SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK

1. Ethical, legal and social issues;

i. Chemical waste
ii. Industrial pollutants.
iii. Roles of governments in preventing chemical degradation-legislation,
setting of minimum standard, enforcement of standard.
2. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
i. Acid/base titrations (neutralization) continued.
ii. Redox titrations involving KMnO4, Cr2O4, I2, KI,S2O3-2.
iii. Test for oxidants and reductants.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
iv. Identification of ions (Fe2+, Cr2O4, I2NH4+, Fe3+, Cu2+,Pb2+ e.t.c.).
Chloride, bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates.
v. Test for hydrogen, NH3, HCl, NO2, oxygen,CO2, Cl2 (bleaching
action).
4-13 Revisions.

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 ETHICAL, LEGAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES
Adverse effects of chemical waste on the environment:
Industrial plants have created serious problems that affect our environment
chemical wastes are produced as a result of industrial processes these industrial
waste are the main cause of environmental problems, such as air, water and soil
pollution.
Pollution introduces harmful chemicals into the environment and causes
environmental degradation.
Environmental degradation occurs when the natural environmental degradation
include photochemical smog, acid rain, global warming and the depletion of the
ozone layer.
Common Pollutants of the Air
Air Pollution occurs when air has chemicals in high enough concentrations to
harm living things or to damage non-living things.
The emissions from chemical plants and factories, together with the emissions
from motor vehicles, are the main sources of air pollution. These substances that
pollute the air are called air pollutants.

Class of air pollutants Typical members of the class

Particulates (solid particles suspended in the Particles of dust, carbon, smoke, soot,
air) asbestos, metallic particles (eg lead).

Oxides of carbon Carbon monoxide; co.

Oxides of sulphur Sulphur (iv) oxide, so2
sulphur (vi) oxide, SO3
Oxides of nitrogen Nitrogen (ii) oxide, NO

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 Nitrogen (iv) oxide, NO2
Hydrocarbons Methane (CH4), octane (C8H18)

Carbon (ii) oxide (CO)

Carbon (ii) oxide is a colourless, odourless, and poisonous gas. It is produced by
the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. Most of the carbon
monoxide that pollutes the air comes from the incomplete combustion of petrol in
car engines and the incomplete combustion of coal in chemical plants.
Sulphur (iv) oxide (SO2)
The major source of sulphur dioxide is the combustion of fossil fuel. These are
fuels that have been formed from the remains of living things. Coal, crude oil
(petroleum) and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.
Coal and crude oil contain sulphur when burnt, sulphur is converted to sulphur
dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) heat SO2(g)
Sulphur dioxide is also produced in large quantities during volcanic eruptions.
Oxides of Nitrogen
The major sources of oxides of nitrogen in the air are car exhaust fumes and
chemical plants. Nitrogen gas is normally unreactive. However, in car engines and
the furnaces of power stations where the temperature is very high, nitrogen
combines with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen monoxide. In the presence of air
(oxygen) nitrogen monoxide is further converted to nitrogen dioxide.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Oxides of nitrogen are also produced in the atmosphere during thunderstorms. The
heat energy released by lighting causes nitrogen and oxygen to react to form NO
and NO2. These oxides dissolve in water to form acid rain.

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 Hydrocarbons
Coal and crude oil contain hydrocarbons. During the incomplete combustion of
these fuels, unburnt hydrocarbons are released into the atmosphere.
Methane is produced from bacterial decay of plant matters tapped in low-lying
wetlands (marsh) and stagnant water and also produced from decaying animal
excrement and from rubbish buried in land fill.
In strong sunlight, methane and other unburnt hydrocarbons can react with
nitrogen (iv) oxide from car exhaust to form photochemical smog.
LEAD
A lead compound called tetraethyl lead (C 2H5)4Pb, is usually added in small
quantities to petrol to make car engines run smoothly. During combustion, lead
particles (in form of volatile lead compounds) are released into the air through the
exhaust system.
The ash from the combustion of coal in power stations also contains significant
amounts of lead.

EFFGETS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution affects humans (and other animals) in a number of ways. The
pollutants of air can kill plants and aquatic life, and cause serious health problems.
Sulphur (iv) oxide (SO2): Is a poisonous, pungent gas. It irritates the eyes and
attacks the lungs, causing breathing difficulties. High levels of sulphur dioxide can
lead to bronchitis (inflammation of the lungs).
Oxides of Nitrogen causes the same sort of harm as sulphur (iv) oxide.
Carbon (ii) oxide (CO): CO reacts readily with haemoglobin is the blood to form
a stable compound called carboxyhaemoglobin. This compound prevents the blood

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from transporting oxygen around the body. A concentration of 1% carbon
monoxide can kill by paralyzing normal human brain activity.
Lead and lead compounds are highly toxic when consumed or inhaled. Lead
accumulates in the body and can cause damage to the brain, liver, kidneys and the
central nervous system. Symptoms of lead poisoning include loss of appetite,
vomiting and convulsions.
Some our pollutants, such as cigarette smoke, hydrocarbons and particulate matters
(especially asbestos) can cause lung cancer.

Reducing Air Pollution

1. Catalytic Converters:
To reduce air pollution caused by car exhaust fumes, most cars now
manufactured with catalytic converters. The catalytic converter is attached to the
exhaust system of a car. It contains the catalysts platinum and rhodium.
When hot exhaust gases pass over the catalysts, redox reactions occur. The
harmful pollutants are converted to harmless substances for example, carbon
monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen are reduced to
nitrogen, and important hydrocarbons and oxidized to carbon dioxide and water.
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) N2(g) + 2 CO2(g),
Nitrogen monoxide + carbon monoxide nitrogen + carbon dioxide
Oxide oxide

2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) +18H20(g)

Octane

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 In the long run, the best way to control air pollution is to burn less fossil
fuels, future control measures may include the use hydrogen, and the development
of electric powered motor vehicles.
B. Desulphurisation: These are two ways of minimizing the effects of sulphur
dioxide pollution.
However, this is too expensive and technologically difficult to accomplish.
A cheaper way is to remove sulphur dioxide from the waste gases formed in
chemical plants when fossil fuels undergo combustion. The waste gases are
called flue gases. The process of removing sulphur dioxide from flue gases is
called desulphurization.
Desulphurization can be done in Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD)
plant. As sulphur dioxide passes through the plant, it reacts with an aqueous
suspension of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) to form solid calcium trioxosulphate
(iv).
CaCO3(aq) + SO2(g) CaSO3(1) +co2(g)
Calcium trioxosulphate (iv) is further oxidized to calcium
tetraoxosulphate (vi) by atmospheric oxygen.
2 CaCO3(g) + O2(g) 2CaSO4(s)
Besides calcium carbonate (iv), calcium oxide can also be used for
desulphurization.
CaCO3(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(g).

Water Pollution
Industrialization causes water pollution when industrial waste from chemical plants
and factories are discharged into rivers. These industrial pollutants include acids,
alkalis and compounds of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury. Other

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sources of water pollution include untreated (or raw) sewage, fertilizers,
detergents, oils, pesticides and litter.
Water pollution kills aquatic organisms and makes the water unfit for human
consumption. Therefore, it is important to ensure the proper disposal of industrial
wastes and sewage. It is also important that the water we drink is treated or
purified first to make it safe for drinking.
Soil pollution
Soil pollution is caused by the addition of man-made chemical or other substances
to the soil that may alter the natural environment, such as the pH, of the soil.
Common Pollution of the Soil and their Effects
Common soil pollutions include petroleum, hydrocarbons, pesticides, lead and
other heavy metals. The presence of these pollutants could be caused by the
leaching of wastes from landfills and agricultural farms or discharge of individual
and domestic wastes to the soil.
Pollution from petroleum hydrocarbons (butane, 2-methyl butane, toluene,
ethylene, pentane) increases the pH value? Organic matter and nitrogen content of
the soil.
- Industrial wastes or effluents discharged into the soil surroundings also
affect the growth of crops, such as the germination of wheat, thus reducing
crop yield.
- Chemicals such as herbicides, fungicides and insecticide that kill weed,
fungi and insects respectively may also kill other organisms that might be
essential for the growth of plants. Thus, the nutrients in soil are reduced, the
quality of soil compromised.
- Metals such as mercury, iron and lead which are discharged into the
surroundings are hazard done to plants and animals as well.

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Besides, contaminants can also leach into water ways and water bodies, thereby
polluting the water and reducing the water quality. These pollutants, when
consumed, also pose serious health threats to animals and humans.
- Raw sewage discharges into the soil surrounding can also increase the
acidity of the soil. This is caused by the carbon (iv) oxide formed through the
oxidation of the organic matter from the sewage that has accumulated in the soil.
The carbon (iv) oxide then reacts with water to release hydrogen ions, this making
the soil acidic.
Ways to increase the PH of the soil (reduce acidity)
- Addition of trioxocarbonate (iv) minerals such as limestone (CaCO3) may
help to reduce the soil acidity.
- Addition of aluminium and iron minerals may also help to remove the
hydrogen and tetraoxosulphate (vi) ions in the soil. - The acidity of the soil
can also be reduced by adding lime in the form of quicklime (calcium oxide) or
slated lime (calcium hydroxide). The process is called liming.

Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Materials

A substance is said to be biodegradable if it can be chemically broken
down by microorganisms. Biodegradable material is generally organic, such
as plant and animal mater, as well as other substances originating from living
organism.
Non-biodegradable substances are substances that cannot be broken down by
microorganisms. This is because either the substances are toxic and kill the
microorganisms or the structure of the substance does not facilitate its
use as food for the microorganisms. Examples of non-biodegradable are plastics
and rubber products.
Bioconversion
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 Bioconversion is the conversion of organic substances, such as animal or
plant waste, into usable products through biological processes or agents, such as
microorganisms or enzyme.
An example of bioconversion is enzymatic hydrolysis, in which a
feedstock, such as switch grass, can be hydrolyzed into sugars, which are then
fermented into ethanol. Ethanol can then be Ethanol can then be mixed petrol to
produce a bio fuel that is used to power motor vehicles. Furthermore, when waste
material is left to decay in the absence of air, bio gas, which contain about 50%
methane and can be used as fuel, is produced. The chemical by products of
bioconversion can also be used to manufacture fertilizers.

Ways to reduce soil Pollution

One of the best ways of reducing soil pollution is to reuse and recycle
materials. Instead of discarding them, household items such as plastic and glass
containers can be reused. Materials such as paper and some type of plastics and
glass can also be recycled. By reusing and recycling, fewer landfills will be
required to dispose of waste materials and soil pollution will be greatly reduced.
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is caused by the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen
(iv) oxide in sunlight, to form ozone.
NO2(g) + O2(g) Sunlight NO(g)+O(g) + O2(g)
The oxygen atom then reacts with the oxygen molecule to form ozone.
O(g) + O2(g) O3(g)
Ozone is a highly reactive substance and can further combine with unburnt
hydrocarbons. The end result to the production of peroxyacyl nitrate (v)
compounds (PAN) which are powerful lacrimators they cause tearing of the eyes.

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 Breathing in air that contains high concentrators of ozone can be
dangerous, especially for people with asthema.
Acid Rain
Acid rain is formed when acidic air pollutions, such as sulphur (iv) oxide
and nitrogen (iv) oxide, dissolve in rain water to produce tetraoxosulphate (vi)
acid and trioxonitrate (v) acid.
S02(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
In the pretense of oxygen in the air trioxosulphate (iv) acid is oxidized to form
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H2S04)
Oxides of nitrogen also contribute to acid rain, in the presence of oxygen
and water, nitrogen (iv) oxide is converted to trioxonitrate (v) acid.
4NO3 +2H2O(l) +O2(g) 4HNO3(g)
The pH value of rainwater is usually below 7. This is because carbon
dioxide in the air reacts with rainwater to form trioxocarbonate (iv) acid which is
weak acid.
CO2(g) + H2O(1) H2CO3(aq)
Effect of Acid Rain
Acid rain can react with metals and with trioxocarbonate (iv) salts in
marble and limestone. When this happens, metal bridges and stone buildings are
damaged. Acid rain can reduce the pH values of water in lakes or rivers to below
4, which will kill fishes and other aquatic life. Acid rainwater often leaches
important nutrients from the soils. Forests throughout most of central and
Eastern Europe have been destroyed in this manner by acid rain.
How to Control the Acid Rain
The major contributors of acid rain are the oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
dioxide. To reduce the effects of acid rain, it is important to reduce the quantity of

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these pollutants that is released into the environment so that the effects of acid
rain are minimized.
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Most fuels contain carbon and hydrogen, when these fuels are burnt,
carbon dioxide and water and produce. In the combustion of natural gas, which
contains mainly methane, the equation for the reaction can be written as
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + heat
methane
Carbon dioxide and water vapour have important roles to play in
maintaining a fairly uniform temperature on the earth’s surface. These gases
allow visible radiation from the sun to reach the Earth’s surface, but trap some of
the infrared radiation that is emitted by the Earth. Energy is thus retained in the
atmosphere, producing a warming effect called greenhouse effect.
The phrase “greenhouse effect” was first introduced by the French
Scientist Jean Fourier around 1800. He likened the function of the atmosphere to
that of the glass in a greenhouse, sunlight enters the greenhouse and the glass
taps some of the sun’s radiation energy. The trapped energy helps to keep the
greenhouse warm.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has a similar effect as the glass. It is
therefore called a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation and
thus reduces the amount of heat energy escaping into space.
Other greenhouse gases help to maintain the proper temperature
needed to sustain life on Earth. Without these greenhouse gases, Earth’s
surface would be – 40oc and permanently covered with ice.
Global warming (Earth’s overheating)
Human activities like burning of fossil fuels and large – scale cutting
down of forests are causing some greenhouse gases, especially carbon
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dioxide, to build up rapidly in the atmosphere. This means that carbon dioxide
is being added to the atmosphere at a higher rate than photosynthesis can remove
the excess carbon dioxide. The effect of carbon dioxide build-up is an increase in
the Earth’s average temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming.

Effect of Global Warming

If greenhouse gases are not controlled, the consequences of the global
warming include:
a. A decrease in crop yield worldwide, areas that are currently covered by
vegetation may become deserts.
b. The melting of large quantities of ice in the North Pole and South Pole.
This will cause the levels of oceans to rise and flood, low lying countries such as
the Netherlands.
c. The rapid evaporation of water from the Earth’s surface. When this
happens, carbon dioxide dissolve in the oceans will be driven out into the
atmosphere. This adds further to the greenhouse effect.
Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Ozone was discovered in 1840. It was first detected in the upper layer
of the atmosphere (the stratosphere) in1889. It is produced by the photochemical
reaction between oxygen molecules and oxygen atoms in the lower layer of the
atmosphere.
O(g) + O2(g) O3(g)
When ozone is formed at low altitude, it can cause severe pollution
problems. However, in the stratosphere, ozone becomes very important to us
as it acts as a kind of shield or a giant sunscreen, filtering out some of the
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. If this radiation reaches the surface

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of the Earth, there could be a drastic increase in the number of cases of skin cancer,
genetic mutation and eye damage such as cataract. The radiation may also be
harmful to marine life.
Scientists have discovered alarming decrease in the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere and this depletion of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro-
carbons, commonly known as CFCs. CFCs, are widely used as propellant for
aerosols and as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners.

How CFC’s Destroy the Ozone Layer

In the presence of sunlight, CFC’s decompose to form chlorine atoms. The
free chlorine atom is very reactive and attacks a molecule of ozone O3 to
produce an ordinary oxygen molecule, O2 and unstable oxide of chlorine,
ClO. The oxide of chlorine (ClO) readily reacts with atomic oxygen, O to form an
oxygen molecule, O2 and release the chlorine atom, Cl which then attacks another
ozone molecule. Thus, the process is repeated numerous times causing a depletion
in the ozone layer.

RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

Nuclear chemistry deals with the study of processes and reactions involving the
protons and neutrons in the nuclei of atoms.
During nuclear processes, atoms of one element may be converted into atoms of
other elements by any of the following nuclear reactions: Radioactive decay,
nuclear disintegration, atomic fission and atomic fusion.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR REACTION AND CHEMICAL
REACTION

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 Chemical reaction Nuclear reaction
Involves only the electron Involves the nucleus.
Not usually accompanied by great heat Usually accompanied by a lot of heat
change change.
New elements are not formed New elements are formed
External factors such as pressure, Not affected by external factors.
temperature and catalyst affect the rate
of reaction.

RADIOACTIVITY:
Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay or disintegration of the nucleus of an atom
with the emission of radiations and a large quantity of heat. Radioactivity is due to
energy change occurring within the nucleus of atom. Any substance capable of
undergoing radioactivity is said to be radioactive, e.g. uranium, radium, radon and
carbon-14.

RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS
Radioactive radiation consists of three main components of different penetrating
power: alpha (α-), beta-(β-), and gamma-(Υ-) rays. These three components can be
separated and distinguished by their behavior in an electrostatic field.
Properties of the Radioactive Radiation:
Alpha-rays (α):
1. Alpha rays consist of positively charged particles hence they are deflected
towards the negative pole of electromagnetic field.
2. They have heavy mass; hence, they are slightly deflected.
3. They have the longest wave length; hence the least energy.
4. They have low penetrating power.

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 5. They exert strong ionizing effect during collision.
Beta (β) Rays:
1. Beta rays consist of negatively charged particles; hence they are deflected
towards the positive pole of the magnetic field.
2. They are less massive than the α-particle; hence, more deflected towards the
positive pole.
3. They have shorter wavelength than alpha particle, hence more energetic,
move faster and have a higher penetrating power than alpha particles.
4. They have less ionizing effect than the α-particle.

Gamma(Υ) Rays:

1. They are electromagnetic radiations that have no mass or charge, i.e. they
are neutral; they are not deflected at all by magnetic field.
2. They have shortest wavelength hence the most energetic. They move at the
velocity of light and have the highest penetrating power.
3. Gamma rays have the least ionizing power.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

There four types of nuclear reactions:
 Radioactive decay.
 Nuclear disintegration
 Nuclear (atomic) fusion.
 Nuclear (atomic) fission.

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 Radioactive decay; is a natural radioactivity. It is a nuclear reaction in which
an unstable radioactive atom or radioisotope, on its own, emits an alpha or a beta
particle (never both), in order to form an atom with a more stable nucleus .e.g.
238 234 4
92 U Th +
90 2 He + heat.

Nuclear disintegration:
This is an artificial radioactivity in which the nucleus of a non-radioactive atom, a
stable isotope, is bombarded with nuclear particles, to produce an artificial
radioisotope or cause atomic transmutation.
239 1 238
92U + o n 92 U
(non-radioactive) (radioactive)

Nuclear fission:
This is a process in which the nucleus of a heavy element is split into two nuclei of
nearly equal mass with a release of energy and radiation.

235 1 141 92
92U + o n 56Ba + 36 Kr + 31on

Nuclear fusion:
This is a process in which two or more light nuclei fuse or combine to form a
heavier nucleus with a release of energy and radiation.
2 3 4 1
1 D + 1 T 2 He + on + energy.
This type of reaction is the basis of the hydrogen or fusion bomb.

Differences between atomic fission and atomic fusion

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
A big nucleus splits into two nearly Smaller nuclei merge to form larger
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equal nuclei. nuclei.
Two or three neutrons are ejected. No neutron is ejected.
Heat liberated is less. Much heat is liberated.

EXERCISE:
1. Find the value of m and n in the following nuclear reaction:
1
1 H + mnT 2 21D
2. Balance the following equation and classify it as either nuclear fission or
nuclear fusion:

235 1 141
92U + on 56 Ba + Kr + 31on

USES OF RADIOACTIVITIES AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS

1. In nuclear electric power plants is used to produce steam that drives
engines in order to generate electricity.
2. In atomic (hydrogen) bomb: radioactive elements are made to undergo
chains of nuclear reactions and the huge quantity of heat is released
uncontrolled. This is an example of a destructive use of nuclear energy.
3. In radioactive dating: Geologists make use of half-lives of radioactive
elements in dating geological remains such as ancient tools.

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4. In studying reaction mechanism: Radioactive elements, such as carbon-14,
are used in following the paths of chemical reactions, and to determine the
equilibrium positions in reversible reaction.
5. As tracers: Radioisotopes are used as tracers in detecting leakages in
pipelines and in chemical reactions.
6. In medicine (Radiography/Radiotherapy):
i. Radioactive cobalt-60emits penetrating gamma rays, which are useful
in the treatment of cancer.
ii. Radioisotopes emit gamma rays, which can kill bacteria, and are
therefore used in sterilizing hospital instruments, and in pasteurization
of foods.
iii. Radioactive radon is used as a tracer in medical research-to detect
body defects.
7. In agriculture: Fertilizers containing radioactive phosphorus-32 are used in
studying the uptake of tetraoxophosphate (v), from the soil by plants. Some
radioisotopes are used in insecticides- for pest control.

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