System Modelling and Design Exam Notes

Design Phase I

1. Problem Formulation
- define problem
- select objectives & constraints
- identify design options
2. Problem Optimization
- select potential solution
- use simulation model to evaluate potential solution and retrieve data/information
3. Final Solution

Decision Variable
Potential solution (size of search space) = no. of options no. of decision variables

Genetic Algorithms (GA)

- Based on process of natural selection and mechanisms of genetics
- Rely on bio-inspired operators for solutions to evolve

Steps of GA
-Determines the minimum objective function in the current generation
-Tournament Selection

- cross over
- mutation

Coding Scheme’s:

Binary: binary coding also discretised search space because binary coding causes redundancy
to the search, end up having search space with large portion of the area with void, or no
solution
Real Number: real number discretised search space, solutions with real number may not exist
in the real world or not commercially available

Integer:

Sensitivity Analysis
- number of evaluation
- population
- crossover rate
- mutation rate

Multiobjective optimization problems (MOOPs)

Constraint Method
Impact of penalty function
If the penalty is too small:
The algorithm fails to differentiate infeasible solutions from the feasible solutions

If the penalty is too large:

The penalty function dominates the final fitness function value.
It Is effective in differentiating and eliminating all infeasible solutions
It is not effective in guiding the search in the feasible region, especially when the feasible
region is small .

Advantages compared to MOGA

- Algorithm easier to develop
- each GA run is faster
- higher chance to find near-optimal solution in each run

Disadvantage compared to MOGA

- multiple optimization runs
- critical point on Pareto front easily missed
- requires an additional parameter (penalty function)

Difficulty of optimization problem

Dimensionality of fitness landscape

- determined by number of decision variables

Complexity/characteristics of fitness landscape

- characteristics of fitness landscape is defined by the optimization problem

Algorithm search behavior

Exploration
- search in new regions of the search space (big steps)
- looking for new information, alternative optima
Exploitation
- search the nearby area (small steps)
- refining local optima location

GA parameters control the behaviour of GA operators.

Common GA operator
Crossover (exploration and exploitation, 0.6 - 0.8)
- encourages convergence on a specific point in the search space
- When the number of decision variables are small, crossover rate has a big impact because
the majority of the genes in the sequence will be exchanged (encourages exploration)

Mutation (exploration, 0 - 0.1)

- purely random process
- encourages the GA to avoid convergence but to explore more.
- high mutation rate prevents convergence
- low mutation rate encourages premature convergence in restricted local space.

Selection (exploitation)
Elitism (exploitation)
- archives the best solution of each generation

Common GA parameter
-population size
-probability of crossover
- probability of mutation

Random Seed
does not control GA search behaviour, it represents different initial search starting point,
pinpoints different locations on the fitness landscape. it represents the random and stochastic
nature of the GA

Sensitivity Analysis
- look at the average of objective function (the lower the better)
- the variability (range of minimum and maximum)
- if two points of the convergence are found, choose the one with the lower number because
the computation cost is lower

Pareto efficiency /Pareto optimality – a situation that cannot be modified so as to make

any one individual or preference criterion better off without making at least one other
individual or preference criterion worse off. E.g. Non-dominated solution

Equifinality
A given end state can be reached by many potential means

Questions from lecture

1. If you are asked to design a new water distribution system which involves the selection of
pipe types and pip sizes, which of the following coding scheme should be used?

Integer
Real number
Binary coding

2. If you are asked to determine the water allocation volume to different farmers in an
irrigation district within a growth season, which of the following coding scheme should be
used?

Integer
Real number
Binary coding

3. For an optimization run, if the population used is 50, cross over probability is 0.9,
mutation probability is 0.1 and total generation is 100, which of the following statement
could be correct?

Total evaluation number is exactly 5000

Total evaluation number is less than 5000
Total evaluation number is greater than 5000

This is because cross over and mutation do not happen all the time so some of the
solutions are carried over to the next generation/iterations and it is unnecessary to evaluate
it again.

4. Which of the following statement(s) is/are true?

The constraint method can be used to solve multi-objective optimization problems.

The constraint method is an efficient method to solve multi-objective optimization
problems.
The constraint method is required when a multi-objective optimization algorithm is not
available.
The constraint method can find all pareto-optimal solutions.

5. For the following pareto-optimal front obtained from minimizing both objective functions,
if the GHG objective is converted to the constraint when the constraint method is used,
which of the following sets of constraint values may lead to all solutions?
100, 110, 120, 130, …., 990
100, 500, 900
100,300, 900
100, 700, 900

Geotechnical

Lecture 5-1 Site investigation

Preliminary site investigation
Documentary evidence (a desk study)
1. Studying of togographical, geological, hydrogeological and geotechnical maps
2. Aerial and other photographs (e.g. Google Maps, Google Earth, nearmap)
3. Data on soil properties published in the literature

Field Reconnaissance (Walk over survey)

1. visit the site
2. observe and document site conditions
3. signs of slope instability
4. signs of flooding
5. signs of soil contamination

Collect local experience

1. general historical maps and other local records indicating previous use of the site
2. previous site investigations at the site
3. local climatic conditions
4. anecdotal information

Geotechnical and geophysical investigation

Geotechnical investigation – destructive

1. drilling and sampling
2. digging trenches
Geophysical investigation – non-destructive
1. electromagnetic waves
2. mechanical waves

Advantages and Disadvantages of geophysical investigation

Advantages
• Non-destructive and/or non-invasive • Fast and economical testing
• Applicable to soils and rocks

• Disadvantages
• No samples or direct physical penetration • Models assumed for interpretation
• Affected by cemented layers or inclusions • Results influenced by water, clay, & depth

Lecture 5-2
Profiling using qc and Rf

Sandy soils: high qc, low Rf

Soft clays: low qc, high Rf
High OCR soils: high qc, high Rf
Organic soils: very low qc, very high Rf
Sensitive soils: low qc, low Rf

Pore pressure and overburden corrections are:

insignificant in soil with drained response to cone penetration, or where the undrained
shear strength is high

significant in low strength soils, and undrained response.

Uncertainties in alpha, measured pore water pressure or overburden pressure can cause
significant error in assessing qnet

Lecture 6-1
Estimating/measuring permeability
1. Laboratory method
- constant head test (suitable for sandy soils with high permeability)
- falling-head test (suitable for clayey soils with low permeability)
2. In-situ method
- pumping-well test
1. relatively reliable in-situ average permeability
2. high cost, long time
- infilling-well test
1.
3. Empirical method
 Falling Head Test

Lecture 6-2

Darcy’s Law does NOT apply to dense clay and turbulent flow.

Factors affecting permeability

1. particle size, grading
- affect the size of pores
- large pores are infilled with small particles. K is determined by the fine particles.
- k =c ¿ d 210 ; ; c = 1 – 1.5
2. void ratio
- volume of pores
- sandy soils relates e to k
3. Minerology
- varies among minerals
- k: Kaolinite > Illite > Montmorillonite
- plasticity index often used as parameter to estimate k
4. Structure
- Influencing the constitution and orientation of pores; more sensitive to clays
- natural sediments normally has higher horizontal k than vertical k
5. Saturation
- Reflecting the content of air in soil
- sealed bubbles reduce seepage area, block flow passage and reduce k
6. Viscosity of water
- temperature increases, viscosity decreases, k increases
Soil Phase
Formula of soil properties

Lecture 7-2

Seepage force j: the pushing and dragging to the skeleton per unit volume by the flow.

Common seepage hazards

Heaving –

Boiling- when the upward seepage force exceeds downward force (effective weight )of the
soil

Piping – fine particles in cohesionless soils translate through the pores of large particles
and pipe forms
Lecture 8-1
Types of Landslide

Fall:
is the detachment of soil or rock from steep slopes along the surface.

Topple:
is the forward rotation of soil or rock mass about a point.

Slide:
is the downslope displacement of soil or rock masses. It can be: rotational, translational, and
debris slide

Spread:
is the sudden movement of water bearing rock masses.

Flow:
is the continuous movement of soil masses where shear surfaces are short lived.

Lecture 8-2

Common definition of Factor of Safety

Infinite slope of sand

Bishop’s Method