CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Cooking is the primary domestic activity in every family worldwide. The primary

energy source for cooking in numerous emerging economies is firewood, which is made

up of tree and shrub twigs which have been harvested from forests. In certain places,

charcoal usage continues to be a prominent trend in kitchens and barbecues worldwide,

including the Philippines. In rural areas, where access to modern energy sources may

be limited, charcoal remains a valuable resource for cooking and grilling. However, it

important to consider the environmental impact of charcoal production and usage, as it

contributes to deforestation. Efforts are being made to promote sustainable charcoal

production techniques and alternative energy sources to minimize these adverse effects

while preserving the cultural significance of charcoal in rural kitchens and barbecues.

The primary contributors to environmental degradation are predominantly

attributed to human population growth and associated activities, including urban

expansion, industrial development, and modern farming techniques (Arora,2018). The

extensive utilization of primary energy sources like fossil fuels has led to the emission of

significant quantities of greenhouse gases into the air (Deshannavar,2018). Moreover,

the animal waste, which is abundant in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, offers a

potential renewable energy solution that contributes to waste disposal while also

safeguarding food security and the ecosystem (Smith,2022). Biomass, due to its
renewability, productivity, and carbon neutrality, has the potential to efficiently substitute

fossil fuels, all the while addressing environmental concerns (Reddy, et.al.,2023).

The total number of cattle in livestock farming in the Philippines amounted to

approximately 2.58 million, reflecting a slight increase from the previous year

(Statista,2023). Mature cow present abundant occasions for the examination of feces,

given their frequency of defecation occurring roughly every 1.5 to 2 hours, resulting in

the expulsion of 100 pounds or more on a daily basis (Pennstate Extension, 2023). The

disposal of livestock waste will have a notable impact on the pollution of water and soil,

as well as the contamination of groundwater (Brar, et.al.,2017). Livestock waste serves

as a primary origin of deleterious gaseous emissions, hazardous pathogens, and

unpleasant odors; therefore, posing a significant concern for public health and the

environment (Miranda, et.al.,2019).

Raising more cows leads to increased dung production. Disposing waste on

open land causes environmental problems like odors, pollution, and diseases (Huda &

Wikanta,2016). Unmanaged livestock waste is a major source of greenhouse gas

emissions, with methane being the largest component (Fathurrohman, 2015). Cow dung

can release around 60 liters of gas emissions per kg, mainly methane.Methane gas

(CH4) makes up the majority (EJournal Ilmu Komun., 2015).

The utilization of cow feces as charcoal briquettes is an eco-friendly alternative

for charcoal made out of trees. The goal of this paper is to ascertain their viability as a

renewable energy source, ensuring sustainability and effectiveness in energy

production. The study explores the feasibility of utilizing cow feces as a sustainable

biomass source for producing charcoal briquettes. This can be used as a renewable

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source of energy and helps in the management of waste by reproducing organic waste.

Investigating the feasibility and efficiency of the unconventional material in the

production of charcoal may offer insights into alternative and sustainable energy source.

Objectives of the Study

The objective of this study is to optimize the utilization of cow feces as a

sustainable resource for charcoal briquette production.

1. To investigate the effectiveness of cow feces charcoal in various optimization

techniques of its fire duration, smoke intensity, combustibility, and ash content on

the production of sustainable charcoal briquettes using cow feces to replace

conventional wood-based charcoal.

2. To evaluate three (3) trails which is in trial one (1) the ratio of bamboo wood to

cow feces to casava flour is 3: 2 : 1, in trial 2 the ratio is 2 : 2 : 1, and in trial 3 the

ratio is 1 : 2 : 1.

3. To produce sustainable charcoal briquettes from cow feces.

Research Hypothesis

The conduct of this study will determine the effectiveness of cow feces for

sustainable charcoal briquettes. Thus, this study has the following hypothesis to test.

Null Hypothesis Cow feces is utilizable and effective as an alternative

for charcoal briquettes.

Alternate Hypothesis Cow feces is not utilizable as an alternative for

charcoal briquettes.

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Significance of the Study

This study aims to promote awareness to an existing cow feces waste problem as well

as

to provide a solution by recycling it into a charcoal briquette.

a. Human

This research will be beneficial to the humans in terms of their health. It

tackles waste and pollution issues which helps in creating a cleaner and greener

ground to live on.

b. Consumers

This study of making cow feces for natural charcoal briquettes are viewed

as a sustainable business practice CEOs and consumers alike. A less expensive

option than standard charcoal may be provided by cost-effective production,

which may lower family expenses and agricultural waste disposal costs.

c. Environment

The study may benefit to perform waste reduction and minimize

deforestation. Cow feces briquettes help our environment breathe freely by

reducing waste and fight deforestation by providing charcoal without needing to

cut down trees. In addition, they create cleaner and less smoke pollution for

individuals.

d. Future Researchers

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 Future researchers who want to carry out the same study related to the

product presented can use the results of this research as a guide and a

reference.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to optimize the utilization of cow feces as a

sustainable resource for charcoal briquette production. The main focus will be on

examining the length of the fire, the amount of smoke produced, the briquettes’

combustibility, and their ash content. It is conducted between the three variables: Cow

Feces as the independent variable. The length of fire, smoke intensity, flammability, and

their ash qualities as the dependent variable and the bamboo wood and cassava flour

as the moderating variable. This experimental study will be conducted during the

second semester of the school year 2023 to 2024 at barangay Manabuan, Matalam,

North Cotabato due to its abundant population of cow in which contains the primary

source of the independent variable.

Conceptual Framework

In the study "Optimizing Cow Feces for Sustainable Charcoal Briquettes," the

conceptual framework involves investigating the use of cow feces as an independent

variable. This variable is subjected to the mediating influence of Bamboo Wood and

cassava flour. The dependent variables include fire duration, smoke intensity,

flammability, and ash testing. The illustration below delineates the relationships among

these elements:

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 The independent variable is Cow Feces, specifically utilized for the production of

charcoal briquettes. The mediating variables are Bamboo Wood and cassava flour,

which play a role in influencing the characteristics of the charcoal briquettes. The

dependent variables encompass fire duration, smoke intensity, flammability, and ash

testing. These parameters are crucial in evaluating the effectiveness and sustainability

of the charcoal briquettes derived from optimizing cow feces.

Independent Variable Moderating Variable Dependent Variable

Definition of Terms
 Cow Feces  Bamboo Wood  Fire Duration
 Cassava Flour  Smoke Intensity
To  Combustibility
 Ash Content

facilitate the understanding of this study, different terms are defined here in.

Briquettes. This term refers to the feces of the cow compressed as blocks.

Feces. This refers to the dump that cows produced. Mostly known as cow feces or cow

dump.

Excrement. This refers to waste matter that is expelled from the cow’s body, typically

through its digestive system, including the feces and urine.

Pyrolysis conditions. This refers to the process that the feces will undergo which is

the thermal decomposition of the briquettes at an elevated temperature in the absence

of oxygen.

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Hemicellulose. A component of plant cell walls that, when broken down, helps bind

together cow feces for more efficient and sustainable charcoal briquettes production.

Cellulose. A natural compound found in plant cell walls that provides structural support.

It is important in optimizing cow feces for sustainable charcoal briquettes because it

helps bind the briquettes together when they are formed.

Lignin. A natural polymer found in plants, including cow feces, which acts as a binding--

agents in the production of sustainable charcoal briquettes, helping them hold their

shape when formed.

Diminishing odor. Reducing the unpleasant smell associated with processing cow

feces into environmentally friendly fuel sources

Emissions. Refers to the release of gasses or substances in to the environment, often

associated with various processes, such as burning cow feces to produce sustainable

charcoal briquettes.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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 In rural regions, the prevalence of cow feces poses a notable environmental

issue. As this organic material decomposes, it emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas

exacerbating climate change. However, by transforming cow feces into charcoal, we

can effectively mitigate methane emissions and contribute to environmental

conservation efforts. The following papers and articles are included in the review of

related literature to aid in the more detailed explanations of this experimental research

approach.

Cow Feces

Cow feces can be described as the residual, undigested matter derived from

consumed food materials, expelled by herbivorous bovine species in the form of

excrement (Gupta, et.al, 2016). The cow excrement is a cheap and easily accessible

bioresource on our planet (Song, et.al, 2019). Coal may be used as a group medium for

microbial consortia from cow feces because it possesses porosity, permeability, and

structure that can accommodate liquids and moisture (Sathiyabarathi, et.al, 2022). Cow

feces logs serve as a renewable and organic fuel source, offering numerous

advantages such as ready availability in rural areas, reduced smoke emissions, and

cost-effectiveness (Ecostan, 2023).

Biochar was produced through pyrolysis of dried cow manure, a thermochemical

and anaerobic process occurring at temperatures above 350°C, converting biomass into

biochar, bio-oil, and syngas (Rehman, et.al., 2020).

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 The microbial flora present in cow dung holds substantial potential for

contributing to both sustainable agriculture and energy needs, with the comprehension

of mechanisms facilitating the degradation of hydrocarbons by these microorganism

offering prospects for advancing bioremediation efforts against environmental pollutants

(Gupta, et.al, 2016). Gasification and pyrolysis represent attractive alternative fuel

production processes for solid waste treatment, offering several potential benefits over

traditional Municipal solid waste combustion (Seo, et.al., 2018). As waste generation

accelerates alongside human civilization's advancement and rising living standards

increase energy consumption, placing strain on both budgets and the environment,

waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities serve a crucial role by converting waste into energy

(Awasthi, et.al. 2019). Cow dung biochar is cost-effective, abundantly available as a

renewable resource in large commercial quantities, and has the potential to enhance

utilization efficiency while reducing environmental pollution associated with improper

resource utilization (Yuxian,2023). Activated biochar from cow dung offers numerous

advantages, being inexpensive, readily available, and easily regenerated, thereby

making it an optimal source for charcoal combustion (Jain, et.al.,2022).

Bamboo Wood

Bamboo plays a crucial role in the manufacturing of briquettes due to its

substantial contribution to their fuel properties. The mixing ratio of bamboo with other

materials is a key factor that significantly influences the fuel properties of the resulting

briquettes. Despite this variability, bamboo briquettes consistently meet standard

requirements for fuel properties, underscoring their effectiveness as a reliable fuel

source. Moreover, during the carbonization process, bamboo enhances the yield of

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charcoal, offering additional benefits for the production of both briquettes and charcoal.

This multifaceted role of bamboo highlights its importance in the production process and

its potential to contribute positively to the renewable energy sector (Feng, et.al, 2020).

Bamboo emerges as a highly sustainable and environmentally friendly choice for

briquette production, owing to its renewable nature. Its high carbon content significantly

bolsters the heating value of the resulting briquettes. Through rigorous analysis of the

physical and chemical properties of bamboo residues charcoal, the study ensure that

the briquettes adhere to required standards. The inclusion of bamboo residues in the

briquette mixture yields fuel with exceptional heating values, surpassing minimum

requirements. This utilization of bamboo residues not only offers an alternative energy

source for incineration but also plays a pivotal role in waste reduction, thereby

minimizing environmental impact (Pongthornpruek, et.al, 2018).

Bamboo fiber emerges as a highly suitable feedstock material for bio-briquette

fuel production, boasting satisfactory fuel parameters and mechanical quality indicators.

With a low ash content of 1.16% and a high net calorific value of 16.92 MJ∙kg−1,

bamboo fiber contributes significantly to the energy potential of bio-briquettes.

Furthermore, bio-briquette samples crafted from bamboo fiber exhibit impressive

mechanical durability at 97.80% and a substantial bulk density of 986.37 kg·m−3,

ensuring robustness and efficiency in combustion. The sundried nature of bamboo

stalks, the source of the fiber, prior to processing provides ideal conditions for

combustion, marked by low moisture content. Briquetting bamboo fiber not only

enhances its bulk density, facilitating easier transportation and storage, but also

increases the energy content per unit volume, resulting in a homogeneous product fuel.

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This densification process enables efficient utilization of agro-residues, including

bamboo fiber, in the production of bio-briquettes, thereby promoting meaningful and

sustainable utilization of renewable resources in the energy sector (Brunerová, et.al,

2018).

Cassava Flour

Briquettes formulated with cassava starch as a binder exhibited specific physical

attributes that render them viable substitutes for biogas. Notably, the incorporation of

cassava starch significantly enhanced the water resistance of the briquettes, with all

samples demonstrating the ability to withstand water for over three minutes. This

indicates the potential of cassava starch as a binder in producing durable and water-

resistant briquettes, thereby bolstering their suitability as an alternative to biogas (Aliero,

et.al, 2022).

The addition of cassava starch as a binder not only improves the combustion properties

of the briquettes but also enhances their overall quality and performance. Briquettes

with cassava starch exhibited high energy value, fixed carbon content, and volatile

matter content, suggesting their potential as a viable fuel source. Through optimization,

it was found that these briquettes with cassava starch reached an optimal heat value,

further underscoring the effectiveness of cassava starch as a binder in enhancing the

briquettes' efficiency and utility as a fuel option (2022).

The use of cassava flour as a binder to the briquettes improves their densification and

compression strength, which increases their durability and stability. It also raises their

calorific value, making them a useful binding agent. This dual result emphasizes how

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well cassava starch supports several important aspects of the briquettes' operation,

hence enhancing their potential as a sustainable binding agent for alternative fuel

sources (Bency, et.al, 2023).

Cassava starch functions as an adhesive during the compaction process, effectively

binding the briquette materials together. This utilization of cassava starch not only

improves the mechanical strength and density of the briquettes, rendering them more

durable and resistant to breakage, but also enhances their combustion characteristics.

Consequently, the inclusion of cassava starch leads to improved fuel properties and

higher heating values in the resulting briquettes, highlighting its multifaceted role in

enhancing both the structural integrity and performance of the final product (Velusamy,

et.al, 2021).

Combustion

As demonstrated by Hamid and his co-researchers in their study (2021),

Considerably tensile, robust, and sturdy are the physical attributes of the briquette. The

chemical properties of the Briqutte indicate that it contains little moisture which has the

potential for excellent combustion capability. The enhancement of combustion potential

in cow feces charcoal, also referred to as hydrochar, is a notable outcome of

hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) procedures. Investigations have revealed that the

HTC treatment of bovine excreta elevates the carbon levels, fixed carbon content, and

calorific value of the hydrochar, thereby enhancing its fuel characteristics and

combustion efficiency (Lang, et.al.,2022). Furthermore, a carbonization technique

tailored for charcoal production from cow dung ensures a higher degree of

carbonization, reduced carbonization duration, and increased output of mechanism

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charcoal suitable for large-scale manufacturing (Zhihua & Yi,2019). Nevertheless, it is

crucial to acknowledge that the presence of chlorine in cow dung biomass ashes may

trigger corrosive reactions in boilers during the combustion process (Szymajda,2020).

The cost analysis carried out shows the economic feasibility of using BBQ Briqmure as

an outstanding, low cost and eco-friendly substitute for conventional cooking fuels.

(Hamid, et.al, 2021).

Based on the study of Gebrekidan and his research counterparts, The result is

consistent that the calorific value of briquettes decreases with adding molasses binders.

This result come to agreement with the investigation on the calorific values decrease

with increasing binders reported by. Blumeana, with carbon dioxide comprising 30.99%

of its components, exhibits promise as a bioenergy source, with its calorific value

inferred from constituents like acetic acid and tuaminoheptane, signifying its potential

significance in bioenergy production (Salzer,2017). Therefore, the overall calorific value

is influenced by the characteristics of the binder and its interaction with the main

biomass components (Gebrekidan, et.al, 2024).

Ash Content

the study discovered that the ash content in briquettes produced from fecal

sludge (FS) charcoal varied between 29% and 46% (Szymajda,2020). It was

emphasized that the ashes of cow dung biomass contain chlorine, which may enhance

corrosive mechanisms in boilers (Sagur, et.al.,2022).

According to the study of Gebrehiwot and his fellow researchers, Sawdust from

woodworking furniture in Mekelle, Ethiopia, was gathered for this investigation. After five

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hours of sun drying, the sawdust was screened to a particle size of 2 mm using an

electric grinder, and the size of the cow feces was manually decreased. During the

Briquetting process, potato starch was utilized as a binder, accounting for 30% of the

processed sample's weight. After dissolving the binder in 0.5 milliliter of hot water to

create a paste, the amount was measured with a digital balance. The combined material

was manually poured into a mold that measured 20 cm in height and 9 cm in diameter.

A Peterson press was then used to press the mixture-filled mold at a continuous

pressure of 5 MPa. To ensure that the raw components were well mixed, water was

used as a medium. Based on the size of the mold, a mixture weighing a total of 300

grams was chosen for each biomass briquette. The resulting briquettes were ready for

additional physical and compositional characterization after being sun-dried. The

manufactured briquettes were sun-dried for three days at ambient temperatures of 25 to

30 degrees Celsius. During this time, the physical and composition properties of the

biomass briquettes were ascertained, and the impact of the sawdust and cow feces

mixing ratio was examined. The composition of the briquettes significantly influences

their characteristics. B1 comprises 25% sawdust, 75% cow feces, and 30% binder,

while B2 consists of 60% sawdust, 40% cow feces, and 30% binder. On the other hand,

B3 is composed of 80% cow feces, 20% sawdust, and 30% binder. It varies from

briquette to briquette, affecting the heat transfer to the fuel surface and the diffusion of

oxygen during charcoal combustion. In the study, the ash content of the briquettes was

analyzed, revealing variations ranging from 0.5% to 5% based on the raw materials

used. B1 exhibited the highest ash content at 4.75%, B2 had 4.58%, and B3 had the

least at 3.81%. The results suggest that the ash content is influenced by the

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composition of raw materials, with a trend indicating that higher proportions of raw

materials contribute to increased ash content in the briquettes (Gebrehiwot, et.al, 2019).

The ash percentage of sugarcane bagasse is 3.25 percent by mass; the higher

ash content of 13.8% for 5% M + WP indicates a higher amount in relation to the

amount of inorganic, flammable components, which has a major impact on the calorific

value. Because they include inorganic compounds, high ash content briquettes have

lower calorific values compared to low ash content briquettes, which have higher

heating values. Due to the presence of tiny inorganic components, sugarcane bagasse

naturally has a low ash level (3.25%), which is seen as favorable for the use of such

renewable resources as raw materials for the production of briquettes. Because the

binder utilized comprised a high percentage of inorganic, flammable materials, the

results demonstrated that the ash concentration rose with the addition of binder in every

case. In the case of an industrial boiler, the ash content should be less than 20% w/w.

This demonstrates that because the ash concentration of each briquette made is within

allowable bounds, they can all be used in industrial boiler operations. The ash

concentration of cow feces binder is 13%; for fertilizer applications, the binders should

have less than 12.5% ash. Consequently, the calorific value drops from 17.29 to 16.49

MJ/kg and the ash content rises when cow feces binder is used. Compared to other

binders, cow feces binder has a higher ash content (Gebrekidan, et.al, 2024).

Smoke Intensity

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 According to the study of Shuma and Madryira, the Barnstead Thermolyne 6000

furnace was utilized to evaluate the moisture content of the briquettes. This is an

autonomous, programmable, general-purpose laboratory furnace that may operate

continuously at temperatures between 100°C (212°F) and 1093°C (2000°F) or

intermittently at temperatures between 100°C (212°F) and 1200°C (2192°F). It has an

automatic proportioning-digital set door interlock relay for user safety, an overheating

protection switch, and an operational temperature RAMP to the maximum temperature.

It also has non-condensing furnace heating chambers and hearth collars that are

insulated in accordance with safety procedures under Material Safety Data Sheets

(MSDS), which forbid the use of asbestos-type insulation due to health risks. An

Ibhawula Entsha ceramic-lined stove was used to burn loose biomass briquettes. Using

an E8500 portable industrial integrated emission system combustion gas analyzer with

a built-in standard 12" / 300 mm stainless steel probe capable of reaching a maximum

temperature of 1470ºF/800ºC, gas emissions were analyzed. Loose biomass samples

from forestry and agricultural residues were shredded. Its features include a dual latex

sampling line, ambient and stack temperature measurement, O2, CO, and NO gas

sensors, dilution pump and electronic valve for dual range CO and purging capability,

draft and differential pressure measurements, 1000 internal storage tags, wireless

remote printer, Bluetooth wireless PC communications, EGAS Windows software, and

custom fuel programming option. A 3:1 mixing ratio was used to convert the shredded

loose samples into briquettes using two different types of binder. Crushed cacti and cow

feces are utilized as binder materials. Samples of mixed biomass were fed into the

briquetting molds after being weighed to a maximum mass of 250 grams. After that, the

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30-ton workshop hydraulic press was used to compact the briquetting mold. For the cow

feces binder, compaction pressures of 6 MPa, 12 MPa, and 19 MPa were employed.

Since it was discovered that the briquettes made from cactus binds were indifferent to

compaction pressures, a single compaction pressure of 19 MPa was employed. A

laboratory oven with an operating temperature of 100 degrees Celsius was used to dry

loose biomass briquettes. Until all of the briquettes had a constant mass, moisture loss

was tracked every two hours while the mass change was recorded. The ceramic-lined

stoves were used to burn dry briquettes. The parts per million (PPM) of the gases

released during combustion were measured in real time using an E8500 gas analyzer.

The gases that were observed were sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen monoxide (NO),

carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO),

and nitrogen oxide (NOx). Emissions from briquettes made with crushed cactus and

cow feces were satisfactorily measured. Lower levels of nitric oxides were produced by

cactus-bonded briquettes; these briquettes contained crushed nut shells, sugarcane

leaves, and yellow thatching grass. Cactus-bonded briquettes showed lower emissions

on CO2, CO, NO, NO2, NOx, and SO2, but the highest emissions on O2. The largest

emissions were reported in briquettes bound with cow feces. It was found that whereas

cactus-bonded briquettes smolder during burning with little flame, cow feces briquettes

ignite to full flame but produce some smoke (Shuma & Madyira, 2019).

Cow Feces biomass smoke has higher levels of particulate matter emissions per

unit of fuel burned compared to other combustion emissions, indicating a potentially

higher levels of smoke (McCarthy, 2018).

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 In conclusion, studies have demonstrated the feasibility of converting cow feces

into charcoal briquettes through various innovative techniques, exhibiting its efficacy as

an alternative fuel source. In harmony with (Song, et.al, 2019), the transformation of

agricultural wastes into biomass energy is a strategy towards the development of

alternative energy sources. The selection of cow feces as a raw material for producing

sustainable charcoal briquettes stemmed from its abundant availability and eco-friendly

characteristics as an agricultural waste product and as it has given a decent amount of

attention in the recent times due to the various application that may be utilized for the

society (Hamid, et.al, 2021). Through meticulous experimentation, the study aims to

demonstrate the feasibility of optimizing cow feces as a sustainable source for charcoal

briquettes, highlighting their potential to mitigate deforestation while effectively

managing organic waste. However, further research is warranted to fully explore the

effectiveness of various optimization techniques, such as fire, duration, smoke intensity,

flammability, and ash testing.

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 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter introduces the procedures and methods that will be use in the study

to produce a cow feces charcoal briquettes as an alternative for wooden charcoal. This

includes the research design, research instrument, equipment and utensils, procedures

and preparations, data gathering procedures, and data analysis.

Research Design

The study will use the experimental quantitative research approach, this design

will be derived by selecting samples to attain the most accurate estimator based on

criteria such as mean square error or robustness (Rizsk, et. al., 2020). Wherein cow

feces will be systematically tested to transform into charcoal briquette production. By

adapting the experimental approach, the study will ensure a structured and systematic

investigation into the optimization of cow feces for sustainable charcoal briquettes.

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Flow Chart

Cow Feces Bamboo Wood

Processing Processing

 Sorting  Sorting
 Cleaning  Cleaning

Drying Drying

Preparation

 Carbonization
 Pulverizing

Densification

 Processing
 Compaction

Testing:

 Fire Duration
 Smoke intensity
 Combustibility
 Ash Content

Cow Feces Charcoal

Briquettes

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Research Instrument

The table below shows the list and the quantity of materials that will be use in the

study.

Materials Quantity

Dry Cow Feces 3 kg

Bamboo Wood 2 kg

Cassava Flour 1 kg

Table 1.1. List of Materials that will be use

The materials that will be use in the study are 3 kg of cow feces, 2 kg of bamboo

wood, and 1 kg of Cassava flour. Where in the mass ratio of dried cow feces to the

bamboo wood and cassava flour is 3: 2: 1 (Gebrehiwot, et.al, 2019).

Equipment and Utensils

The table below presents the Equipment and Utensils that will be use.

Table 1.2. List of Equipment and Utensils that will be used.

EQUIPMENT UNITS

Shovel 1

Bucket 1

Gloves 2 packs

Facemask 1 pack

Lighter/Matches 2

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 Plywood for Base 1

Banana Leaves for cover 2

Steel Pipe 2

Carton 2

Wooden Steering Rod 1

The equipment and utensils that will be use in the study are shovel, bucket,

gloves, facemask, lighter/matches, plywood for base, banana leaves for cover, steel

pipe, carton, wooden steering rod.

Procedures and Preparations

Researchers wear gloves and face mask in order to minimize the bad fragrance

of the raw product. The first step involves using a shovel and a bucket to collect cow

feces. Care must be taken to ensure cleanliness and avoid any contamination. Once the

feces are gathered, a wooden stick is used to thoroughly mix the collected material,

ensuring a consistent composition throughout. Follow by shaping cow feces into small

round balls using hands. After forming, the briquettes were set aside on a plywood and

dried under the sun for at least 2 hours to reach 0% moisture content (Gebrehiwot, et.al,

2019). This was done to minimize the effect of this variable during these preliminary

experiments because of the difficulty found in controlling moisture content. After the

drying period, a hole is dug with a depth of 2.5 feet to facilitate combustion (Shuma &

Madyira, 2019). Bamboo wood and a lighter or matches are used to ignite the round

briquettes of cow feces. Once they are completely burned, the hole is covered with

banana leaves to retain heat and smoke. The covered hole is left undisturbed for two

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days, allowing the cow feces to undergo further transformation. Afterward, the round

briquettes are carefully removed from the hole and stored in a carton container for

preservation. If a specific shape is desired, a steel pipe can be used as a molder to

shape the briquettes accordingly.

Analysis Procedure

Ash content

A section of the Briquette sample was placed on plywood for sun-drying to

eliminate moisture. Subsequently, the dried sample will be transfer to a pre-weigh,

which will be place in a furnace at a temperature of 900 °C for a duration of 3 hours.

During this period, the sample transform into ash. Following this, the cow dung will be

move for the cooling process. Once cooled, its contents will be examined to determine

the weight of the ash. The percentage of ash content will be calculated by dividing the

weight of the ash by the weight of the initial dry sample, as indicated by Gebrehiwot

(2019).

W1
AC (%) = x 100
W2

Where;

W1 = weight of the dried sample,

W2 = weight of ash of the cow feces briquette and

AC (%) = ash content.

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Combustion

It was placed atop a mass balance, which was monitored to capture

instantaneous mass measurements every 10 seconds during the combustion process

using a stopwatch. This monitoring continued until the briquettes were fully burned, and

a constant weight was achieved. The percentage of ash content was determined by

calculating the ratio of the ash weight to the weight of the dry sample. The weight loss at

specific times was computed using the expression provided by Davies and Davies

(2013).

W
CR =
T

Where;

W = Weight of the burnt briquette,

T = total time taken and

CR = Combustion Rate.

Data Gathering Procedure

Experimentation is the main tool used to gather data (Rizsk, et. al., 2020). In

evaluating cow feces charcoal briquettes, the independent variables, including cow

feces, cassava flour, bamboo wood, and additives, are examined to determine their

influence on fire duration, smoke intensity, flammability, and ash testing as dependent

variables. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is utilized as a means of resolving data

collection challenges by statistically comparing the means of multiple groups to

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determine significant differences or relationship (Bevans,2020). Moreover, other than

experimentation, the researchers used all the available resources and references such

as PDF files, credible articles and websites, and existing studies from the internet.

Data Analysis

The data that will be collected will be stored in Microsoft Excel database system

that will be use in data management. SPSS windows version 28 will be utilized for data

analysis. The mean of cow feces briquette’s rate of combustion and ash content will be

expressed using descriptive statistics. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be

used to compare the differences between test groups (Bevans,2020).

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 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the results of the study are presented, analyzed and discussed

with reference to the aim of the study, which is to investigate the effectiveness of cow

feces charcoal in various optimization techniques of its fire duration, smoke intensity,

combustibility, and ash content on the production of sustainable charcoal briquettes.

Combustibility

As the study conducted, the combustibility of charcoal briquettes made from cow

dung was assessed including the addition of bamboo wood and cassava flour to

determine its influence to the combustibility rate of cow feces charcoal. Researchers

also carried out standard ignition experiments to determine the duration and intensity of

fire. The combustibility rate was calculated by dividing the weight of the burnt charcoal

by the total combustion time (Davies & Davies, 2013). The researchers conducted three

trials using varying ratios of cow feces, bamboo, and cassava flour: Trial 1. 3:1:1 Trial 2.

3:2:1 Trial 3. 3:3:1.

Analysis

Table 2.1: Weight of the burnt sample that are tested

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 Treatments Weight

1 190g

2 200g

3 240g

The table 2.1 shows the weight of the burnt sample that are tested separately

Table 2.2: Time taken of the sample when being tested

Treatment Total time taken

1 2321sec

2 2121sec

3 1977sec

The table 2.2 shows the time taken of the sample when being tested. The time

was halted when the sample has stopped burning.

Table 2.3: Combustibility of each treatment

Treatments Weight of burnt Total time taken Combustibility

sample

1 190g 2321sec 0.0818g/sec

2 200g 2121sec 0.0942g/sec

3 240g 1977sec 0.121g/sec

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 Treatment 3, characterized by a higher concentration of cow dung (75%) with a

combustibility rate of 0.121g/sec, exhibits a higher combustibility rate compared to

Treatments 1 and 2. The increased combustibility can be attributed to the higher

calorific value and combustible components present in cow feces, offering valuable

insight into the optimization of biomass-based fuels for various energy generation

systems.

Ash Content

In this study, ash content of cow feces charcoal briquettes was evaluated.

Researchers employed commonly used techniques such as adding bamboo woods and

cassava flour. By employing these techniques, researchers sought to determine the ash

production and maximizing the performance influenced by the composition of raw

materials. Additionally, researchers conducted standard ignition tests to identify any

specific compounds or elements that may contribute to the overall composition of the

briquettes' ash. The percentage of ash content was calculated by dividing the weight of

the ash by the weight of the initial dry sample, as indicated by Gebrehiwot (2019).

Researchers conducted three trials which have different ratio of cow feces, bamboo and

cassava flour: Trial 1. 3:1:1 Trial 2. 3:2:1 Trial 3. 3:3:1.

Analysis

Table 3.1: Weight of the dried sample

Treatments Weight

1 300g

2 300g

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 3 300g

The table 3.1 shows the weight of the dried sample. All the treatments have the

same weight of 300g before it was burnt.

Table 3.2: Weight of the ash of the cow feces charcoal briquettes

Treatments Weight

1 190g

2 200g

3 240g

Table 3.3 shows the weight of the ash of the cow feces charcoal briquettes.

All the ashes were separated after the test.

Treatment Weight of the Weight of the ash Ash Content

dried sample

1 300g 190g 158%

2 300g 200g 150%

3 300g 240g 125%

The cow dung charcoal produced in treatment 1 displays the greatest ash

content, comprising 25% of the total cow dung content.This significant ash content

indicate a higher concentration of essential minerals such as calcium, potassium, and

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phosphorus, which are common in animal waste (Gupta,et.al.,2016). However, it also

implies a potentially lower carbon content, which might affect the charcoal's efficiency.

Smoke Intensity

Through meticulous observation, it is evident that treatment 1, characterized by

its low cow feces content, exhibits a notably higher smoke intensity when compared to

treatments 2 and 3, which has higher concentrations of cow feces. The smoke plumes

produced during the combustion of treatment 1 are denser and more prominent,

enveloping the surrounding area with a noticeable haze. Conversely, treatments 2 and 3

generate smoke of a lower intensity, characterized by thinner wisps and a less

pervasive presence in the atmosphere. This distinct difference in smoke intensity

highlights the impact of cow feces content on the combustion process, with treatment

1's lower concentration resulting in a more intense smoke emission.

Interpretation of Data

The study's findings were examined through one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) to determine the optimal treatment of cow dung presence for charcoal

performance. Results indicated that integrating cow feces into charcoal production can

be both utilize and effective, suggesting its potential as an alternative to traditional

briquettes. This implies that incorporating cow dung into charcoal manufacturing

processes enables the recycling of excrement for production purposes, establishing it

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as a promising raw material. Moreover,the study suggests cow feces as a promising

resource for charcoal production, potentially mitigating environmental issues associated

with methane emissions from livestock waste.