LESSON NOTE FOR SS THREE-SECOND TERM

SCOPE:GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS/REQUIREMENT FOR WAEC/NECO,ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY,REPORT WRITING,FORMAL/INFORMAL

LETTERS,SPEECH WRITING,FORMAT OF ANSWERING QUESTIONS.

TECHNICAL NOTES USUALLY USED BY EXAMINERS FOR MARKING WAEC/NECO ENGLISH ESSAYS USING COEM
(WAEC SCHEME)

COEM means CONTENT + ORGANIZATION + EXPRESSION + MECHANICAL ACCURACY

Please take note of the instruction usually given by WAEC/NECO at the beginning of the essay section…

YOUR ANSWER SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 450 WORDS

CONTENT: 1. For each essay “content” has a maximum of 10 marks. 2. “Content” refers to relevance of ideas to the topic and
its specific audience and purpose. It also refers to the appropriateness of the language and relevance to the central theme and its
development. The adequacy of treatment of the subject matter is important and there must be some originality in approach. A
reproduction of knowledge from another subject like Biology or Economics not original to the writer will lead to reduction of
marks. Above all, any deliberate distortion of ideas will be penalized e.g. writing a letter to an editor instead of an article, will be
punished. Engaging in an irrelevant topic to the question set will lead to being awarded zero marks. Where the composition
appears to be totally irrelevant, the scripts will be referred to the Chief Examiner. Sometimes, many candidates hastily choose a
topic they do not understand. Consequently, the topic is frequently misinterpreted, distorted or abandoned half way for lack of
acceptable material e.g. a candidate who was asked to write on an incident but who wrote on an accident will lose marks for
irrelevancy if the question has no relevance to an accident. 3. Following the rules of grammar and punctuation judiciously is not
sufficient, a passage without errors of language can be considered badly phrased or difficult to follow based on form and
content. 4. An unusual and unexpected approach will however, not be rejected without careful consideration.

ORGANIZATION: 5.For each essay, “organization” has a maximum of 10 marks. 6. “Organization” refers to the correct use of
formal features such as good paragraphing, appropriate use of emphasis and arrangement of ideas. Paragraphs are expected to
be chronologically, spatially and logically coherent. 7.What examiners look for include a suitable opening, adequate development
into paragraphs, links between paragraph, balance, unity, coherence, and a suitable conclusion. For example, in a letter, all
features must be present. Absence of necessary feature or wrong use will be penalized. Paragraphs are expected to be effectively
linked for a good score. The usual problem here is inadequate preparation. Many answers lack paragraph development, or
logical slanting. Again, single-sentence paragraphs are usually common. At the extreme, some essays have one or two
paragraphs.

EXPRESSION: 8.For each essay, “expression” has a maximum of 20 marks. 9. Expression refers to vocabulary chosen, which
should reflect the general audience, atmosphere or format of composition, e.g. vocabulary for an informal letter. Vocabulary
must also be controlled and the sentences structured. 10.An example of the distinction being made about vocabulary is the
language expectations for an article in a school magazine, which should be a story telling experience, or for expressing a personal
opinion. On the other hand, the language in an article for publication is expected to be formal. 11. Sentences of informal letters
can be long, while those for formal ones short. But incomplete sentences will be penalized. There is also room for emotional
language in an informal letter. A judicious and imaginative use of figurative language is also allowed. Descriptive words to
create a vivid picture of an incident are also allowed. 12. Examiners are not expected to be unduly influenced by mechanical
errors in awarding marks for expressions but this is perhaps the greatest problem to students, many candidates suffer from a
severely restricted vocabulary and inadequate exposure to idiomatic English. Many sentences are translations of the mother
tongue, resulting in many un- English collocations. The real cause of the problem is the neglect of extensive reading.

MECHANICAL ACCURACY: 13.For each essay, “mechanical accuracy” has a maximum of 10marks 14.Mechanical accuracy
refers to grammar, punctuation and spelling (GPS) rules to be complied with. Errors discovered will be penalized by examiners,
and 1/2 mark deducted for each, up to a maximum of 10 marks. 15. Candidates are expected to use skillful and sophisticated
ways of punctuations and should avoid being “caught” by examiners especially on errors indicated by WAEC in its yearly Chief
Examiners’ Reports.

ADDITIONAL TECHNICAL NOTES FOR MARKING ESSAY / COMPOSITIONS: 16.Examiners will mark on the principle
of positive marking i.e. credit will be awarded for what is done right, and penalty will be given for errors and blemishes.
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Penalties are not in all cases numerical deductions, but the award of a mark lesser than would have been awarded if there were
no blemishes. 17.Once the examiner determines the length of about 450 words, he or she will rule the point. No errors are to
count for mechanical accuracy after this point but will be underlined if found and taken into account in giving the mark for
“expression”. 18.When a composition is short or below its required length the maximum mark for M.A shall be proportionately
reduced. This will be done before the examiner awards the overall mark for M.A. While there is no penalty against a long
composition, generally, the length may count for either a reward or a penalty under CONTENT, ORGANIZATION and
EXPRESSION. 19.If a candidate attempts more than one essay question, only the first one answered will be marked. No penalty
shall be given for others. 20.If a candidate writes on a topic that is irrelevant to the question set, zero shall be awarded for
content and organization, and not more than 8 marks out of 20 for expression. The mechanical accuracy bit of it will be treated
as stated above. The merit of a piece of writing should be judged in terms of the writer's success in achieving the purpose, be it to
entertain , instruct, inform, admonish or persuade. The judgment will be based, in varying degrees, on factors such as: (1) Adequacy of
treatment of subject matter (2) Originality of approach (3) Appropriateness of language (4) Clarity of exposition or narration or
argument, etc. (5) Balance (6) Mechanical Accuracy.

The qualities mentioned above have been grouped into a number of well-defined aspects with a maximum mark for each aspect.
These aspects are: (1) Content (2) Organization (3) Expression (4) Mechanical Accuracy.

(1)Content: The ideas presented must be relevant to the central theme. (2) Organization: The writing must be judged as whatever it is
intended to be: an article, a speech, a letter, an argument, a debate, etc. The qualities to look for are a suitable opening, adequate
development, good paragraphing, balance, coherence and a suitable conclusion. (3)Expression: The positive qualities to be looked for
under Expression include the following: (a) clarity and general appropriateness of style (b) variation of sentence structure and type (c)
judicious use of figurative language (d) skilful and sophisticated use of punctuation. (4) Mechanical Accuracy: The main categories of
error which the examiner may indicate with rings are: (a) undeniable errors in grammar (b) punctuation errors (c) spelling errors Half a
mark (1/2) should be deducted for each ringed error up to the maximum allowed for this aspect, i.e., 10 marks. The examiner, before
imposing a ring, must be sure that the error is in grammar or spelling or punctuation. Otherwise, the error must be underlined and
penalized under Expression. (a) Errors in Grammar: The omission of an essential sentence element (e.g. subject, predicator,
complement);Wrong tense; Misuse of modal operators (may/might, can/could etc.), Misuse or omission of the article; Confusion or
ambiguity in the use of pronouns; Misuse of countable and uncountable nouns; Wrong prepositions; Misuse of relatives, subordinators
and conjunctions; Errors in concord; Misrelated participles; Intransitive verb for the transitive and vice versa; Active for passive, and
vice versa; Errors in comparative constructions. THIS LIST IS NOT EXHAUSTIVE. Its purpose is merely to indicate the types of undeniable
grammatical errors to be penalized under this heading. (b) Punctuation Errors: The following errors should be ringed: (i) Each full stop,
question mark or exclamation mark omitted or wrongly used; the misuse or omission of quotation marks (errors at the beginning
and/or end of a quotation are to count as one error only). Both single and double quotation marks are accepted, but consistency is to
be demanded. (ii) The insertion of a comma between subject and verb, subject and object, verb and complement, in simple structures
only, i.e., where no phrases or clauses intervene. Where clauses or phrases intervene, the omission should be underlined and
penalized under Expression. The insertion of a comma between adjective and noun, or verb and adverb; the omission of a comma used
to separate items in a list of words, phrases or clauses (iii) The use of a small letter for the personal pronoun 'I'; the use of a small letter
at the beginning of a proper noun or a sentence. Where a proper noun consists of more than one element, each of which is expected
to begin with a capital letter e.g. Central Bank of Nigeria, there should be only one penalty for the group. Punctuation errors in the
formal feature areas of a letter must be penalized. (iv) Abbreviations (a) Initial letters: in conformity with modern practice, initials with
or without the full stop should be accepted, e.g. O.A.U. or OAU, W.A.E.C. or WAEC. (b) First and last letters: both forms should be
accepted, e.g. Dr. and Dr. Mrs. and Mrs. Ltd. and Ltd

When you answer comprehension questions: 1. Repeat the question in the answer (not word for word, but enough so that
someone reading the answer can know the question). 2. Find details from the story or text to support your answer. Don’t
just give your opinion, state the facts! 3. Connect all the dots! Example: How is wind dangerous in a hurricane? Wind is
dangerous in a hurricane because it can get up to really high speeds which can send debris flying through the air which
could injure or kill people. 4. You need complete sentences (does the sentence sound right?); you need a capital letter at the
beginning and a period at the end. 5. The answer needs to make sense – it has to answer the question and it has to be a
logical sentence. 6. Read the question carefully and make sure you answer ALL parts of the question. 7. Avoid words like: it,
that, this, stuff, thing, like, she, he, them, they. Example: She was scared that they were going to take it. Katie was scared
that the rebels were going to take the trunk she was hiding in. Take your time, reread the text when necessary, and
reread your answer to make sure that you have answered the question and done your best work.

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WHEN ANSWERING SUMMARY QUESTION: The summary question alone stands for 30% of your grade in Paper 2. Therefore it
is not much of a stretch to claim that being able to answer summary questions well will give you a huge advantage in your
Comprehension paper. Fortunately, the skills required for summary are not difficult to master. While the process may seem a little
laborious at first glance, the more you practice them the easier it gets. Eventually you’ll be able to complete them almost instinctively.

RULES OR STEPS: Reading the Question(s) - There are 2 very important things you MUST take note of before you begin writing
your summary. Identify EXACTLY what the question wants. Take note of the paragraphs from which you are tasked to identify your
points from. The first requires you to take note of key terms and understand question words. (For more information on question words,
check out The second requires no more than a couple of seconds to check but is often the most common careless mistake that students
make. It may seem implausible for one to miss such an obvious instruction but it has happened too many times for you to brush it off. So
double check the paragraphs you are allowed to get your points from. Identify the relevant answers from the passage - When
identifying answers from comprehension passages there are a few rules we normally follow: Only select key ideas. Leave out examples.
Leave out adjectives and adverbs: That is true for most questions unless they specifically ask you for examples. Underline - (or
highlight if you are allowed to) the points from the relevant paragraphs and write a quick word or two - (noting) in the margin about
each point so that you will take less time sorting them out later. Sort - your answers in the sequence you would present them (or as
required by the question). Group - any answers that are similar or belong to the same category in order to reduce the number of words
used. For example: He returned home to shower and had a sandwich after that. But it wasn’t until he finished his homework that he
realized he left his basketball in school. The three bolded points all have one thing in common: they are all things he did before he
realized he left his basketball in school. You can group them into one sentence when summarizing them: He bathed, ate, and
completed his assignments before realising he left his basketball in school. !Tip: While you are only required to identify 8 points,
identify 10 points instead. This leaves room for errors and there will be a higher probability of getting the right answers. Scoring the
goal 8 out of 10 times is easier than 8 out of 8 times. Identify the key words in the answer - While your language grade in the
summary is determined by your choice of vocabulary and grammar, the content grade is determined by the number of key words you
managed to identify. On top of that, the key words are the words that you cannot lift directly from the passage (unless it is a technical
jargon like photosynthesis or cold fusion). It is therefore crucial that you identify the key words before you start writing your summary.
Once you’ve had enough practice, you can actually complete this step together with Step 1. However, it is not recommended that you
attempt to do so right from the start without practice. Change the key words - When answering the summary question it is
recommended that you use your own words as much as possible. But it is impossible to change everything. The key words and phrases,
however, have to be changed. For example: Q: What did Sally do at night? Passage: “Sally ate a cake before she went to bed.” The
word ‘cake’ and ‘Sally’ are almost impossible to change. In most cases, proper nouns (Sally) do not have to be changed. Common nouns
(cake) may be changed but most of the time this isn’t necessary. !Important Note: DO NOT force yourself to change common nouns.
Unless there happens to be another alternative name, attempts to change common nouns usually end up fairly ridiculous. (Someone once
changed ‘bird’ to ‘flying mammal’. You DO NOT want to do that.) The question asks for what Sally did at night, therefore the key
words we are looking for are most likely verbs (action words). In this case, they are ‘ate’ and ‘went to bed’. You should try your best to
change these words. Sally retired to bed/went to sleep/slept after consuming a cake. !Tip: Try to rephrase each point you’ve
identified under 6 words. This will make it easier for you when combining the points together. Writing your answer - You have
identified the answers, collated and categorized them, and changed the key words. Now all you have to do is to write everything
down. The grid method - This is something that most students are taught in schools today. While it makes for some rather awkward
marking, it is common enough for teachers to accept seeing it. What you do is basically draw grids on your paper to make counting the
number of words used a breeze. Writing in the grid would look something like this: Draw an 8 by 10 table on your paper and simply
multiply the rows by columns to obtain your word count. It also means you can easily check your word quota while you are
writing. BONUS Step: Check your writing for mistakes - This is a step many forget or simply do not have time to go through. Once
you have familiarised yourself with the various steps for summary it should speed up your process and leave you enough time to look
through your final answer at least once.

How to Write a Debate Speech

Part 1 -Preparing for the Debate Speech

Understand how debates work. You will be given a debate topic – this is called a “resolution." Your team must take a stance either
affirmative or negative to the resolution. Sometimes you will be given the stance, and sometimes you will be asked to take a position.
1. You may be asked to be the first speaker pro the resolution or the first con speaker. Often such speeches are about four minutes
long each. 2. The speakers then present arguments against the earlier pro or con speech that was just read. Speakers must listen
carefully and be able to counter arguments. There are often segments involving crossfire, in which the debaters are allowed to ask
questions and openly debate the topic. 3. Sometimes there is a second pro and second con speech to summarize the points made and
end the debate round. Research the topic very thoroughly with credible information 1. Because you will be asked to counter the
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arguments of the other side, in addition to giving a speech of your own, you must spend time thoroughly understanding all aspects of
the resolution. 2. Brainstorm the topic, and research it before you sit down to write. Write out a pro and con list. If you are on a debate
team, do this together. Each member could discuss the pro and con lists, and then strike the weaker reasons until you are left with
three or four reasons that seem strongest in support or opposition. 3. Spend some time at the library or on the Internet using credible
sources to research the key reasons that seem strongest. Use books, scholarly journals, credible newspapers, and the like. Be very
cautious about unverified information bandied about on the Internet. 4. You will also want to deal with the strongest arguments on
the other side in your speech. Ignoring the other side’s best arguments can weaken your rhetorical appeal. Write an outline of your
speech- 1. If you create a basic outline of the speech, your writing organization will probably be better when you actually sit down to
write the speech in full. It’s a good idea to memorize the ultimate speech or just rely on the outline as notes when giving it. 2. A basic
debate outline should contain four parts: An introduction, your thesis argument, your key points to back your stance up, and a
conclusion. Be prepared to define any key words for the judges. 3. You can break each of those four part into subcategories. It’s often a
good idea to write the introduction and conclusion last, focusing on the thesis argument and the evidence to back it up first.

Part 2

Writing the Debate Speech

Write an introduction that is catchy and interesting. - You want to introduce your topic very clearly and concisely right at the
beginning of the debate speech. However, you should open with a colorful flourish that foreshadows the topic. You should address the
jury or audience with formal salutations. For example, you could say something like, “Good morning, ladies and gentlemen.” Debates
are very formal in tone. Making a good first impression with the judges is very important. This leads judges to assume the debater is
persuasive. One technique to write a strong introduction is to contextualize the topic, especially in relation to real world events.
Introductions can also focus on prominent examples, quotations, or on a personal anecdote that can help establish a rapport with the
audience and judges. Be careful using humor; it involves risks and can lead to awkward silences if not done right. Find a relevant
specific that illustrates the underlying point. Outline where you stand very clearly.- The audience and judges should not have to puzzle
over where you stand on the topic. Are you affirmative or negative to the resolution? Say - clearly and concisely and firmly. Up high.
Don’t muddle your position. It needs to be extremely clear whether you affirm or negate the resolution, so don’t hem and haw and
contradict yourself. The audience also should not have to wait until the end to find out. Make your stance very clear, and do it early on.
For example, you could say, “my partner and I firmly negate (or affirm) the resolution which states that unilateral military force by the
United States is justified to prevent nuclear proliferation.” Make key points to back up your stance.- You want to highlight your key
points very strongly early on in the speech. You could provide rapid-fire examples, basically piling up the evidence to support your
stance. A good rule of thumb is to back up your position with 3-4 strong points of supporting argumentation. You definitely need to
have more than 1 or 2 key points to back up the stance you have taken. The body of the speech – the key points and their
development – should be, by far, the longest part of the debate speech (perhaps 3 ½ minutes to 30 seconds for an opening and for a
conclusion, depending on the rules of the debate you are doing). Develop your key points - You want to back up the key arguments
you are using to justify your position. Back every single one of your key points up with examples, statistics and other pieces of
evidence. Flesh them out. Focus on the causes of the problem, the effects of the problem, expert opinion, examples, statistics, and
present a solution. Try to use visual images, not just generic terms – show don’t tell, and illustrate a point with details. Appeal to the
motives and emotions of the listener with a light touch. Appeal to their sense of fair play, desire to save, to be helpful, to care about
community, etc. Ground examples in how people are affected. Try using rhetorical questions, which make your opponents consider the
validity of their point; irony, which undermines their point and makes you seem more mature and intelligent; simile, which gives them
something to relate to; humor, which gets the audience on your side when done well; and repetition, which reinforces your point.
Understand the art of persuasion.- Ancient philosophers studied the art of persuasion, and understanding their techniques will help
your debate speech. Aristotle believed that speakers were more persuasive if they combined elements of logos (persuasion by
reasoning) with pathos (having an element of emotional appeal) and ethos (an appeal based on the character of the speaker) - for
example, that they seem intelligent or of good will. There are two ways to use logic – inductive (which makes the case with measurable
evidence like statistics or a specific anecdote or example) and deductive (which makes the case by outlining a general principle that is
related to the specific topic to infer a conclusion from it - as in, I oppose all wars except those involving imminent self defense; thus, I

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must oppose this one because it's a war that was not in imminent self defense, and here's why). Or the reverse. You should use pathos
sparingly. Emotional appeal on its own can be dangerous. Logos - the appeal to reason - should be at the core. However, logical appeal
without any pathos at all can render a speech dry and dull. Consider what you are trying to make your audience feel. Explaining how a
topic affects real people is one way to use pathos well.

Part 3

Concluding the Debate Speech

Write a strong conclusion. At the end, you should reiterate your overall stance on the topic to reinforce your position. It’s a good
idea to conclude with your intention to do something and with a strong appeal for action as well. One strong way to conclude a
debate speech is to bookend the conclusion with the opening, by referring back to the introduction and tying the conclusion into
the same theme. Quotations can be a good way to end a speech. You can also end with a brief summation of the key arguments of
the speech to ensure they remain fresh in judges’ minds. Work on your delivery from beginning to end. An advanced speaker
carefully hones his or her delivery. The speaker understands the power of carefully timed rhetorical pauses and pays careful
attention to the desired tone (firm, moderate, etc.) You don’t want to read a debate speech verbatim. Although you want to
memorize the speech, and may use notes or your outline when giving it, it needs to sound natural and not too rehearsed. The key
to giving a good debate speech is research. You will need to think on your feet to counter opposing arguments. Use a clear, loud
voice, and be careful to watch pacing. You don’t want to speak too loud or too slowly. Remember that confidence goes a long
way toward persuasion.

Tips - When presenting it, do so with confidence, but speak naturally. Speak as if to a peer, so the audience can feel they can
relate to you. -Don't look down at your notes for the whole time. Make sure you maintain eye contact with the audience. -Don't
use all your points in your debate- in an actual debate, it is sometimes useful to have other information to cite if the argument
starts going their way -Never degrade your topic. -To come up with points when you're stuck, set aside around 2 minutes of
preparation time to silently find and write down as many reasons as possible why you oppose or support a resolution. Then, take
all the reasons and organize them into coherent points. -Never add new points in your speech because you still have time, as you
might not present it in the best way. When you are nervous, you might even say an argument in favor of the other side and you
don't want that.

Warnings

 Remember, just because you can write a debate speech, it doesn't mean you can say a debate speech effectively. Practice!

FORMAL/INFORMAL LETTERS:

Definition of Formal Letters

A formal letter is any letter written in the professional language, with a prescribed format for a formal purpose, i.e. it can be a
recommendation letter, enquiry letter, complaint letter, cover letter and so on. All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not
possible. Such letters are used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, reference, making a complaint or inquiry,
applying for a job. While writing a formal letter one should keep in mind the following things:

 It should be in specified format.

 It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
 It should be straight to the point.
 It should be relevant and objective.
 It should be complex and thorough.
 It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
 It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.

There are three types of formal letters, i.e. business letters, letters for outlining civic problems and job applications.

Definition of Informal Letters

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An informal letter is a letter written to someone; we know fairly well. The letter can be used for some reasons like conveying message,
news, giving advice, congratulate recipient, request information, asking questions, etc. It is a personal letter, written to whom you are
familiar with, like friends, siblings, parents or any other closed one. There is no specific format prescribed for writing this letter.

While writing an informal letter, one can afford to be friendly, and make use personal or emotional tone. Slang or colloquial terms,
codes, abbreviations, etc. can also be used at the time of writing it, depending on the familiarity with the recipient.

Key Differences Between Formal and Informal Letter

The significant points of difference between formal and informal letters are discussed as under:

1. A formal letter is one, written in formal language, in the stipulated format, for official purpose. A letter is said to be informal
when it is written in a friendly manner, to someone you are familiar with.
2. Formal letters are written for official or professional communication. On the other hand, informal letters are used for casual or
personal communication.
3. There is a manner prescribed for writing formal letters. As opposed to informal communication, which does not follow any
format.
4. Formal letters are usually written in the third person, however, for business letters, first person is used. On the contrary,
informal letters are written in first, second and third person.
5. Formal letters are used for writing letters to business, i.e. partners, suppliers, customers, clients, etc. , college or institute,
employer, professionals, etc. As against this, we use informal letters for writing letters to friends, relatives, acquaintance, etc.
6. While writing formal letters, we use passive voice. Conversely, an active and imperative voice is used.
7. The sentences we use at the time of writing a formal letter are, long and complex. Unlike an informal letter, where we use short
and simple sentences which are easy to interpret.
8. The size of a formal letter should be concise; that does not include irrelevant matter. In contrast, the informal letter can be
concise or large.
9. Formal letters do not include contraction like (didn’t, can’t) and abbreviations rather it uses full forms. As compared to informal
letters, which makes use of contraction, abbreviation, idioms, phrasal verbs and even slang and colloquial terms.

Expository Essays

What is an expository essay?

The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate evidence, expound on the idea, and set
forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast,
definition, example, the analysis of cause and effect, etc.

Please note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation and is often found in various exam formats.

The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following.

 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does
not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

 Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to
follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse.

 Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

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Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay.
What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body
of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.

 Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation; therefore, such essays do not typically allow
for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence.

 A bit of creativity!

Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the
formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of writing something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the
next great novel, you are attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay.

 A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most
immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into
the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the essay.

A complete argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of the Great
Depression and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the
conversation. In fact, if I were to end the exposition in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current
effects on those who lived through the Depression. Therefore, the expository essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt
as to its intent or argument.

The five-paragraph Essay

A common method for writing an expository essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for
writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of:

1. an introductory paragraph
2. three evidentiary body paragraphs
3. a conclusion

How to Write a Report

What is a Report?

In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, but reports are
more likely to be needed for business, scientific and technical subjects, and in the workplace.

Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report concentrates on facts.

Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose and audience. It generally sets
outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and
well-structured.

Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between organisation and departments and in study between courses,
from tutor to tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.

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Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

 A description of a sequence of events or a situation;

 Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely your own analysis or informed by the views
of others, always carefully referenced of course (see our page on Academic Referencing for more information);
 An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
 Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;
 Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
 Conclusions.

Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.

If you’re writing a report in the workplace, check whether there are any standard guidelines or structure that you need to use.

For example, in the UK many government departments have outline structures for reports to ministers that must be followed exactly.

Sections and Numbering

A report is designed to lead people through the information in a structured way, but also to enable them to find the information that they
want quickly and easily.

Reports usually, therefore, have numbered sections and subsections, and a clear and full contents page listing each heading. It follows
that page numbering is important.

Modern word processors have features to add tables of contents (ToC) and page numbers as well as styled headings; you should take
advantage of these as they update automatically as you edit your report, moving, adding or deleting sections.

Report Writing

Getting Started: prior preparation and planning

The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking to a course of action and/or decision. It’s worth
taking a bit of time to plan it out beforehand.

Step 1: Know your brief

You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are studying and for whom the report should be prepared.

First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who the report is for (if you're a student then not just your
tutor, but who it is supposed to be written for), and why you are writing it, as well as what you want the reader to do at the end of
reading: make a decision or agree a recommendation, perhaps.

Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times

During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind: who are you writing for, and why are you writing?

All your thinking needs to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless in your reading and thinking. Anything irrelevant
should be discarded.

As you read and research, try to organise your work into sections by theme, a bit like writing a Literature Review.

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Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work. Although referencing is perhaps less important in the
workplace, it’s also important that you can substantiate any assertions that you make so it’s helpful to keep track of your sources of
information.

The Structure of a Report

Like the precise content, requirements for structure vary, so do check what’s set out in any guidance.

However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive summary, introduction, the main body of your
report, and a section containing your conclusions and any recommendations.

Executive Summary

The executive summary or abstract, for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the contents. It’s worth writing this last, when you
know the key points to draw out. It should be no more than half a page to a page in length.

Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick summary of the contents of the report.

Introduction

The introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the problem under discussion. It should also touch
briefly on your conclusions.

Report Main Body

The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the reader through the issue.

You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or areas for consideration. For each theme, you should
aim to set out clearly and concisely the main issue under discussion and any areas of difficulty or disagreement. It may also include
experimental results. All the information that you present should be related back to the brief and the precise subject under discussion.

If it’s not relevant, leave it out.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including any experimental results. It may include
recommendations, or these may be included in a separate section.

Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and should be specific, achievable and measurable. If your
recommendations have financial implications, you should set these out clearly, with estimated costs if possible.

A Word on Writing Style

When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should be easy to read and understand, even to someone
with little knowledge of the subject area.

You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter words rather than longer, with short sentences.

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You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you should explain each word as you use it. If you find that
you’ve had to explain more than about five words, you’re probably using too much jargon, and need to replace some of it with simpler
words.

Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person, check whether you should be writing it to ‘you’
or perhaps in the third person to a job role: ‘The Chief Executive may like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is recommended to agree…’,
for example.

A Final Warning

As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit from being read over again and edited ruthlessly for
sense and style.

Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is relevant. Also remember to check tenses, which person
you have written in, grammar and spelling. It’s also worth one last check against any requirements on structure.

For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly. As always, check that you have not inadvertently
or deliberately plagiarised or copied anything without acknowledging it.

Finally, ask yourself:

“Does my report fulfil its purpose?”

Only if the answer is a resounding ‘yes’ should you send it off to its intended recipient.

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