EXPLAIN THE SCALE OF MEASUREMNTS WITH PHYSIOTHERAPEUTICS EXAMPLES FOR EACH SCALE

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT.

The aim of measurement is to provide accurate, objective, sensitive and

communicable descriptions of characteristics. Different characteristics have
different standards of the measurement. That is measurement is expressed in
different scales.

Definitions of scales;

A scale is a device designed to assign numerical score to people to place

them on continuity with respect tot attribute being measured.

In other words it is the procedure assigning numbers to a various degree of

opinion, attitude and other concepts.

The following are the different levels of the measurement or scales of

measurement

 Ordinal.
The next higher level of measurement is the ordinal scale. This scale
consist of ranking of all categories of variable according to some
criteria such as grading of muscle strength or ranking of socio
economic classes or ranking of the student accuracy to marks.

1st rank-high income group.

2nd rank-middle income group

3rd rank-low income group.

In this scale each category is in a unique position in relation to other

categories. But the distance between the categories are not known.

Statistical analysis-rank correlation, median, quartile deviation,

some non parametric test, e.g.) wilcardsin s test.

 Nominal.
It is the weakest level of measurement .in this scale the observations
are placed in broad categories which may be denoted by symbols,
labels or names. E.g.) classifying patients according to diagnostic
groups or type of residence etc. rural or urban etc constitute
nominal scale.

Statistical analysis for numerical scale

 Chi square test

 Interval
The interval scale has in addition to ordinal level of measurement,
an important characteristics, that the distance between any two
numbers [values of the variable] is fixed and equal. In this scale the
zero point and unit of measurements are orbitary.eg) temperature
measurement in centigrade and Fahrenheit.

Statistical analysis-mean, median, mode, standard deviation,

range,’t’

Test, ‘F’test

 Ratio.
The highest and most précised level of measurement with all the
characteristics of an interval scale. In addition has not a true zero
point as its origin, it is called ratio scale.eg) height, weight physical
distances etc such as chest circumference, muscle bulk.

Statistical analysis-mean, median, mode standard deviation,

ANOVA’t’ test, coefficient of correlation

TYPES OF SCALES

Subjective scales of exercise responses

Rate of perceived exertion.

0 -nothing at all

0.5 -very very weak.

1 -very weak.

2 -weak.

3 -moderate

4 -somewhat strong

5 - Strong

6 - Strong

7 -very strong

8, 9
10 -maximum strong.

Breathlessness

0 -nothing at all

0.5 -very very light

1 -very light.

2 -light.

3 -moderate

4 -somewhat hard

5 - Strong

6 - Strong

7 -very hard

8, 9

10 -maximum hard.

Discomfort for pain

0 -nothing at all

0.5 -very very weak

1 -very weak.

2 -weak.

3 -moderate

4 -somewhat strong

5 - Strong

6 - Strong

7 -very strong

8, 9

10 -maximum hard.

Fatigue
0 -nothing at all

0.5 -very very light

1 -very light.

2 -light.

3 -moderate

4 -somewhat hard

5 - Strong

6 - Strong

7 -very hard

8, 9

10 -maximum hard.

Other scales

Apgar score and dubowitz scale for measuring children’s growth.

Barthel index; FIM, GWB

It is a functional activity scale

Angina scale; for coronary heart disease.

Berg balance scale for balance.

Kartz index for disability measurement.

Glasgow coma scale.

MRC scale-muscle power.

VAS scale for pain.

McGill pain questionnaire.

EXPLAIN ABOUT THE SOURCES OF REVIEWS OF LITERATURE AND ITS

USES IN RESARCH
The Literature refers to the collection of scholarly writings on a topic. This
includes peer-reviewed articles, books, dissertations and conference papers.
When reviewing the literature, be sure to include major works as well as studies
that respond to major works. You will want to focus on primary sources, though
secondary sources can be valuable as well.
Primary Sources
The term primary source is used broadly to embody all sources that are original.
Primary sources provide first-hand information that is closest to the object of
study. Primary sources vary by discipline.
In the natural and social sciences, original reports of research found in academic
journals detailing the methodology used in the research, in-depth descriptions,
and discussions of the findings are considered primary sources of information.
Other common examples of primary sources include speeches, letters, diaries,
autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts,
photographs, and drawings.
Secondary Sources
A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or second hand data or
information.
Secondary sources are written about primary sources.
Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are
considered secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of
results with few details on the methodology. Other examples of secondary
sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work.
Review of literature
Extensive, exhaustive, systematic examination of the sources, applicable
and relevant to the research topic.

It is the key step in the research process. Review of literature refers to an

extensive exhaustive and systematic examination of the publication relevant to
the research project. Before any research can be started, whether it is single study
or extended project, a review of literature of previous studies and experiences
related to the proposed investigations should be done. One of the most
satisfying aspects of the review of literature is the contribution, it makes new to
the knowledge, insight and general scholarship of the research.

Uses

The review of literature serves as

  essential background for any research,
 critical examination of the previous research will help the researcher to
formulate, delimit to problem of minimize the possibility of duplication
of research to suggest the theoretical framework for the study and
 to learn from the reported experience of others, about its feasibility, to
critically evaluate the various methods used by others and
 to choose the most appropriate designs for the investigation and so on.
 Such a review also helps to discuss the results and draw conclusions.
purpose of a literature review is to:

 Provide a foundation of knowledge on a topic

 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit
to other researchers
 Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies,
open questions left from other research
 Identify the need for additional research (justifying your research)
 Identify the relationship of works in the context of their contribution to
the topic and other works
 Place your own research within the context of existing literature, making
a case for why further study is needed.
 Narrative literature review, also referred to as traditional literature
review, critiques literature and summarizes the body of a literature.
Narrative review also draws conclusions about the topic and identifies
gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge. You need to have a
sufficiently focused research question to conduct a narrative literature
review

 Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and well-defined

approach compared to most other types of literature review.
Systematic literature review is comprehensive and details the
timeframe within which the literature was selected. Systematic
literature review can be divided into two categories: meta-analysis and
meta-synthesis.

 When you conduct meta-analysis you take findings from several studies
on the same subject and analyze these using standardized statistical
procedures. In meta-analysis patterns and relationships are detected
and conclusions are drawn. Meta-analysis is associated with deductive
research approach.

 Meta-synthesis, on the other hand, is based on non-statistical

techniques. This technique integrates, evaluates and interprets findings
of multiple qualitative research studies. Meta-synthesis literature
 review is conducted usually when following inductive research
approach.

 Scoping literature review, as implied by its name is used to identify the

scope or coverage of a body of literature on a given topic. It has been
noted that “scoping reviews are useful for examining emerging
evidence when it is still unclear what other, more specific questions
can be posed and valuably addressed by a more precise systematic
review.”[1] The main difference between systematic and scoping types
of literature review is that, systematic literature review is conducted to
find answer to more specific research questions, whereas scoping
literature review is conducted to explore more general research
question.

 Argumentative literature review, as the name implies, examines

literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in
the literature. It should be noted that a potential for bias is a major
shortcoming associated with argumentative literature review.

 Integrative literature review reviews, critiques, and synthesizes

secondary data about research topic in an integrated way such that
new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. If your
research does not involve primary data collection and data analysis,
then using integrative literature review will be your only option.

 Theoretical literature review focuses on a pool of theory that has

accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena.
Theoretical literature reviews play an instrumental role in establishing
what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what
degree existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new
hypotheses to be tested.

 At the earlier parts of the literature review chapter, you need to specify
the type of your literature review your chose and justify your choice.
Your choice of a specific type of literature review should be based upon
your research area, research problem and research methods. Also, you
can briefly discuss other most popular types of literature review
mentioned above, to illustrate your awareness of them.
EXPLAIN ABOUT RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

What is Research Report Writing ?

Project/research report is the written way of communicating the results of an

investigation. It is a document which reflects about how the research is
conducted, the care that has been exercised throughout the study and the
findings in a manner that can be utilized for decision. making. It is observed
that executives are rarely interested in the methodology adopted by the
researcher in the investigation; they are interested only in the final results.
From their viewpoint, the research report is the written presentation which the
executive see, about a project carried out by the researcher but Initiated by the
decision maker (executive) and it conveys the information desired by the
decision maker in an understandable form.

Report writing is an art, which must be learnt through hard work, practice and
effort. The information and recommendations placed before the management
are of little value unless they assist in making judgements and lead to decisions.
Therefore, a report should be written' very carefully so as to stimulate thought
and lead to action. Report writers should concentrate on the collection of
relevant data, organizing the data and arriving at a conclusion. The contents of
the report play a very important role in stimulating action.

Types of Research Report Writing

There are various types of research report writing, each serving a specific
purpose and designed for different audiences. Here are some common types of
reports writing:

1) Experimental Research Report:

This type of research report presents the findings of an experiment or
controlled study. It includes information about the research question,
hypothesis, methodology, data collection methods, statistical analysis, results,
and interpretation. Experimental research reports aim to provide a detailed
account of the research process and its outcomes.

2) Descriptive Research Report:

Descriptive research reports focus on describing a particular phenomenon,
population, or situation. These reports provide a comprehensive overview of the
subject under investigation, including its characteristics, demographics,
behaviors, or other relevant factors. Descriptive research reports often involve
the collection and analysis of data through surveys, observations, or interviews.

3) Analytical Research Report:

Analytical research reports involve the examination and analysis of existing
data, literature, or information to draw conclusions or generate insights. These
reports may involve the synthesis of various sources, the comparison of
different studies, or the application of statistical methods to analyze data.
Analytical research reports aim to provide a critical evaluation and
interpretation of existing knowledge.

4) Case Study Report:

Case study reports focus on in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation,
often within a specific context. These reports provide a detailed examination of
an individual, group, organization, or event, aiming to understand and explore
unique circumstances, processes, or outcomes. Case study reports may involve
qualitative data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, or
document analysis.

5) Literature Review Report:

Literature review reports summarize and synthesize existing research studies
and scholarly publications on a specific topic. These reports provide an
overview of the current state of knowledge, identify gaps or inconsistencies, and
highlight key findings or trends. Literature review reports often involve
extensive reading, analysis, and critical evaluation of relevant literature.

6) Comparative Research Report:

Comparative research reports involve the comparison of multiple variables,
groups, or situations to identify similarities, differences, or patterns. These
reports aim to explore relationships, make cross-cultural or cross-contextual
comparisons, or examine the impact of different factors on a particular
outcome. Comparative research reports may use quantitative or qualitative data
collection methods and involve statistical analysis or thematic comparisons.

7) Action Research Report:

Action research reports focus on the process and outcomes of a research study
conducted in collaboration with practitioners or stakeholders to address
specific problems or improve practices. These reports often involve cycles of
planning, action, observation, and reflection, aiming to generate practical
knowledge and inform decision-making within a specific context.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Preparing a project/research report is not an easy task. It should be written with

perfection as any wrong information may mislead and confuse the readers.
Writing research report is one of most important tasks in the entire research
process, as it allows the researchers to present it in front of the managers so
that they can make decisions and take actions accordingly. The 9 steps of
writing research reports are as follows:

1) Verifying the Sources of Data Collection:

Verification of the sources of information is a fundamental task which should
be carried out prior to the preparation of research report. The information can
be collected from various primary and secondary sources. More important is the
research issue, more is the verification needed.

2) Formulating a Rough Pattern:

During the data collection, researcher notes down the significant and related
information that can be included in the research report. As the researcher
proceeds in noting down the information, he formulates a pattern to identify
relevant and irrelevant information.

3) Formulating Final Pattern:

On the basis of formulated rough pattern, the collected data is analyzed. While
analyzing the data, the researcher might feel the need to collect more data,
while some of the existing data may get rejected because of their unsuitability.
By analyzing collected data, gradually the final pattern of the research report is
formulated which is continuously refined.

4) Making an Outline:
After formulating the final pattern, an outline of the research report is made,
where the researcher decides how to present the report. Various decisions to be
made in this stage are related to problem statement, arrangement of various
sections and a logical sequencing is decided. Many times it is not needed, but it
helps la finalizing the structure of report.
5) Writing the First Draft:
The next step is writing the first draft of report. It is a rough draft which is
prepared by researcher at first. In this stage, the researcher is still in confusion
between the notes and the outline of report. Hence, this draft needs refinement
till it is finalized.

6) Presenting the Rough Draft:

In this stage, a rough draft which is prepared in previous stage, is presented in
front of the management. It is very important for a researcher to make the
management understand what the report is trying to communicate. While
preparing rough draft, it should be kept in mind that the language should be
clear as well as appealing. The researcher should note down all the suggestions
that are given for the improvement.

7) Refinement in Rough Draft:

In this stage, all the refinements that are suggested by the management are
made in the draft. The researcher also needs to carefully analyze the draft and
make necessary changes such as adding important details, rearrangement of
text, checking of grammar and spelling, etc. This refinement continues in a loop
till the top management approves the report.

8) Evaluation of Report:
After continuous refinement, an almost final report is prepared. In this stage,
the top management evaluates the effectiveness of report. They analyze
whether the research is completed as per the instructions or not In this step,
the reliability and the validity of the report is checked against set parameters.
The report is effective when it is able to communicate the purpose of research
clearly and comprehensively without hampering the quality of the report.

9) Present and Publish the Final Report:

Once the report is finally approved after evaluation, the next thing is presenting
it to the intended audience. The presentation should be effective enough to get
the attention about the research objectives. This presentation can be enhanced
with the help of diagrammatic representation and hand-outs, interaction with
audience. Once, the report is successfully presented, it is the time to publish it
so that general public can get to know about the research. Organizations can
inform the common public with the help of various techniques, such as,
bulletin boards, newsletters, etc.

Precautions in Preparing the Research Report

Report writing can be considered as an art which is learn through practicing
and experience. While preparing project/research report, following precautions
should be taken by the researcher:

1) Accuracy:
A research report should contain accurate information about the research
problem and research objectives as inaccurate information may mislead the
managers and can cause problems in decision-making.

2) Simplicity:
An Ideal research report should be simple in every aspect. The layout, wording.
grammar, phasing, sequencing, tabulation, etc., should be developed with full
attention to keep it simple.

3) Clear and Completeness:

A research report should be clear and complete. These two terms are
complementary to each other. Researchers should not use ambiguous words or
sentences while preparing a research report. The report should be clearly
defined in terms of its objective, scope, sources, findings, etc. The concepts and
techniques of the report should be explained appropriately, to make the
research report complete in every sense.

4) Conciseness:
The research reports should be concise and brief enough to represent all the
information needed by the executives as they want the facts and results only.
But this feature of research report should not be compromised with the clarity
and completeness of the report. The report should be able to highlight the
essential points briefly without damaging its quality.
5) Comprehensibility and Readability:
Research report should be comprehensive and easily readable. There should be
no confusion in the language or grammar of the contents. Technical language
or terms should be avoided in the preparation of questionnaire. The language
and content of the report should be in such a way that it can be understood by
everyone.

6) Reliability:
The information included in the research report should be reliable and valid. It
is also essential that all important facts should be included so that readers may
understand it easily. Researchers should prepare the report with special care
such that the erroneous information should not be included, as it confuses the
readers.

7) Timelines:
The unique feature of research report is that it should be prepared within a
stipulated time. Timeframe is the crucial aspect of a report, as data included in
the report may become obsolete or irrelevant after certain period time.

8) Logical Content:
All the contents of a research report should be written in a logical way. None of
the information should be included without proper investigation and analysis.
There should be a sequence applied to all the components of report. The entire
report should be categorized into server parts containing district facts and
information and should facilitate the case to locate the concerned topic in a
report.

9) Original Content:
The contents of a research report should be original and specific. The research
report should address some specific problem. The researcher should attempt to
provide a solution to the problem being addressed.

10) Free from Errors:

The report should not contain any errors such as spelling errors, missing data,
grammatical errors, incorrect calculations, etc. Researchers should ensure the
report to be error- free before presenting it finally.

11) Good Appearance:

Research reports should be well typed, neat and clean. It should maintain this
consistency throughout the report, to catch the attention of readers.

Importance of Research Report Writing

Research report serves many purposes for the organization and plays a crucial
role in management. Preparing a research report is important due to following
reasons:

1) Communicates the Information:

Research report can be used as means of communicating facts and information
to the top management or executives in the organization. With the help of
reports, ideas, suggestions, and concepts of the organizations are conveyed to
their shareholders, customers, general public, top management executives, etc.
Communicating information through reports allow the managers to make
efficient decisions.

2) Helps In Evaluation:
Research report helps the managers to re-evaluate their prevailing problem as
well as to plan for future efficiently. Research reports also help various
departments 10 co-ordinate and control their activities. Research reports assist
general public in finding probable suggestions regarding their problems.

3) Facilitates Measuring Performance:

Research reports can also help in evaluating performance of a particular
department/organization, town, district, stale, or country. It provides relevant
and complete information about the performance which in turn helps in
finding out the ways for battement.

4) Predicts Future Trends:

Research reports contain the facts and figures related to some crucial incidents
or occurrence that help in predicting the future occurrences. It can forecast the
changing trends of consumer buying, upcoming variation in the market or
economy or need of technical advancement.

5) Helps in Making Desirable Changes:

Report helps in making desirable changes in a department, organization,
market, or economy, by understanding its consequences and giving valuable
suggestions. It identifies the factors responsible for poor performance of a
particular plan, policy, scheme, or organization and provides ideas or solutions
to eliminate those factors so that positive changes could be implemented.

6) Advancement of society:
Research reports contribute to the advancement of society by addressing
societal challenges, improving healthcare practices, developing innovative
technologies, and informing public policy. They provide the foundation for
evidence-based practices and initiatives that can lead to positive social,
economic, and environmental outcomes.

7) Academic and professional recognition:

Publishing research reports in reputable journals or presenting them at
conferences enhances researchers' academic and professional reputation. It
helps establish their expertise, contributes to their career advancement, and
allows them to engage in scholarly discussions and collaborations with peers.

Characteristics of Writing an Effective Research Report

An effective research report possesses several key characteristics that contribute

to its quality and usefulness. Here are some important characteristics of an
effective research report:

1) Clear and concise:

An effective research report presents information in a clear and concise
manner, avoiding unnecessary jargon or complex language. The report should
be easily understandable to the intended audience.

2) Well-structured:
A good research report follows a logical structure, including sections such as an
introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and
conclusion. Each section should flow smoothly, and the report should have a
coherent overall structure.

3) Objective and unbiased:

A research report should maintain objectivity and avoid bias in presenting the
findings and interpreting the results. The researcher should strive to present an
unbiased analysis of the data and avoid personal opinions or preconceived
notions.

4) Relevant and focused:

An effective research report is focused on the research question or objective and
presents information that is directly relevant to the study. It should avoid
including irrelevant details or information that does not contribute to the main
findings.

5) Supported by evidence:
A strong research report provides evidence to support its claims and findings.
This includes referencing relevant literature, using appropriate research
methods, collecting reliable data, and presenting results with proper statistical
analysis.

6) Comprehensive:
A good research report covers all essential aspects of the research, including
relevant background information, a thorough literature review, a detailed
methodology, comprehensive data analysis, and insightful conclusions. It
should leave no important gaps in the research process.

7) Well-documented:
An effective research report includes proper citations and references to
acknowledge the work of others and support its own findings. It should follow a
consistent citation style, such as APA or MLA, and provide a bibliography or
reference list.

8) Appropriate language and tone:

The language and tone used in a research report should be professional,
objective, and formal. It should maintain a balance between being technical
enough to convey the research accurately and accessible enough to be
understood by the intended audience.

9) Reliable and valid:

A good research report demonstrates the reliability and validity of the research
methods and findings. It includes information about the sample size, data
collection procedures, potential limitations, and measures taken to ensure the
validity of the results.

10) Well-presented:
The visual presentation of a research report is crucial. It should be well-
formatted with clear headings, subheadings, and an appropriate use of tables,
graphs, or figures to illustrate the data. The report should also be free from
grammatical errors and typos.

EXPLAIN ABOUT RESEARCH DESIGNS, EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND

NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen

by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen
the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for
success.

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey

research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type
(experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of designs for research:

 Datacollection
 Measurement
  Data Analysis

The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not vice-
versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they
are used.

The Process of Research Design

The research design process is a systematic and structured approach to

conducting research. The process is essential to ensure that the study is valid,
reliable, and produces meaningful results.

1. Consider your aims and approaches: Determine the research

questions and objectives, and identify the theoretical framework and
methodology for the study.
2. Choose a type of Research Design: Select the appropriate research
design, such as experimental, correlational, survey, case study, or
ethnographic, based on the research questions and objectives.
3. Identify your population and sampling method: Determine the
target population and sample size, and choose the sampling method,
such as random, stratified random sampling, or convenience sampling.
4. Choose your data collection methods: Decide on the methods, such
as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments, and select the
appropriate instruments or tools for collecting data.
5. Plan your data collection procedures: Develop a plan for data
collection, including the timeframe, location, and personnel involved,
and ensure ethical considerations.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

1. Decide on your data analysis strategies: Select the appropriate data

analysis techniques, such as statistical analysis, content analysis, or
discourse analysis, and plan how to interpret the results.

The process of research design is a critical step in conducting research. By

following the steps of research design, researchers can ensure that their study is
well-planned, ethical, and rigorous.

Research Design Elements

Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust
in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of
error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The
essential elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections to research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Characteristics of Research Design

A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create
a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four
key characteristics:

 Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make
assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected
in the research should be free from research bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions
from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the
results.
 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects
similar results every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired
results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how to form
research questions to ensure the standard of results.
  Validity:There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the
only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in
gauging results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a
population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized method
implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population
with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect how respondents answer the research questions, so
they should balance all the above characteristics in a good design. If you want,
you can also learn about Selection Bias through our blog.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various types to select which model to
implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be
broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

 Qualitative research

It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on

mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories
related to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative
observation research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists
and “what” respondents have to say about it.

 Quantitative research

It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are

essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business
decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any
organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove
to be highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

Here is a chart that highlights the major differences between qualitative and
quantitative research:
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Focus on explaining and

understanding experiences and Focus on quantifying and measuring phenomena.
perspectives.

Use of non-numerical data, such

as words, images, and Use of numerical data, such as statistics and surveys.
observations.

Usually uses small sample sizes. Usually uses larger sample sizes.

Typically emphasizes in-depth

Typically emphasizes precision and objectivity.
exploration and interpretation.

Data analysis involves

interpretation and narrative Data analysis involves statistical analysis and hypothesis testing.
analysis.

Results are presented

Results are presented numerically and statistically.
descriptively.
. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in
describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based
design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data.
This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If
the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the

cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where one observes
the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For
example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price
on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an
efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the
dependent variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by
analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions
and study how the people around them react to understand social psychology
better.
3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental
research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques
calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two
different groups.

Home Market Research Research Tools and Apps

Research Design: What it is, Elements & Types

3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental

research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques
calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two
different groups.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables

whose values range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards
+1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables, and -1 means a
negative relationship between the two variables.
4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to
evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method
helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and

thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The study explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what, how,
and why.

Benefits of Research Design

There are several benefits of having a well-designed research plan. Including:

 Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear

understanding of the research objectives and the desired outcomes.
 Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and reliability
of results, research design help to minimize the risk of bias and helps
to control extraneous variables.
 Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the
proper data is collected and data is collected systematically and
consistently.
 Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the collected
data can be analyzed effectively, providing meaningful insights and
conclusions.
 Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure the
results are clean and influential within the research team and external
stakeholders.
 Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and maximizing
the impact of the research, research design helps to ensure that
resources are used efficiently.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental research design is a framework of protocols and procedures

created to conduct experimental research with a scientific approach using two
sets of variables. Herein, the first set of variables acts as a constant, used to
measure the differences of the second set. The best example of experimental
research methods is quantitative research.

Experimental research helps a researcher gather the necessary data for making
better research decisions and determining the facts of a research study.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Experimental Research?

A researcher can conduct experimental research in the following situations —

1. When time is an important factor in establishing a relationship between

the cause and effect.
2. When there is an invariable or never-changing behavior between the
cause and effect.
3. Finally, when the researcher wishes to understand the importance of the
cause and effect.

Importance of Experimental Research Design

To publish significant results, choosing a quality research design forms the
foundation to build the research study. Moreover, effective research design helps
establish quality decision-making procedures, structures the research to lead to
easier data analysis, and addresses the main research question. Therefore, it is
essential to cater undivided attention and time to create an experimental
research design before beginning the practical experiment.

By creating a research design, a researcher is also giving oneself time to organize

the research, set up relevant boundaries for the study, and increase the reliability
of the results. Through all these efforts, one could also avoid inconclusive results.
If any part of the research design is flawed, it will reflect on the quality of the
results derived.

According to the sophistication and the rigor of controls followed the designs
may be arranged as: 1. Pre-experimental designs 2. True experimental designs 3.
Quasi-experimental designs

1. Pre-experimental Research Design

A research study could conduct pre-experimental research design when a group
or many groups are under observation after implementing factors of cause and
effect of the research. The pre-experimental design will help researchers
understand whether further investigation is necessary for the groups under
observation.

Pre-experimental research is of three types —

 1. One-shot Case Study Research Design
2. One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
3. Static-group Comparison

There are three types of Pre-experimental designs. These are One Shot Case
Study, One group Pre-test Post-test Design, and Static Group Comparison
Design.

2. True Experimental Research Design

A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or
disprove a researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of
research because it provides specific scientific evidence. Furthermore, out of all
the types of experimental designs, only a true experimental design can establish
a cause-effect relationship within a group. However, in a true experiment, a
researcher must satisfy these three factors —

1. There is a control group that is not subjected to changes and an

experimental group that will experience the changed variables
2. A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
3. Random distribution of the variables

Quasi experimental design

In quasi experimental study design, at least one characteristics of true

experiment is missing. Either randomization or use of a separate control group.
Sometime both may be absent. A quasi experimental design however always
includes manipulation of an independent variable that serves as the
intervention. One of the most common quasi experimental studies with two
groups. One of which serves as a control group in which no intervention takes
place. Both groups are observed before as well as after intervention to test if the
intervention has made any difference. The subjects for both the group have not
been randomly assigned

Study group before Intervention Study group after

Compare

Control group before Control group after

 E.g.) there is no randomization in the quasi experimental design (some
examples of experimental study, but there is no randomization)

Quasi experimental design with only one group

Another type of design, that is often choosen, because it is quite easy to

set up only one group min which an intervention is carried out. The situation is
analyzed before and after intervention to test, if there is any difference in the
observed problem. This is called before after study.

Study group Intervention Study group after

before

Comparison

This is quasi experimental research design.

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Non-experimental research is the type of research that lacks an independent

variable. Instead, the researcher observes the context in which the phenomenon
occurs and analyzes it to obtain information.

Unlike experimental research, where the variables are held constant, non-
experimental research happens during the study when the researcher cannot
control, manipulate or alter the subjects but relies on interpretation or
observations to conclude.

This means that the method must not rely on correlations, surveys, or case
studies and cannot demonstrate an actual cause and effect relationship.

Characteristics of non-experimental research

Some of the essential characteristics of non-experimental research are necessary

for the final results. Let’s talk about them to identify the most critical parts of
them.
  Most studies are based on events that occurred previously and are
analyzed later.
 In this method, controlled experiments are not performed for reasons
such as ethics or morality.
 No study samples are created; on the contrary, the samples or participants
already exist and develop in their environment.
 The researcher does not intervene directly in the environment of the
sample.
 This method studies the phenomena exactly as they occurred.

Types of non-experimental research

Non-experimental research can take the following forms:

Cross-sectional research: Cross-sectional research is used to observe and

analyze the exact time of the research to cover various study groups or samples.
This type of research is divided into:

 Descriptive: When values are observed where one or more variables are
presented.
 Causal: It is responsible for explaining the reasons and relationship that
exists between variables in a given time.

Longitudinal research: In a longitudinal study, researchers aim to analyze the

changes and development of the relationships between variables over time.
Longitudinal research can be divided into:

 Trend: When they study the changes faced by the study group in general.
 Group evolution: When the study group is a smaller sample.
 Panel: It is in charge of analyzing individual and group changes to discover
the factor that produces them.

use non-experimental research

Non-experimental research can be applied in the following ways:

 When the research question may be about one variable rather than a
statistical relationship about two variables.
 There is a non-causal statistical relationship between variables in the
research question.
 The research question has a causal research relationship, but the
independent variable cannot be manipulated.
  In exploratory or broad research where a particular experience is
confronted.

Advantages and disadvantages

Some advantages of non-experimental research are:

 It is very flexible during

the research process
 The cause of the phenomenon is known, and the effect it has is
investigated.
 The researcher can define the characteristics of the study group.

Among the disadvantages of non-experimental research are:

 The groups are not representative of

the entire population.
 Errors in the methodology may occur, leading to research biases.

Non-experimental research is based on the observation of phenomena in

their natural environment. In this way, they can be studied later to reach a
conclusion..

DISCUSS VARIOUS METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

What Is Data Collection?

Data collection is the systematic gathering and measurement of information
from relevant sources to address a research problem. It forms the backbone of
any research, as it helps in decision-making and builds the foundation to
establish solid conclusions. A data collection plan is an outline of the steps to
gather data for research.

Purpose of Data Collection

The data collection element of research is common to all fields of study.
Collecting data without a proper strategy can result in inconclusive or
unreliable findings. To ensure the success of your research, it is essential to
develop a comprehensive data collection plan.

Types of Data Collection Methods

The data collection process is approached by various methods that can be
categorized into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. However, it is
important to understand each method and select the most appropriate one to
effectively achieve your research objectives.
9 Steps for Planning Your Data Collection
Planning your data collection is important to achieve directionality in your
research. Following a proper plan can help you to simplify your data collection
procedure as it organizes the entire process. The steps for planning your data
collection are as follows:

1. Define Your Research Objectives

Before beginning data collection, it is essential to clearly formulate
your research objectives. Defining these objectives will facilitate the
identification of the types of data that need to be collected. Formulate research
questions and try to define them. This will establish a clear direction for the
study.

2. Identify the Data Requirements

After defining the research objectives, you must identify the specific data
elements required to address the research questions. Furthermore, identify the
available and accessible data and assess its efficacy. Consider both qualitative
and quantitative data sources, such as surveys, interviews, observations,
existing datasets, or experiments. Also, determine the level of detail for each
data point and the suitable methods for data collection.
3. Select Appropriate Data Collection Methods
Choose data collection methods that align with your research objectives and
data requirements. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of each methods and
select the most appropriate approach accordingly. There are various data
collection tools to choose from, such as interviews, role-playing, focus groups,
in-person surveys, online surveys, telephonic surveys and observation. Assess
the feasibility of the selected method and understand the pros and cons of each
technique to make an informed decision.

4. Set a Realistic Timeline

Set a realistic timeline for your data collection process. This will not only help
to organize your study but also ensures that you arrive at a conclusion within a
specified timeframe. However, consider the time required for method design,
pilot study, data interpretation, and analysis. Additionally, consider the
available resources and constraints to create a feasible timeline.

5. Design the Method

After selecting your data collection process, design the method using the
necessary instruments or resources. For surveys, create clear, concise, and
unbiased questions that effectively capture the desired information. Develop
interview protocols that cover the key topics you wish to explore. Carefully
design observation protocols to ensure consistency and accuracy in data
recording. Identify ways to collect maximum useful data and establish methods
to interpret it. Also, determine ways to accurately measure the collected data.

6. Pilot Testing
Before launching your data collection, conduct a pilot test to evaluate the
effectiveness of your instruments and procedures. A small-scale trial run allows
you to identify any ambiguities in the data collection process. Also, make the
necessary changes based on the pilot test feedback to enhance the reliability of
your data.

7. Standardization
Establish a detailed standardized protocol based on the type of data and the
results of the pilot testing. Also, record the specific instruments and standard
conditions required for the study. Standardization of the protocol can facilitate
the repetition of the study to check its reproducibility.

8. Establish Data Collection Procedures

Outline step-by-step procedures for data collection. Clearly document the
process, including instructions for administering surveys, conducting interviews
or observations, and handling any ethical considerations. Moreover, the
researcher must be well-trained with the data collection method and must
ensure its clear documentation.

9. Data Analysis Plan

Parallel to developing your data collection strategy, it is essential to plan your
data analysis process. Determine and design the statistical
methods or qualitative analysis techniques to derive meaningful insights from
the collected data. Operationalize the data for variables that cannot be
measured. Also, determine how to effectively represent your data.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collection Methods

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of the data collection method
aids in planning your data collection method efficiently.

Ethical Reporting of the Collected Data — Especially with the dawn of AI

In the era of rapid technological advancements, the role of artificial intelligence
(AI) in data collection and analysis has become increasingly prominent. Good
research data management practices and principles of data sharing have
become all the more crucial with the advent of AI in research data
management. AI offers immense potential for processing and analyzing large
datasets, enabling researchers to uncover valuable insights. However, using AI
in data management accompanies several concerns.

While AI simplifies the hassles of data management, it must be handled

following ethical principles. Therefore, it is crucial to address ethical
considerations when reporting the collected data using AI to ensure responsible
and transparent research practices.
Are you a researcher clueless of managing your research data and
understanding the proper use of AI? Watch this webinar “Important tips
for managing your research data” for FREE and get some clarity.

Six ways to ensure ethical reporting of collected data are:

1. Informed Consent
Obtaining informed consent from participants is an integral part of ethical
principles in research. Therefore, participants must be adequately informed
about the procedures, potential risks, and the expected duration of their
commitment.

2. Data Privacy
Respecting participants’ rights to privacy is an important ethical guideline that
researchers must adhere to. When using AI for data collection, participants
should be informed about the involvement of AI algorithms and how their data
will be used. Also, researchers should employ adequate measures to protect
participants’ data, such as anonymization and de-identification techniques.
Prior to reporting data, personal identifiers should be removed or masked to
prevent the identification of individuals. Furthermore, employing different
privacy techniques can protect participants’ identities.

3. Transparency
Transparency becomes crucial when utilizing AI algorithms for data analysis.
Therefore, researchers should strive to provide clear explanations of the
algorithms used and how they influence the analysis and reporting of data. This
includes disclosing any biases, limitations, or potential errors associated with
the AI algorithms used. Consequently, transparent reporting enhances the
accountability of research findings.

4. Mitigating Bias
AI algorithms are prone to inheriting biases present in the training data.
Researchers must be aware of these biases and evaluate them. Additionally, AI
systems should be monitored for potential biases related as race, gender, or
other sensitive attributes. Therefore, actions should be taken to introduce
fairness and mitigate bias in the reporting of results.

5. Ensuring Data Security

Safeguarding collected data against unauthorized access or breaches is vital to
ensure data security. Implement robust security measures to protect data
integrity and confidentiality. Also, utilize encryption techniques, access
controls, and secure storage protocols to prevent unauthorized access or data
leaks. Clearly communicate these security measures in your reporting to assure
participants that their data is handled responsibly.

6. Ethical Reporting of Results

When reporting findings, researchers must present data accurately and
objectively. Avoid misrepresentation or manipulation of data to support
predetermined conclusions. Also, acknowledge uncertainties or limitations
associated with the data collection process and the involvement of AI. Clearly
document and provide detailed descriptions of the data collection methods, AI
algorithms used, and data analysis techniques employed.

By prioritizing ethical considerations when reporting data collected using AI,

researchers can uphold the integrity of their research and ensure the protection
of participants’ rights. Transparently documenting the data collection process,
ensuring data privacy, addressing bias in AI algorithms, and maintaining
accountability and reproducibility contribute to responsible and trustworthy
reporting practices in the AI-driven research landscape.

DISCUSS ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROBLEMS, QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

Research Problem

Before you conceive of your project, you need to ask yourself “What is a
research problem?” A research problem definition can be broadly put forward
as the primary statement of a knowledge gap or a fundamental challenge in a
field, which forms the foundation for research. Conversely, the findings from a
research investigation provide solutions to the problem.

A research problem guides the selection of approaches and methodologies, data

collection, and interpretation of results to find answers or solutions. A well-
defined problem determines the generation of valuable insights and
contributions to the broader intellectual discourse.

Characteristics of a Research Problem

Knowing the characteristics of a research problem is instrumental in
formulating a research inquiry; take a look at the five key characteristics below:

Novel: An ideal research problem introduces a fresh perspective, offering

something new to the existing body of knowledge. It should contribute original
insights and address unresolved matters or essential knowledge.

Significant: A problem should hold significance in terms of its potential impact

on theory, practice, policy, or the understanding of a particular
phenomenon. It should be relevant to the field of study, addressing a gap in
knowledge, a practical concern, or a theoretical dilemma that holds
significance.

Feasible: A practical research problem allows for the formulation of hypotheses

and the design of research methodologies. A feasible research problem is one
that can realistically be investigated given the available resources, time, and
expertise. It should not be too broad or too narrow to explore
effectively, and should be measurable in terms of its variables and outcomes. It
should be amenable to investigation through empirical research methods, such
as data collection and analysis, to arrive at meaningful conclusions A practical
research problem considers budgetary and time constraints, as well as
limitations of the problem. These limitations may arise due to constraints in
methodology, resources, or the complexity of the problem.

Clear and specific: A well-defined research problem is clear and specific,

leaving no room for ambiguity; it should be easily understandable and precisely
articulated. Ensuring specificity in the problem ensures that it is focused,
addresses a distinct aspect of the broader topic and is not vague.

Rooted in evidence: A good research problem leans on trustworthy evidence

and data, while dismissing unverifiable information. It must also consider
ethical guidelines, ensuring the well-being and rights of any individuals or
groups involved in the study.

Types of Research Problems

Across fields and disciplines, there are different types of research problems. We
can broadly categorize them into three types.

1. Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research problems deal with conceptual and intellectual inquiries

that may not involve empirical data collection but instead seek to advance our
understanding of complex concepts, theories, and phenomena within their
respective disciplines. For example, in the social sciences, research problems
may be casuist (relating to the determination of right and wrong in questions of
conduct or conscience), difference (comparing or contrasting two or more
phenomena), descriptive (aims to describe a situation or state),
or relational (investigating characteristics that are related in some way).

Here are some theoretical research problem examples:

 Ethical frameworks that can provide coherent justifications for artificial

intelligence and machine learning algorithms, especially in contexts
involving autonomous decision-making and moral agency.
 Determining how mathematical models can elucidate the gradual
development of complex traits, such as intricate anatomical structures or
elaborate behaviors, through successive generations.

2. Applied research problems

Applied or practical research problems focus on addressing real-world

challenges and generating practical solutions to improve various aspects of
society, technology, health, and the environment.

Here are some applied research problem examples:

 Studying the use of precision agriculture techniques to optimize crop yield

and minimize resource waste.

 Designing a more energy-efficient and sustainable transportation system

for a city to reduce carbon emissions.

3. Action research problems

Action research problems aim to create positive change within specific contexts
by involving stakeholders, implementing interventions, and evaluating
outcomes in a collaborative manner.

Here are some action research problem examples:

 Partnering with healthcare professionals to identify barriers to patient

adherence to medication regimens and devising interventions to address
them.
  Collaborating with a nonprofit organization to evaluate the effectiveness of
their programs aimed at providing job training for underserved
populations.

These different types of research problems may give you some ideas when you
plan on developing your own.

How to Define a Research Problem

You might now ask “How to define a research problem?” These are
the general steps to follow:

1. Look for a broad problem area: Identify under-explored aspects or

areas of concern, or a controversy in your topic of interest. Evaluate the
significance of addressing the problem in terms of its potential
contribution to the field, practical applications, or theoretical insights.
2. Learn more about the problem: Read the literature, starting from
historical aspects to the current status and latest updates. Rely on
reputable evidence and data. Be sure to consult researchers who work in
the relevant field, mentors, and peers. Do not ignore the gray literature
on the subject.
3. Identify the relevant variables and how they are related: Consider
which variables are most important to the study and will help answer the
research question. Once this is done, you will need to determine the
relationships between these variables and how these relationships affect
the research problem.
4. Think of practical aspects: Deliberate on ways that your study can be
practical and feasible in terms of time and resources. Discuss practical
aspects with researchers in the field and be open to revising
the problem based on feedback. Refine the scope of the research
problem to make it manageable and specific; consider the resources
available, time constraints, and feasibility.
5. Formulate the problem statement: Craft a concise problem statement
that outlines the specific issue, its relevance, and why it needs further
investigation.
6. Stick to plans, but be flexible: When defining the problem, plan ahead
but adhere to your budget and timeline. At the same time, consider all
possibilities and ensure that the problem and question can be modified if
needed.

Components of a Research Problem

The components of a research problem typically include the following:
  Topic: The general subject or area of interest that the research will
explore.
 Research Question: A clear and specific question that the research
seeks to answer or investigate.
 Objective: A statement that describes the purpose of the research,
what it aims to achieve, and the expected outcomes.
 Hypothesis: An educated guess or prediction about the relationship
between variables, which is tested during the research.
 Variables: The factors or elements that are being studied, measured,
or manipulated in the research.
 Methodology: The overall approach and methods that will be used to
conduct the research.
 Scope and Limitations: A description of the boundaries and
parameters of the research, including what will be included and
excluded, and any potential constraints or limitations.
 Significance: A statement that explains the potential value or impact
of the research, its contribution to the field of study, and how it will
add to the existing knowledge.
Applications of Research Problem
Applications of Research Problem are as follows:

 Academic research: Research problems are used to guide academic

research in various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences,
humanities, and engineering. Researchers use research problems to
identify gaps in knowledge, address theoretical or practical problems,
and explore new areas of study.
 Business research: Research problems are used to guide business
research, including market research, consumer behavior research, and
organizational research. Researchers use research problems to identify
business challenges, explore opportunities, and develop strategies for
business growth and success.
 Healthcare research: Research problems are used to guide
healthcare research, including medical research, clinical research, and
health services research. Researchers use research problems to
identify healthcare challenges, develop new treatments and
interventions, and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
 Public policy research: Research problems are used to guide public
policy research, including policy analysis, program evaluation, and
policy development. Researchers use research problems to identify
social issues, assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs,
and develop new policies and programs to address societal challenges.
 Environmental research: Research problems are used to guide
environmental research, including environmental science, ecology,
 and environmental management. Researchers use research problems
to identify environmental challenges, assess the impact of human
activities on the environment, and develop sustainable solutions to
protect the environment.
Purpose of Research Problems
The purpose of research problems is to identify an area of study that requires
further investigation and to formulate a clear, concise and specific research
question. A research problem defines the specific issue or problem that needs to
be addressed and serves as the foundation for the research project.

Identifying a research problem is important because it helps to establish the

direction of the research and sets the stage for the research design, methods,
and analysis. It also ensures that the research is relevant and contributes to the
existing body of knowledge in the field.

A well-formulated research problem should:

 Clearly define the specific issue or problem that needs to be

investigated
 Be specific and narrow enough to be manageable in terms of time,
resources, and scope
 Be relevant to the field of study and contribute to the existing body of
knowledge
 Be feasible and realistic in terms of available data, resources, and
research methods
 Be interesting and intellectually stimulating for the researcher and
potential readers or audiences.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Prediction or the hypothesized relationship which is to be tested by the

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain at least one independent and one dependent variable.

Experimental and non experimental hypothesis testing

The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed as

experimental hypothesis research testing. The research in which the
independent variable is not manipulated is called non experimental hypothesis
research testing.
 Eg) reading ability and intelligence of student-non experimental research
testing.

Experimental design properties

1) Randomization.

2) Manipulation.

3) Control group

Experimental and control group

 In an experimental hypothesis research testing, group exposed to usual

conditions is termed as controlled group and group exposed to new or
some special condition is termed as experimental group.
 Pain values reduced by IFT are controlled group and pain values
educed by IFT +manipulation therapy is the experimental group.
Treatment

Different condition under which experimental and control group

are put usually referred as treatments

Experiment; the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis

relating to some research problem is known as an experiment.

1) Absolute experiment.

2) Comparative experiment

Formulation of the hypothesis

Hypothesis is an assumption statement about the relationship

between two or more variable that suggest an answer to the research question
.it is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relation ship between
variables.

Purpose of the hypothesis

Hypothesis is formulated before the study is actually conducted

because they provide the direction for the collection analysis and
interpretation of data. It provides bridge between theory and reality. It
provides powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge, since they enable
the researcher to objectively enter the new areas of discovery. it provides
direction for any research endeavor like tentatively identifying the anticipated
 outcome which is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery.
It serves as the framework for drawing conclusions.

Advantage of hypothesis

Hypothesis builds the researchers confidence in his results. Sound

hypothesis gives direction to the enquiry. A good hypothesis enriches theory
(hypothesis become part of theory and theory is an elaborate hypothesis)

Directional hypothesis

Hypothesis which specifies the expected direction of the

relationship between independent and dependent variable.eg) structured pre
operative education is more effective than structured post operative
education in reducing the patient perception of pain. Teaching breathing
exercise before open heart surgery is more effective than that teaching it after
surgery.

Non directional hypothesis

It indicates the existence of relationship between the variable but not

specify the anticipated direction of the relationship.eg) structured pre
operative education is effective than structured post operative education in
reducing the patient perception of pain. Teaching breathing exercise before
open heart surgery is effective than that teaching it after surgery.

Research hypothesis

Statement about the expected relationship between variables, it is

research hypothesis; a research hypothesis indicates what the outcome of the
study is expected to be. It may be directional and non directional.

Statistical hypothesis

No relationship between variables, rejection of statistical;

hypothesis is equivalent to acceptance of research hypothesis.

RESEARCH ETHICS
  Ethics are the set of rules that govern our expectations of our own
and others’ behavior.
 Research ethics are the set of ethical guidelines that guides us on
how scientific research should be conducted and disseminated.
 Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific
researchers It is the guideline for responsibly conducting the
research.
 Research that implicates human subjects or contributors rears
distinctive and multifaceted ethical, legitimate, communal and
administrative concerns.
 Research ethics is unambiguously concerned in the examination of
ethical issues that are upraised when individuals are involved as
participants in the study.
 Research ethics committee/Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews
whether the research is ethical enough or not to protect the rights,
dignity and welfare of the respondents.
Principles of Research Ethics:
Being honest with the beneficiaries and respondents. Being
Honesty honest about the findings and methodology of the research.
Being honest with other direct and indirect stakeholders.

Ensuring honesty and sincerity. Fulfilling agreements and

promises. Do not create false expectations or make false
Integrity promises.

Objectivity Avoiding bias in experimental design, data analysis, data

interpretation, peer review, and other aspects of research.

 Informed consent means that a person knowingly,

voluntarily and intelligently gives consent to
participate in a research.
 Informed consent is related to the autonomous
right of the individual to participate in the research.
 Informing the participant about the research
Informed consent objective, their role, benefits/harms (if any) etc.

Respect for It includes:

person/respondent
 autonomy, which requires that those who are
capable of deliberation about their personal goals
should be treated with respect for their capacity for
 self-determination; and
 protection of persons with impaired or diminished
autonomy, which requires that those who are
dependent or vulnerable be afforded security
against harm or abuse.

Maximize the benefits of the participants. Ethical obligation to

maximize possible benefits and to minimize possible harms to
Beneficence the respondents.

Non-maleficence/
Protecting the Do no harm. Minimize harm/s or risks to the human. Ensure
subjects (human) privacy, autonomy and dignity.

Responsible Responsibly publishing to promote and uptake research or

publication knowledge. No duplicate publication.

It means keeping the participant anonymous. It involves not

revealing the name, caste or any other information about the
Protecting participants that may reveal his/her identity.
anonymity

Protecting confidential information, personnel records. It

includes information such as:
 Introduction and objective of the research
 Purpose of the discussion
 Procedure of the research
 Anticipated advantages, benefits/harm from the
research (if any)
 Use of research
 Their role in research
 Right to refuse or withdraw
 Methods which will be used to protect anonymity
and confidentiality of the participant
 Freedom to not answer any question/withdraw from
the research
 Who to contact if the participant needs additional
Confidentiality information about the research.
 Avoid discrimination on the basis of age, sex, race, ethnicity or
Non- other factors that are violation of human rights and are not
discrimination related to the study.

Be open to sharing results, data and other resources. Also accept

Openness encouraging comments and constructive feedback.

Carefulness and Be careful about the possible error and biases.

respect for
intellectual Give credit to the intellectual property of others. Always
paraphrase while referring to others article, writing. Never
property
plagiarize.
The obligation to distribute benefits and burdens fairly, to treat
equals equally, and to give reasons for differential treatment
based on widely accepted criteria for just ways to distribute
Justice benefits and burdens.

Advantages of Research Ethics:

 Research ethics promote the aims of research.
 It increases trust among the researcher and the respondent.
 It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the
dignity, rights and welfare of research participants.
 Researchers can be held accountable and answerable for their
actions.
 Ethics promote social and moral values.
 Promotes the ambitions of research, such as understanding,
veracity, and dodging of error.
 Ethical standards uphold the values that are vital to cooperative
work, such as belief, answerability, mutual respect, and impartiality.
 Ethical norms in research also aid to construct public upkeep for
research. People are more likely to trust a research project if they can
trust the worth and reliability of research.
Limitations of Research Ethics:
 Possibilities to physical integrity, containing those linked with
experimental drugs and dealings and with other involvements that
will be used in the study (e.g. measures used to observe research
participants, such as blood sampling, X-rays or lumbar punctures).
 Psychological risks: for example, a questionnaire may perhaps
signify a risk if it fears traumatic events or happenings that are
especially traumatic.
  Social, legal and economic risks: for example, if personal
information collected during a study is unintentionally released,
participants might face a threat of judgment and stigmatization.
 Certain tribal or inhabitant groups may possibly suffer from
discrimination or stigmatization, burdens because of research,
typically if associates of those groups are recognized as having a
greater-than-usual risk of devouring a specific disease.
 The research may perhaps have an influence on the prevailing health
system: for example, human and financial capitals dedicated to
research may distract attention from other demanding health care
necessities in the community.
Characteristics:
Informed Consent: Participants in physiotherapy research must provide
informed consent before participating. This involves ensuring that participants
understand the purpose of the research, the procedures involved, potential risks
and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time.
Confidentiality: Researchers must maintain the confidentiality of participant
information. This involves protecting the privacy of individuals and ensuring
that any data collected is anonymized and securely stored.
Beneficence and Non-Maleficence: Physiotherapy research should aim to
maximize benefits to participants while minimizing harm. Researchers should
carefully weigh the potential risks and benefits of the research and take steps to
ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks.
Respect for Autonomy: Participants should be treated with respect and their
autonomy should be upheld. This includes the right to make decisions about
participation and the right to withdraw from the study at any point without
facing negative consequences.
Scientific Rigor: Physiotherapy research should adhere to high scientific
standards. This involves using rigorous research methods, transparent reporting
of results, and avoiding biases that could compromise the validity of the
research.
Purpose:
Protection of Participants: The primary purpose of research ethics in
physiotherapy is to protect the rights, safety, and well-being of research
participants. This includes protecting them from physical and psychological
harm and ensuring their right to privacy.
Integrity of Research: Ethical conduct is essential for maintaining the integrity
of physiotherapy research. Adhering to ethical principles helps ensure that the
research is credible, trustworthy, and contributes valuable information to the
field.
Public Trust: Ethical research practices contribute to the maintenance of public
trust in the scientific community and healthcare professions. When the public is
confident that research is conducted ethically, they are more likely to support
and engage with research endeavors.
Advancement of Knowledge: By following ethical guidelines, physiotherapy
research contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field. Ethical
research practices help build a robust foundation of evidence that can inform
clinical practice and improve patient outcomes.
EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

What is Research?

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern

or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American
sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive
and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify

the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative
research, and deductive methods are more commonly associated
with quantitative analysis.

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

 Identify potential and new customers

 Understand existing customers
 Set pragmatic goals
 Develop productive market strategies
 Address business challenges
 Put together a business expansion plan
 Identify new business opportunities

What are the characteristics of research?

 1. Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while
making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive
and deductive methods.
3. Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in
natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
5. It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps
create more research opportunities.
6. It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The
information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories
provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured
in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and
the experiment’s final result.

purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory

studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may
not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to
handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before.
This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more
conclusive data collection and analysis.
2. Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues
through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the
behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct
the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are
describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study
conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century
possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the
company profit.

1. Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to

understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard
procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For
example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of
rebranding on customer loyalty.
Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Resear

Approach used Unstructured Structured Highly structured

Conducted
Asking questions Asking questions By using hypotheses.
through

Early stages of decisionLater stages of decisionLater stages of de

Time
making making making

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to

investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can
analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your
questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand
perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data
through surveys and questionnaires. You can use this data to make smart
decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research
repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your
research data in one centralized data repository.

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational

methods, usually open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially
non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants
think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study

Quantitative methods

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a

systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify
relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a
phenomenon.
Types of quantitative methods include:

1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

 Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

 Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
 Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce
similar results.
 Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
 Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business
decisions.

8 tips for conducting accurate research

1. Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you
observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
2. Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings
appears.
3. Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least
common.
4. Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
identified in a SWOT analysis.
5. Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
6. Act on your strategies
7. Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry
if necessary
8. Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze
and interpret results.