Military campaigns and expansion abroad during the time of the Directory

Napoleon’s early years

- Born in Corsica, with his father from the Tuscan nobility – spent 5 years at the
military college of Brienne and 1 year at the Ecole Militaire in Paris – played no part
in the early revolution despite his position as second-lieutenant of artillery but read
Voltaire and favoured reform.
- Joined a Jacobin Club in Valance but his career took off with the coming of war and
the need to fight internal counter-revolution – helped drive the British from Toulon
and promoted to brigadier-general in December 1793.
- Briefly threatened by the fall of Robespierre who had appointed him as the
commandant of the artillery in the French Army of Italy in 1794 – he was tried for
conspiracy but spared the guillotine despite losing his position – took advantage of
the royalist Vendémiaire rising by saving the Republic, being promoted to the Army
of the Interior and adviser on military matters to the Directory.

The Italian Campaign

- Napoleon’s appointment as commander in chief of the French Army of Italy reflected

his talent and despite not taking part in the campaign against Austria in the spring of
1796, he still was involved in holding them back in Italy by way of diversion.
- He set about transforming the Army in Italy from one that was demoralised and
poorly-equipped to a capable fighting force with rapidly won military glory –
reaffirmed by rapid victories in the Montenotte campaign against Austria’s allies, the
Piedmontese which provided greater opportunity for good pay.
- Piedmont-Sardinia withdrew from the War of the First Coalition by the Armistice of
Cherasco, bringing a morale boost to Napoleon and the Republic by providing them
with greater supplies and munitions, as well as the right for free passage through
Piedmont for the French troops – Napoleon faced the Austrians at Lodi in May 1796,
exploiting the Pope and King of Naples to sign rapid treaties with the French, paying
protection money to avoid a French take-over.
- Further advances southwards, breaking the Austrian supply line by capturing three of
the four essential fortress towns for the Austrians – he defeated the Austrians at the
Battle of Arcola, Rivoli and Mantua, eventually occupying Venice and dominating Italy
by creating a new French republic out of his successes.
- He established two client states, with further victories extending them to create the
Cisalpine republic of June 1797 – the Capital was Milan where a Directory was
created and he appointed ministers – the same was done with the Ligurian Republic
based around north-west Italy – he further advanced to within 100km of Vienne and
dictated terms with the Austrian commander in chief, Archduke Charles.
- The Treaty of Campo Formio – done without seeking the prior authority of the
Directory – the final treaty signed by Napoleon agreed the recognition of French
control over Belgium, the Austrian acceptance of the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republic,
recognition of the French Rhine frontier and the French possession of several islands
in the Mediterranean and Venetian islands in the Adriatic – Napoleon returned to
Paris, presenting his treaty which and reshaped the map of Europe to French benefit
 and ended the War of the First Coalition, increasing his fame – it was however a
small break in the course of the French wars as no final peace was made with the
Holy Roman empire and so the War of the Second Coalition broke out in 1799.
- The Directors were threatened by Napoleons ambition and power, his ability as a
military commander and diplomat gave him a good image in terms of political
leadership – he was also creating his own image which thrilled the public and the
death of his only rival, General Hoche, increased his position of power.
- October 1797 saw his appointment to command an army to invade England – he
decided to abandon this task due to Hoche’s failed attempted invasion in Ireland to
destabilise England, and the naval might of the British, instead deciding to approach
the Directory over an invasion of Egypt.

The Egyptian Campaign

- In presenting the idea to the Directory, Napoleon believed that an invasion of Egypt
would have great benefits – It would protect French trade interests whilst still
attacking British commerce in the Easter Mediterranean and possessions in India,
whilst also distracting its Navy to create a possibility for an invasion of England itself
– A French prescence in the middle east would also be established, with an easy
victory possible as well as an exportation of the Enlightenment to the Egyptians to
promote France’s own ideas.
- The Directory agreed to the plan in March 1798, despite concerns about the cost but
Napoleon’s ambitious nature being away from Paris was a key factor in the invasion –
he set off with 35,000 troops, taking Malta despite being pursued by Admiral
Nelson’s British naval squadron – reached Egypt in July but the advance of the French
armies through the desert from Alexandria was overshadowed by Nelson destroying
the French fleet in Aboukir Bay in August which cut Napoleon off form France,
creating a blockade and forcing Napoleon to ruler as an ‘absolute ruler’ in Egypt.
- Napoleon’s original intentions of moving to India were not fulfilled yet he ventured
towards Syria with 13,000 men and took Jaffa in March 1799 – he did fail in his siege
of Acre, as the resilience of the defenders and the ability of the British to land men
and guns to help the Turks there caused him to retreat and return to Cairo in June
1799.

The Second Coalition and Napoleon’s return

- Napoleon’s clauses in the treaty of Campo Formio maintained peace in Europe until
1799, but his expulsion of Knights of St John from Malta in 1798 angered the Tsar
Paul of Russia, the head of the order of the Knights – his involvement in Egypt meant
that Austria took advantage and brought Britain, Russia, the Ottoman Empire,
Portugal and many German and Italian states to launch invasions, taking victories in
the Netherlands and the French controlled parts of Italy – Napoleon returned on this
news and sensed political opportunities as well as possible victory to boost his
position – he returned to a withdrawal of the Russians from the coalition and a
repulsion of the enemies, yet the weak position of the Directory and the unknown
failures of the Egyptian Campaign meant that Napoleon was greeted as a saviour and
placed him in an even stronger position within the hierarchy of French politics.
Napoleon’s contribution to the success

Military leadership

- Napoleon’s early campaigns in Italy had given him a great reputation as a military
genius – he applied a high level of calculation to his victories and the tactics and
strategies he employed in Italy became those which he used throughout his battles –
he improved army organisation when fighting in Italy and developed a relatively
small army which would march divided yet fight united – he also kept back a reserve
corps of both cavalry and artillery under his own direct command to enable him to
decide when they could be put to best use in a battle.
- He developed the idea of the forced march, using speed to take his men across large
distances to suppress the enemy, such as the 80km march in 36 hours of General
Augereau’s mean in the Italian Campaign – he ensured the troops lived off the land
to prevent the slow lines of supplies halting his army’s progress – he kept his enemies
guessing with attacks from all angles to lure them open or give them a weaker
position.
- His personality during war was key as well, with the sheer force of his speeches and
his example leading them, placing himself on their own level – his commanding
officers were of talent rather than social class and his soldiers believed they were
fighting for a cause – he did take needless risks such as his lack of understanding of
naval matters in the Egyptian and Syrian Campaign, yet his superior skills outweighed
this.

Character

- Described as contradictory, exhibiting a variety of personality traits, emotions and

qualities during what was a rapid rise to power – his personality changed over his
career, with 1795-99 seeing himself as a young man trying to establish and advance
his career, but later years suggest he intended to promote himself fand his country to
win glory – he was best at adjusting to circumstances and responding to different
situations in different ways.