Lesson 1 2.

Communications – are systems that

allow information to be moved between two
Information Technology (IT) remote points of communication.

Information technologies are systems of 3. Know-How – is the ability to draw on the

hardware and/or software that capture, power of IT to solve problems and to take
process, exchange, store, and/or present advantage of the opportunities it creates.
information using electrical, magnetic,
and/or electromagnetic energy.

Technologies meeting this definition range

from digital cameras to Internet radio to
corporate computer networks (Information
Technology in Theory By Pelin Aksoy, Laura
DeNardis)

Two IT Examples
Two examples of information technologies
that capture, process, exchange, store, and
present information:
SUB-COMPONENTS

Example 1: Cellular telephony

HARDWARE: Physical components of a
computer that consists of the system unit,
input/output, secondary storage and
communication devices.

PROGRAMS: Sets of computer instructions

written in computer language that enable a
computer to accomplish a specific task.

INFORMATION: Processed data that

Example 2: Wireless Internet access
human can understand and get knowledge
out of it. PEOPLE: The most important part
as they make end-users more productive.

APPLICATION:

B. Information Technology Components

PROCEDURES: Refer to rules or guidelines
people follow when using software,
Its three main components are:
hardware and data.

1. Computers – are electronic machines

that can be instructed to accept, process,
store, and present information to a user.
Lesson 2
Review on Computer Technology
(Hardware and Software)
The performance of a computer
determined by the following factors:
Primary Factors
- Computer type (desktop,
workstation, or server)
- Central processing unit (CPU)
- Random-access memory (RAM)
- Data storage, for example Hard Disk
Drive (HDD)
Other Factors:
- GPU
- Connectivity
Computer Categories
1. Computers For Individual Use
1. Desktop computers
- The most common type of computer
- Sits on the desk or floor
- Performs a variety of tasks
2.Workstations
- Specialized computers
- More powerful than a desktop
3.Mobile computers
- Small portable computers
- Laptop & Notebooks
4.Tablet computers
- Newest development in portable
computers
- Run specialized versions of office
pro
5.Smart phones
- Hybrid of cell phone and PDA
- Web surfing, e-mail access
6.Video game console
- an interactive entertainment
computer
2. Computers For Organizations
1. Network servers
- Centralized computer
- All other computers connect
is - Provides access to network
resources
- Multiple servers are called server
farms
- Often simply a powerful desktop
—-------------------------------------------------------
Tower Servers
- is the most basic of servers on the
market. It costs and takes up as
much space as an average desktop
PC.
Rack Servers
- This system stacks the servers in
racks in much the same
way that a CD rack stacks CDs.
Blade Servers
- is the most compact server of the
bunch for its ultrathin shape.
- Multiple blade servers can fit
vertically into a single enclosure,
sharing certain hardware
components like power supplies.
—-------------------------------------------------------
2. Mainframes
- (often colloquially referred to as Big
Iron[1]) are computers used mainly
by large organizations for critical
applications
- Handle thousands of users
- Users access through a terminal
Ex. An IBM z15 90% of IBM's mainframes
have transaction processing software
installed.
3. Supercomputers
- The most powerful computers made
 - Handle large and complex Tesla) and AMD (Radeon, Radeon
calculations Pro).
- Process trillions of operations per - Intel processors come with
second integrated HD or UHD Graphics, and
- Found in research organizations Iris, Iris Pro or Iris Plus Graphics,
while AMD processors come with
Ex. Frontier (US) integrated Radeon or Radeon Vega
World’s fastest Supercomputer 2023 Graphics.
- Oak Ridge Leadership - Integrated GPUs share RAM with
- Computing Facility in Tennessee, the main processor
USA/
- Est. Cost: US$600M (estimated SOFTWARES
cost)
- Power: 21 MW
- Speed: 1.102 exaFLOPS

Operating System
is a software, which makes a computer to
actually work.
- It is the software the enables all the
programs we use.
- The OS organizes and controls the
hardware.
- OS acts as an interface between the
—-------------------------------------------------------
application programs and the
Graphics Processing Unit
machine hardware.
- For graphically demanding tasks,
- Examples: Windows, Linux, Unix
you'll need a system with a discrete
and Mac OS, etc.,
desktop or mobile GPU, with its own
Programming Languages
dedicated video RAM (which can
is what computer programmers use to
range between 2GB and 16GB). The
develop software programs, scripts, or other
main discrete GPU vendors are
sets of instructions for computers to
Nvidia (GeForce, Quadro, Titan,
execute.
Examples: ● MAC OS
-C language ● Google Chrome
● Linux versions
● iOS
● Android

2. Server/Network operating system

- is an operating system that is
designed specifically to support a
network.
Utilities - typically resides on a server.
Helpful tools provided as part of an OS - Client computers on the network rely
• Utilities are used to: on the server(s) for resources.
- Launch programs (Windows - designed specifically to support all
desktop) sizes of networks, including medium-
- Manage files (Windows explorer) to large-sized businesses and Web
- Get help servers
- Customize user interface (Windows
Control Panel) Examples:
- Configure equipment (Windows - Windows Server (2003, 2008, 2012,
Control Panel) 2016, 2019)
- Ex. Formatting, Scandisk, etc. - UNIX OS –XENIX ,UNIX
Wars,NetBSD
- Can be purchased separately - LinuxOS (Ubuntu Server, RedHat ,
- Ex. Norton Utilities by Semantec SUSE Linux Enterprise,CentOS,
Corp. Debian, Oracle Linux, Mageia,
ClearOS, Arch Linux,, Slackware)
Device Drivers - Netware (OES2018)
- System software helps the computer
control a peripheral device. 3. Embedded Operating System
- Includes upon purchasing a device - The operating system on most
—------------------------------------------------------- mobile devices and many consumer
Types of OS electronics
- resides on a ROM chip.
1. Stand-Alone Operating System
- It is a complete operating system ● Detail of EmbeddedOS
works on desktop computer, laptop - Hardware that supportsEmbedded
or workstation/client OS.
- Stand-alone operating systems that - Little ComputingPower.
run on mobile devices are called - Low Memory.
mobile operating systems. - Examples:
- Functions entirely independently ● Windows Embedded CE,
from a network ● iPhone OS,
- Examples: ● Google Android
● Windows
 ● Embedded Linux
● Symbian OS
4.Multi -User Operating System
- allows multiple users to access a
computer system at the same time.
Time -sharing systems and Internet
servers can be classified as multi
-user systems
- access the same OS and share the
hardware and the kernel, performing
tasks for each user concurrently.
- Examples:
- Ubuntu Server
- Window Server
5. Multi-Tasking Operating System
- allows more than one program to be
running at the same time, from the
point of view of human time scales.
- For example, any editing task can be
performed while other programs are
executing concurrently. Other
example, user can open Gmail and
Power Point same time.
- Provides API functions that allow
cleaner and smaller application
code.
- Offers modulartask-based
development, which allows modular
task-based testing.
- General-Purpose Operating System
(GPOS)is used for desktop PC and
laptop while Real-TimeOperating
System (RTOS) only applied to the
embedded application.
- RTOS Applications:
- aerospace and defense,
medical devices, industrial
equipment, robotics, energy,
transportation, network
infrastructure, automotive,
-OS Examples:
-PSOS,VRTX,QNX,Lynx,VxWorks,Windows
CE

- Examples:
- Windows XP
- Windows Vista
- Windows 7
- Windows 8
- Windows 10
Types of Application Software
- Windows 2000
1. Proprietary software: one-of-a-kind
- IBM’s OS/390
program for a specific application,
- Linux
usually developed and owned by a
- UNIX
single company
2. Off-the-shelf software: existing
6. Real-Time operating system (RTOS)
software program that is purchased
- an operating system intended to
serve realtime application that
process data as it comes in, mostly
without buffer delay.
 are in the same location or
dispersed around the world

- Groupware: software that helps

groups of people work together more
efficiently and effectively

Personal Application Software Packages

- Software suite: collection of single
application programs packaged in a
bundle
❖ Microsoft Office: most popular
general-purpose software suite
❖ Other general-purpose software
suites: Corel’s WordPerfect Office,
Lotus SmartSuite, Sun
Microsystems’s StarOffice

- Integrated application packages:

offer a range of capabilities for less
money than software suites

❖ Example: Microsoft Works

Workgroup Application Software

- Workgroup application software:
support teamwork, whether people
Lesson 3
Purpose of Information Technology (IT)
- is to manage and process
information efficiently. IT
encompasses a wide range of
activities and technologies that
involve the use of computers,
software, hardware, networks, and
data to store, transmit, retrieve, and
manipulate information.
Here are some key purposes and roles of
IT:
1. Data Management: IT helps
organizations collect, store, and
manage vast amounts of data. This
includes databases, data analysis,
and data security.
2. Communication: IT facilitates
communication within and between
organizations through tools like
email, video conferencing, and
instant messaging.
3. Automation: IT allows for the
automation of repetitive tasks and
processes, increasing efficiency and
reducing human error.
4. Enhancing Productivity: IT tools
and software help individuals and
businesses be more productive,
from word processing to project
management
5. Enhancing Productivity: IT tools
and software help individuals and
businesses be more productive,
from word processing to project
management.
6. Information Security: IT plays a
critical role in securing sensitive
information and protecting against
cyber threats.
7. Global Connectivity: IT enables
businesses and individuals to
connect and collaborate on a global
scale, breaking down geographical
barriers.
8. E-commerce: IT powers online
shopping and digital transactions,
revolutionizing the way businesses
sell and consumers buy products
and services.
9. Research and Development: IT
supports research in various fields
by providing computational power
and data analysis tools.
10. Entertainment and Leisure: IT is
widely used in the entertainment
industry, from video games to
streaming services.
11. Education: IT is an integral part of
modern education, with computers
and online resources being used for
teaching and learning.
12. Healthcare: IT systems are crucial
for managing patient records,
medical imaging, and telemedicine.
13. Transportation and Logistics: IT
plays a role in optimizing
transportation routes, tracking
shipments, and managing supply
chains.
14. Government and Public Services:
IT is used in various government
functions, from tax collection to
public safety and e-government
services.
15. Scientific Research: IT is
indispensable in fields like
astronomy, genomics, and climate
modeling, where massive data sets
and complex simulations are
involved.
Information System
1. Organisations require information to
determine appropriate decision making.
2. Organisations rely on information some organizational purpose or
systems which allow for the processing and function.
analysing of information.

3. Information systems can range from

software, hardware, data, people and
procedures. These procedures are
designed to accumulate information for the
day to day activities of an organisation.

4. Organisations require information to

determine appropriate decision making.

5. Organisations rely on information

systems which allow for the processing and
analysing of information.
6. Information systems can range from
software, hardware, data, people and
procedures. These procedures are
designed to accumulate information for the
day to day activities of an organisation.
Information system has been defined in
terms of two perspectives:
one relating to its function;
the other relating to its structure.
- From a functional perspective; an
information system is a management decisions.
technologically implemented
medium for the purpose of
recording, storing, and disseminating
linguistic expressions as well as for
the support of inference making.
- From a structural perspective; an
information system consists of a
collection of people, processes,
data, models, technology and partly
formalized language, forming a
cohesive structure which serves
Types of Information Systems
1. Transaction Processing Systems
1. TPS is required by the operational level,
however highly structured decisions are
reliant on transaction processing systems.
2. TPS is used to capture and process an
organisations daily activities. TPS is mainly
concerned with routine tasks that must be
recorded for example sales orders,
purchase orders, payroll, stock records.
3. TPS is responsible for providing raw data
which is then useful for making
4. The main aim of TPS is to record and
store day to day activities of an
organization. These systems help the
organization add value to their products and
services.
5. TPS produces information which is error
free and reliable. The information generated
can produce reports instantly.
6. Labor efficiency is increased.
 2. Knowledge Work Systems
1. KWS is concerned with creating new
knowledge and preserving that
knowledge/information within an
organisation.
2. KWS requires specialist computer
applications to help knowledge workers
(workers primary function is to obtain
process and disseminate information)
prioritise and organise information.
3. Tasks can be effectively organised and
completed with efficiency. Information can
be easily shared between departments,
managers and employees.
3. Management Information Systems
1. MIS are computer aided systems that
support management activities. MIS are
designed to collect and convert data to
information from internal and external
sources.
2. The aim of MIS is to organise and
communicate information to management
on all levels. This information allows
managers to conduct tasks effectively and
efficiently.
3. MIS consists of computer systems that
entail the following components, Hardware,
Software, Data, Procedures and People.
4. Organisations use a variety of information
systems to improve efficiency and decision
making.
5. MIS include, Decision Support Systems
(DSS), Expert Systems, Executive
Information Systems.
6. MIS are systems that support
management in decisions involving Sales,
Turnover, Marketing, Accounting, Supplier
information,
MIS CAN BE USED FOR:
1. Product Information: detailed information
about products/services offered.
2. Sales: Information such as turnover,
sales, payment records immediately
available.
3. Marketing: information regarding
customer satisfaction/complaints, records of
market research such as questionnaires
and focus groups.
4. Suppliers: information regarding list of
suppliers and costs
5. Accounting: information concerning
transactions, financial information and
reports for previous year earnings/sales.

4. Decision Support Systems
1. DSS are information systems (computer
applications) specifically designed to
support management decision making.
2. These information systems are highly
effective in decisions that are risky and pose
high levels of uncertainty.
3. DSS is a skilfully designed software,
unique to each organisation. These systems
allow strategic management to make
decisions based on the organisations
current trends.
4. DSS brings together a variety of
information such as:
a. Weekly transactions and sales figures. b.
Trends and forecasts for projected future
revenue
c. Consequences of decision alternatives
based on the past information and trends.
5. The aim of DSS is to ensure that
appropriate data and information is readily
available for the purpose of the decision
5. Executive Information Systems
1. EIS is specifically designed for top-level
managers and executives.
2. EIS is an infrastructure that gathers and
convert internal and
external information for use by executives to
make informed decisions, and information
concerning organizational goals.
3. EIS packages enable management to
access information such as financial
information, work in process, stocks levels
and inventory, market share/trends, and
suggestion for improvement.
EIS contains the following features:
1. Captures summary data which reflects on
other systems used by the organisation.
2. The drilling down and summarising of
information to provide detail to support
management decisions.
3. Graphical representation and trend
analysis features
6. Expert Systems
1. Expert systems are applications that
emulate decision making capabilities of
humans, or a knowledge worker who holds
specific skills and experience within an
organisation.
2. The system is also referred to as artificial
intelligence as these systems can reason,
diagnose problems and offer remedies.
3. Expert systems contain a set of rules,
experiences, individual knowledge and
scenarios for alternative decisions, in order
words 'consulting service'.
Expert systems are used in organisations
to:
1. Provide knowledge and guidance on the
matter of law instead of consulting a
solicitor.
2. Provide financial advice based on past
and present information fed into the system.
3. The banking industry use expert systems
to judge credibility of credit worthiness of
loan applicants.
Lesson 4
A. Data, Information and Knowledge
Information
- Data are processed in such a way that
they become meaningful or useful in making
decisions or interpretations.
• Only when we assign a context or
meaning does the data become
information. It all becomes meaningful when
we are told:
• Equivalent sample information for the data
of Examples a, b and c. are shown
respectively:
a. 4, 8, 12 and 16 are the first four
answers in the 4x table
b. cat, dog, mice, rabbit is a list of
household pets
c. 97.8, 99.5, 96.4, 100 are normal
body temperature in degree
Fahrenheit
Knowledge
- Awareness and understanding of a set of
information
• Knowledge can therefore be:
- acquiring and remembering a set of
facts, or
- the use of information to solve
problems.
• If we now apply the examples of
information mentioned above to gain further
knowledge we could say that:
- 4, 8, 12 and 16 are the first four
answers in the 4 x table (because
the 4 x table must start at four and
go up in fours)
- A lion is not a household pet since it
is not in the list and it lives in the
wild.
- A person with body temperature
above 37 degree Celsius may be
sick
B. Database
- It is an organized collection of
logically related data.
- It is made up of one or more files
- It is like a “filing cabinet” that can
help one to manage, organize, sort
and modify information.
• Examples of Database:
- Student information records
- Library catalogs
- Patient Medical records
• It is made up of:
a. Field
b. Record
c. File
1.) Field (data value):
- Smallest unit of information in
database
 - It is collection of related characters ❖ Redundancy of data
that define a characteristic of an ❖ Problem with complex data
entity (person, place or thing) ❖ Problems in updating in bulk
2.) Record: ❖ Problems in adding incomplete data
- Fields are grouped together to form ❖ Problems in removing group of data
records.
- It is collection of related fields D. Relational Database
3.) File: - A better approach to database
- A collection of similar types of design is known as the Relational
record Database. In this model, the data is
stored in multiple tables or relations.
C. Database Structures - However, if we tend to separate the
Pupil information from the Teacher
- One of the most common data from the database in Figure 2.5 into
structures is a database table. separate tables as shown below, we
- A database table consists of rows have lost the link between pupil and
and columns. their tutor teacher
- A database table is also called as a
two-dimensional array.
- An array is like a list of values, and
each value is identified by a specific
index.
Example of a database table:
- Each column represents a Field. It is
also called as Attribute
- Each row represents a Record.
Another name for Record is Entity

Flat File Database

- is a database structure which consists of
only a single table.
- While this is a simple way to store files, a
flat-file system becomes increasingly
inefficient as more data is added.

Disadvantages of a Flat-file database

 • A Database Management System (DBMS)
is a program that manages a database.
• DBMS is a collection of programs provided
by the vendor, which enable the data to be
accessed, filtered and generally processed
efficiently, in order to yield useful information
for the user
• DBMS interprets statements of language
(e.g. SQL). to perform requested database
access.
• In principle, user will generate a question
E. Database System
(query) and DBMS will search the dB to find
- A database system is a software
the answer, which will be returned to user
program that stores information
• A DBMS will include additional tools to
which relates to a particular activity
provide graphical user interfaces and report
or purpose
generation programs to facilitate the
• Examples:
delivery of information to the user.
a. A bank needs to store the
• It will also provide tools to create, edit,
information relating to customer
process, and modify data and also to
accounts
program the database.
b. A hospital needs to keep data about
patients and the medication
dispensed,
c. A university needs to maintain
record of its students,
d. A internet sales business needs to..
- In a properly designed database, the
information is updated once and all other
occurrences of this within the database will
be updated automatically.
- A principal requirement of any database
system is the ability to generate, store and
retrieve data efficiently

Structured Query Language (SQL)

Database Management Systems (DBMS)
• SQL is Structured Query Language, which
is a computer language for storing,
manipulating and retrieving data stored in
relational database.
• SQL is the standard language for Relation
Database System.
• All relational database management
systems like “MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
Sybase, Informix, postgres and SQL Server”
use SQL as standard database language.
SQL Commands
Lesson 5
Data Communication
is a process of exchanging data or
information between computer network
devices over a transmission medium.
Characteristics
The performance of any data
communications system depends on the
following four basic characteristics:
1. Delivery: The data should be sent to the
intended destination or user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system
should be able to deliver the data
accurately, without having any errors.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to
be delivered in a timely manner without any
delay; also called real time transmission of
data.
4. Jitter: It is the difference in the packet
arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the
timeliness of data being transmitted.
Five Components
1. Message: It is the information to be
transmitted by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender: Any device that is capable of
sending the message. Also known as
Transmitter.
3. Receiver: It is the device that the sender
wants to transmit the message.
4. Transmission Medium: It is the physical
path that carries the message from
the sender to the receiver. Example: wire
5. Protocol: It is an agreed upon set or
rules used by the sender and receiver to
communicate data. A protocol is a set of
rules that governs data communication.
Transmission Modes
Two devices communicate with each other
by sending and receiving data. The data
can flow between the two devices
in the following ways.
Types of Transmission Modes
1. Simplex mode of transmission is
unidirectional
- Only one of the devices
sends the data and the other
one only receives the data.
- Example of Simplex mode: a
computer sends data to a
monitor only receives data.
2. Half-Duplex
- In this mode, both the
stations can transmit as well
as receive but not at the
same time. Example: A
walkie-talkie.
3. Full-Duplex In this mode, both the
stations can send and receive the
message simultaneously. Example:
A telephone system.
Transmission Media
• Transmission media enables computers to
send and receive messages but do not
guarantee that the messages will be 2. Wireless or Unguided Media: Use radio
understood. waves of different frequencies and do not
need a wire or cable conductor to transmit
-Communication is possible only if signals.
information is encoded in a signal, and the • Examples:
signal is carried on a transmission the a.) Radio waves
characteristics of the signal and of the
medium both determine the quality of the
communication medium.

b.) Microwave

1. Conducted or Guided Media: Use a

conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic c.) Satellite
cable to move the signal from sender to
receiver.

Applications of Wireless Transmission

Media
a.) They are used in Cellular phones.
b.) They are used in wireless LANs.

Guided and UnGuided Transmission

Media Comparisons
Lesson 6

Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Wireless communication:
broadcast and reception of
electromagnetic waves
- Wave frequency ( ): number of
cycles (oscillations) per second
- Wavelength ( ): distance between
two consecutive minima or maxima
in the wave
- Speed of propagation (c): varies
from medium to medium (in a
vacuum it is equal to the speed of
light-3 x 108 m/s)

Satellite Frequency Bands

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency Bands
- A band is a small section of the
spectrum of radio communication
frequencies, typically used for the
same purpose.
- Bands are divided at wavelengths of
10n metres, or frequencies of 3×10n
hertz.
Satellite
- A satellite is simply anybody that
moves around another (usually
much larger) one in a
mathematically predictable path
called an orbit
- A communication satellite is a
microwave repeater station in space
that is used for telecommunication,
radio and television signals
- The first man made satellite with
radio transmitter was in 1957
- There are about 750 satellites in the
space, most of them are used for
communication
Satellite Communication
- The two stations can use a satellite
as a relay station for their
communication
- One Earth Station transmits the
signals to the satellite.
- Uplink frequency is the frequency
at which Ground Station is
communicating with Satellite
- The satellite Transponder converts
the signal and sends it down to the
second earth station. This frequency
is called a Downlink frequency
- A communications satellite acts as a
repeater
Benefits of Satellites
• Adaptable to customer requirements
• Mobility
• Cost advantage
•Not affected by geographical obstructions
• Quick implementation
• Alternate routing or redundancy
• Cost is independent of distance
•Cost effective for short term requirements
Types of satellites
• Communications satellites
- Weather satellites: provide
meteorologists with scientific data to
predict weather conditions and are
equipped with advanced instruments
• Earth observation satellites
- Navigation satellites: Using GPS
technology these satellites are able
to provide a person's exact location
on Earth to within a few meters
- Broadcast satellites: broadcast
television signals from one point to
another (similar to communications
satellites).
- Scientific satellites: perform a
variety of scientific missions e.g. the
The Hubble Space Telescope
• Military satellites
VSAT
- Very Small Aperture Terminal
(VSAT) is a device known as a small
private earth station - that is used to
transmit & receive data signal
through a satellite.
- VSAT stands for Very Small
Aperture Terminal and refers to
receive/transmit terminals installed
at dispersed sites connecting to a
central hub via satellite using small
diameter antenna dishes (0.6 to 3.8
meter). GPS
- VSAT is used for both broadcast & - stands for Global Positioning System
interactive applications of effective - is the only system today able to
data, voice and video transfer. show you your exact position on the
Earth anytime, in any weather,
Who invented satellites? anywhere.
- Arthur C. Clarke, who went on to be
a well-read author of science fiction • The three parts of GPS are:
novels. ØSpace Segment
• When were satellites invented? ØUser segment
- The first satellites were ØGround Control segment
experimented with in the late 1950’s
and early 1960’s. Intelsat’s first - Orbiting navigational satellites
satellite, which was called ‘Early - Transmit position and time data
Bird’, was launched on 6 April 1965. • Handheld receivers calculate
• How big is a satellite? Ø latitude
- (Based on the Intelsat 9 series) Ø longitude
Before liftoff it’s, about 4,500 Ø altitude
kilograms! Without fuel, it’s about Ø velocity
2,000 kilograms! The body is 5.6 • Developed by Department of Defense
meters …and the solar panels are
31 meters wide
• How many years can a satellite last?
- It varies by satellite type. The type of
satellites owned by Intelsat can last
over 20 years, but typically their
work life is approximately 15 years.
Components of GPS GPS Control Segment

• Space segment
• Control segment
• User segment

GPS Satellite Vehicle

Theory of Positioning
ØTrilateration
ØMeasuring distance
ØAccuracy of time and location of
satellites

Trilateration
GPS User Segment - A method for determining the
intersections of three sphere
surfaces given the centers and radii
of the three spheres. Trilateration
Triangulation
Atomic Clocks
- Atomic clocks in GPS satellites keep
time to within three
nanoseconds—threebillionths of a
second.
- use Atomic Clocks for accuracy, but
because of the expense, most GPS
receivers do not.
Line of Sight
- Transmissions Line of sight is the
ability to draw a straight line
between two objects without any
other objects getting in the way.
- GPS transmission are line of sight
transmissions.
- Obstructions such as trees,
buildings, or natural formations may
prevent clear line of sight.
Light Refraction
- satellites can be like light. When
they hit some interference (air
patterns in the atmosphere, uneven
 geography, etc.) they sometimes
bend a little.
Light Reflection
- Sometimes the signals bounce off
things before they hit the
receivers.
Applications of GPS Technology
• Location - determining a basic position
• Navigation - getting from one location to
another
• Tracking - monitoring the movement of
people and things
• Mapping - creating maps of the world
• Timing - bringing precise timing to the
world