the required materials for performing Schmidt hammer test
 Determining the resistance to pressure of manufactured concrete products.
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
455
Lab 13
Schmidt hammer (mechanical concrete test hammer) test

Objective
The concrete test hammer is an instrument which is easy to use for quick and approximate
measurement of the resistance to pressure of manufactured concrete products.
Scope:
The principle on which Schmidt hammer works are based on the rebound impact of a
hammer on a piston which rest against the surface of the concrete specimen; the greater the
resistance of the concrete the greater the rebound impact the test hammer maybe used for
non-destructive control on cement during the normal of factories and bridges.
The test makes it possible to learn the strength of impact, which depends on the resistance of
cumulus in the absence of large inner lump or clusters of sand and gravel. From the force of
impact the resistance of cumulus surface can be deduced and eventually the resistance of
concrete.
Relevant Theory
A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer or concrete
hammer test, is a device to measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock,
mainly surface hardness and penetration resistance. It consists of a spring-controlled mass
that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The plunger is brought into contact with the
concrete's surface. This provides a spring-controlled mass with a constant potential energy to
hit the concrete surface. Principle: When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against
the surface of the concrete, the spring- controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such
rebound depends upon the surface hardness of concrete.
How do you carry out a Schmidt hammer test?
Image result
1) The rebound hammer is tested against the anvil made of steel having a Brinell hardness of
about 5000 N/mm2. 2) After the rebound hammer is calibrated for accuracy on the test anvil,
456
the rebound hammer is held at the right angle to the surface of the concrete structure for
taking the readings.
In performing the test, the hammer is held perpendicular to the surface of the concrete and
pressed against it until the hammer is released an strikes the surface of the concrete..
Compressive strength can be defined as the capacity of concrete to withstand loads before
failure. Of the many tests applied to the concrete, the compressive strength test is the most
important, as it gives an idea about the characteristics of the concrete.
The Silver Schmidt acquires the "Q"-value by measuring the velocity (V) of impact and of
rebound immediately before and after the impact. The "Q"-value need not be corrected for
impact direction. There is a clear relationship between the "Q" and the "R"-value.
The basic factors affecting the hammer rebound value are: test area treatment, concrete
composition, concrete humidity, hammer position, age of concrete, carbonation.
Apparatus:
 Schmidt hammer,
 Concrete specimen ,
 Graph,
 Compression machine
Test procedure:
 The test must be carried out on smooth and uniform surface so take care to remove
any materials such as paint or plaster covering the concrete.
 Fix the concrete specimen using pressing device.
 Gently push the piston inward by pressing it against the any surface the piston will
release itself from its catch and emerge from the body of the device which will then
be ready for testing.
 Press the piston against the surface of the concrete specimen to be tested, holding the
device perpendicularly to the surface. Gradually apply increasing pressure until the
mass impact in released.
 Keep the device firmly pressed against the specimen surface and look at the rebound
reading on the scale.
457
 Never use the Schmidt hammer on the top or the bottom of specimen where
aggregation of material is suspected.
 Low rebound number on testing specimen indicates the empty space (air) in material
and very high rebound number indicates a cumulus of material.
 Read the H value (hammer rebound ) value and considering the desirable number of
reading for each specimen is between 10 to 15 collect your data.
 Note: do not touch the side button whilst pressing on the piston. On removing the
device from the surface the piston once more emerges completely from the device
which is immediately ready for the second test.
 Note: if it is difficult to see the reading under abnormal circumstances, press the side
button only after the impact and remove the device in order to read the scale.by
pressing the button it will keep piston inside and unable us to read the hammer
rebound value easier. But in order to perform further test we need to perform
procedures which mentioned in paragraph 2.
Note: the spots you are testing on the specimen should be more than 1 cm away from each other to
avoid the effect of hitting on each spot on other spots.
458
Calculation:
1. The first step is validate our readings which can be done by calculating the average of our
rebound value and check with following table
H value 15 30 45
Discard reading +/- 2.5 3 3.5
459
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Schmidt hammer
Result test
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
460
Week 14 & 15
Session Plan 14
 Prepare the required materials for determination of Compressive strength of hardened

concrete
 Select appropriate apparatus for determination of Compressive strength of hardened

concrete
 Arrange the testing apparatus for determination of Compressive strength of hardened
concrete
 Determine the the Compressive strength of hardened concrete
2. Motivation

determination of Compressive strength of hardened concrete test by providing the
 Explaining the basic terminologies regarding to Compressive strength test of hardened

concrete
 Determining the Compressive strength of hardened concrete
4. Equipment
Apparatus
 Testing Machine
 Specimen mould
 tamping rod
 weighing device
 Tools and containers for mixing.
461

 Prepare the required materials for performing compressive strength test of hardened
concrete test
 Determining the compressive strength test of hardened concrete test
6. Assessments

7. Clean-up
462
Lab 14
.
Compressive strength test of concrete
Objective: To determine the compressive strength of given concrete mixes.
THEORY:
Concrete is very strong in compression. It is assumed that whole of the compression will be
taken up by the concrete while designing any RCC structure. The most important strength test
for concrete is the compression test.
APPARATUS:
 Testing Machine
 Specimen mould
 tamping rod
 weighing device
 Tools and containers for mixing.
PROCEDURE:
1. Sampling of Materials - Samples of aggregates for each batch of concrete shall be of the
desired grading and shall be in an air-dried condition. The cement samples on arrival at the
laboratory shall be thoroughly mixed dry either by hand or in a suitable mixer in such a
manner as to ensure the greatest possible blending and uniformity in the material.
2. Proportioning - The proportions of the materials, including water in concrete mixes used
for determining the suitability of the materials available, shall be similar in all respects to
those to be employed in the work.
3. Weighing - The quantities of cement, each size of aggregate, and water for each batch shall
be determined by weight to an accuracy of 0.1 percent of the total weight of the batch.
463
4. Mixing Concrete - The concrete shall be mixed by hand or preferably in a laboratory batch
mixer in such a manner as to avoid loss of water or other materials. Each batch of concrete
shall be of such a size as to leave about 10 percent excess after moulding the desired number
of test specimens.
5. Mould - Test specimens cubical in shape shall be 15 × 15 × 15 cm.
6. Compacting - The test specimens shall be made as soon as practicable after mixing and in
such a way as to produce full compaction of the concrete with neither segregation nor
excessive laitance.
6. Curing - The test specimens shall be stored in a place free from vibration in moist air of at
least 90 percent relative humidity and at a temperature of 27° ± 2°C for 24 hours ± ½ hour
from the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients.
7. Placing the Specimen in the Testing Machine - The bearing surfaces of the testing machine
shall be wiped clean and any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of the
specimen which are to be in contact with the compression platens.
8. In the case of cubes the specimen shall be placed in the machine in such a manner that the
load shall be applied to opposite sides of the cubes as cast that is not to the top and bottom.
9. The axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the center of thrust of the
spherically seated platen. No packing shall be used between the faces of the test specimen
and the steel platen of the testing machine.
10. The load shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of
approximately 140 kg/sq cm/min until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load
breaks down and no greater load can be sustained.
11. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall then be recorded and the appearance of
the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure shall be noted
OBSERVATION:
1) Mix proportion =………………………………..
2) Date of casting=………………………………….
464
3) Date of Testing=………………………………….
4) Age of concrete=………………………………….
5) Curing history=...........................................
( Crushingload )
Compressive stremgth=
Crosssectional area
Fig.: Universal Testing Machine
465
Evaluation sheet
Out of
5
Working
Principle
End result of
Compressive
Result strength test
Evaluatio
Discussion
n
Conclusion
Applications
Tool Setup
Usage and
Work
storage of the
Evaluatio
tools and
n
materials
Accuracy of
measurement
Time used
Time
(180 Min.)
Total /45
466
Technical and Vocational Training Instiyute (TVTI)
Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@etu.edu.et, Website: http://www.etu.edu.et

Final Edited Draft Text Book On Road Construction Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Final Edited Draft Text Book On Road Construction Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This textbook was developed by TVTI faculties through KOICA

project “PMC Service for Capacity Development for TVET

Road Construction Materials and

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Editor’s Name :- Aklilu Tefera (M.Sc. in Road and

Road Construction Technology Department

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Course title Road Construction Materials and Testing

Target group  3rd year Road Construction Technology

Reference Books 1. References:

Chapter 1. Classification of construction materials

1.1 Basic classification of construction materials

 Major properties used for the classification of construction materials

The important chemical properties are:

The chemical composition of any material can be determined by applying

To get necessary information regarding the structure of construction

Corrosion of metals is a gradual chemical reaction or electrochemical

Density is defined as the measure of an object's physical property in terms of

a. Crystallographic density—the density that can be measured from

b. Bulk density—the measured density of a material which includes

Specific heat of a material is the amount of heat required to increase the

Specific gravity is the proportion of the mass of a certain volume of a

Porosity is the ratio of the volume occupied by air to the volume of a

Refractoriness is the property of a material that has the capability to resist

Thermal conductivity is the capability of a material to transfer heat from the

Electrical conductivity is the capability of a material to conduct electricity.

9. Creep strengths and wear resistance.

 Compositions and Structures of Construction Materials and their influence on the

Since one of the most important considerations in the classification of construction

Almost all inorganic nonmetallic materials consist of different mineralogical

 Structures of Constructions of Materials

ii. Meso-structure and

A structure of materials that can be identified by the magnifying glass or with

ii. porous structure,

iii. micro-porous structure,

iv. fibrous structure,

v. laminated structure and

vi. granular structure and

o Laminated or Layered Structure

A material composed of the same material or different materials arranged in layers

It is very important to understand the influence of microstructures on the mechanical

ii. Ionic Crystal,

iv. Metal Crystal.

Non-crystalized structured materials are identified and categorized by their non-fixed

1.2 Nature and performance of materials under load

 Mechanical properties of construction materials

 Stress and Strain

i. Due to service conditions

ii. Due to the environment in which the element works

iii. Through contact with other members

iv. Due to fluid pressures

v. Due to graveness or indolence forces (Self-weight of the structure).

o The introductory description of stress

F= Force perpendicular to the cross-sectional srea

The unit of stress is expressed in Mega Pascal (106 N /m2)

Figure 1-1 Tensile,Compressive and Shear stress

 The Concept of Strain

If it is considered a unit force to stretch a rubber band of a given length by a given

Where ∆L = dimensional change in length

Lf = final length after the application of the load

∆L = dimensional change in length

L = original length of the specimen

 Determining material properties