INTRODUCTION TO THE

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN

PERSON

TRUTH AND OPINION

MARITES V. GERILLA

2024

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person – Truth and Opinion
Philippine Copyright © 2024 by Marites V. Gerilla

All rights reserved. No part of this work or publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the author.

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 WHAT IS THIS MODULE ALL ABOUT?

Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - Truth and Opinion

The "Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - Truth and Opinion" module is
designed to be a comprehensive source of foundational concepts in philosophy, particularly
focusing on the nature of truth and opinion. Before you go aboard on this intellectual journey,
let me guide you by reading through this preface.

Module Overview:
Philosophy means “love of wisdom”. At its core, it is a pursuit of wisdom and truth. It is what
people undertake in pursuit of the fundamental truth of themselves, of the people around
them, and everything that affects their existence. In this module, we will explore the
complexities of the human experience, examining the nature of truth and the role of opinion
in shaping our understanding of the reality of life. This journey is not only about intellectual
enrichment but also about challenging your assumptions and encouraging you to think
critically about the fundamental aspects of existence. Our central focus will be on examining
and understanding the concepts of truth and opinion, taking into consideration how these
concepts shape our perceptions, beliefs, and the way we interact with our peers, family, and
the world as a whole.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. To realize that philosophizing will lead to wisdom or truth.
2. To distinguish opinion from truth.
3. To use a philosophical method in the search for truth.
4. To differentiate between subjective opinions and objective truths.
5. To evaluate situations that demonstrate the difference between opinion and truth based
on theories of truth.

Module Structure:
• Foundations of Philosophy: Introduces the fundamental principles of philosophy and its
relevance to the human experience.
• Truth and Opinion: Explores the complex relationship between truth and opinion,
exploring historical perspectives and contemporary relevance.

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 •Subjectivity and Objectivity: Explores the distinctions between subjective opinions and
objective truths, considering their implications in various contexts.
• Philosophical Methods: Equips tools to engage in a philosophical method in search for
truth
• Practical Application: Encourages the application of philosophical concepts to evaluate
and critically reflect on situations that depicts the difference between opinion and truth.
How to Navigate:
• To create a solid understanding of the principles of philosophy, start with the
foundational section.
• Progress through each section to build a comprehensive perspective of the topics.
• Deepen your understanding through engaging enthusiastically with readings,
discussions, and reflective exercises

Reflect and Engage:

Enthusiastically engage in discussions, don’t limit your thoughts, examine, and reflect critically
because philosophy is a dynamic and participatory discipline. Embrace the reflective exercises
provided to enrich your learning experience.
We hope to sparks your intellectual curiosity through this module. We encourages
meaningful dialogue, that would leads you to a deeper understanding of the profound
questions that philosophy seeks to address.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I extend my sincere gratitude to all who contributed to the development of this

module, making it a valuable resource for learners. Their invaluable support, dedication, and
expertise have played a significant role in shaping the content and ensuring its educational
value.
Special thanks to our reviewers, and my co-teachers in Puerto Bello National High
School for their meaningful feedback and constructive suggestions. Their insights have
enriched the clarity and effectiveness of the module.
We would like to acknowledge the technical support provided by technical Support
Team]. Their expertise in instructional design and multimedia integration has contributed to
the seamless delivery of content.
We extend our gratitude to Cebu Technological University with the advisership of Dr.
Renissa Quinones for its commitment to fostering educational excellence.

Marites V. Gerilla

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface -------------------------------------------------------- iv
Acknowledgements ------------------------------------------------------- vi
General Objectives ------------------------------------------------------- vi
Table of Contents -------------------------------------------------------- vii
Pre-Test -------------------------------------------------------- 1
Let’s See What You Already Know ---------------------------------------------- 3
Realizing the Pursuit of Wisdom or Truth ------------------------------------ 4
Introduction to Philosophical Inquiry ------------------------------------- 4
Exploring the Quest for Wisdom --------------------------------------------- 5
PROMINENT PHILOSOPHERS IN QUEST FOR WISDOM AND TRUTH 6
Distinguishing Opinion from Truth ------------------------------------------------ 8
Opinion vs Truth ------------------------------------------------ 8
The Four ‘Classical’ Theories of Truth ----------------------------------- 9
Other Types of Truth ----------------------------------------------- 11
Let’s Apply our Understanding ----------------------------------------------- 12
Understanding Opinion ---------------------------------------------------------- 12
Using Philosophical Methods in the Search for Truth -------------------------- 13
Evaluating Situations Demonstrating the Difference between Opinion and Truth 16
Let’s See What You Have Learners ------------------------------------------------ 18
Post -Test ---------------------------------------------------------- 19
Glossary of Terms ---------------------------------------------------------- 21
Bibliography/References ----------------------------------------------------- 22

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 Pre-Test
Read the item carefully. Write the letter of your answer.

1. It is a method that often involves rigorous analysis and logical reasoning through the
examination of arguments and the evaluation of evidences.
A. Methods of philosophizing
B. Philosophical investigation
C. Scientific Inquiry
D. Philosophical inquiry

2. He defended the opposition of the “doxa” (the opinion) and the “episteme” (the
knowledge) in his book, The Republic.
A. Aristotle
B. Confucius
C. Plato
D. Socrates

3. His method involved engaging in conversations with individuals to explore and clarify
their understanding of concepts, ultimately aiming at the discovery of truth.
A. Aristotle
B. Confucius
C. Plato
D. Socrates

4. It is defined as the science and art of correct thinking.

A. Inquiry
B. Logic
C. Philosophizing
D. Scientific research

5. It’s a theory of truth that believes that what is true is what matches observable reality.
A. Correspondence Theory of Truth
B. Coherence Theory of Truth
C. Consensus Theory of Truth
D. Pragmatic Theory of Truth

6. It considers beliefs as true when they correspond to reality and are true for everyone,
whether they agree with it or not.
A. Complex Truth
B. Relative Truth
C. Objective Truth
D. Subjective Truth

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7. It is a type of truth that deals with the idea of what we should and should not do and is
formed by an individual or society and their values and experiences.
A. Complex Truth
B. Relative Truth
C. Objective Truth
D. Subjective Truth

8. It is a statement of belief or feeling and it shows one’s feelings about a subject.

A. Claim
B. Fact
C. Opinion
D. Truth

9. It is a statement of actuality or occurrence and is based on direct evidence, actual

experience, or observation.
A. Claim
B. Fact
C. Opinion
D. Truth

10. According to metaphysics, it is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts,

or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state
what is the case.
A. Claim
B. Fact
C. Opinion
D. Truth

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 LET’S SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW!

THE SIX BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT

(This story is an adaptation of a famous poem by American poet John Godfrey Saxe)
AND Once upon a time, there lived six
blind men in a village. One day the villagers
told them, “Hey, there is an elephant in the
village today.” They had no idea what an
elephant is. They decided, “Even though we
would not be able to see it, let us go and feel
it anyway.” All of them went where the
elephant was. Everyone of them touched
the elephant.
“Hey, the elephant is a pillar,” said the first
man who touched his leg.
https://miro.medium.com/v2/resize:fit:560/1*-
“Oh, no! it is like a rope,” said the second
fXKvfupJw6OUDLTo3CzhA.jpeg
man who touched the tail.

“Oh, no! it is like a thick branch of a tree,” said the third man who touched the trunk
of the elephant.
“It is like a big hand fan” said the fourth man who touched the ear of the elephant.
“It is like a huge wall,” said the fifth man who touched the belly of the elephant.
“It is like a solid pipe,” Said the sixth man who touched the tusk of the elephant.
They began to argue about the elephant and every one of them insisted that he was
right. It looked like they were getting agitated. A wise man was passing by and he saw this.
He stopped and asked them, “What is the matter?” They said, “We cannot agree on what the
elephant is like.” Each one of them told what he thought the elephant was like. The wise man
calmly explained to them, “All of you are right. The reason every one of you is telling it
differently is because each one of you touched a different part of the elephant. So, the
elephant has all those features that you all said.”
“Oh!” everyone said. There was no more fight. They felt happy that they were all right.
Questions for Discussion:
1. How does this story illustrate the challenges of finding the truth, and what does it
imply about the nature of opinions??
2. Can you think of your real-life situation where different perspectives lead to
conflicting truths? ”
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 3. Why is it important for blind men to share their individual experiences?
4. Can you think of a situation in your own life where understanding different
perspectives would have led to a more accurate understanding of the truth?
5. How can individuals apply the lessons from the story in their personal lives?

LET’S LEARN!

Realizing the Pursuit of Wisdom or Truth:

The Story of the Blind Men and the Elephant exhibits that there may be some truth to
what someone says. Sometimes people see that truth and sometimes not because of different
perspectives with which people may not agree. So, rather than arguing like the blind men,
one could say, “Maybe you have your reasons.” To avoid arguments. Philosophy explained
that truth can be stated in different ways just like what the blind men stated which for each
of them is considered as truth in their perspectives. It teaches us to be tolerant towards others
for their viewpoints and allows us to philosophize to lead us to truth considering all other
factors.
Introduction to Philosophical Inquiry:
Philosophizing is oftentimes associated with negative meanings and characteristics. In
dictionary.com philosophizing means to speculate or theorize, usually in a superficial or
imprecise manner, and to think or reason as a philosopher. Some people are tagged as
“pilosopo” if he or she answer a question annoyingly or if a person answers with a question.
But what really is philosophizing? In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake
when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they
live, and their relationships to the world and to each other. They philosophize to know the
reasons behind a situation and in search of truth. Philosophizing means to think or express
oneself in a philosophical manner.
Philosophical inquiry is a method geared towards arriving at a clear meaning of common
human issues in everyday life. People have been and are exposed to different perceptions of
the world. They are expected to respond to a variety of human issues. There are many
philosophical approaches people can apply to effectively understand human nature and its
relationship to everyday situations. There are several methods of Philosophizing which
include Logic, Socratic, Existentialism, Analytic Tradition, and Phenomenology.
To address philosophical questions, a philosopher must be logical. Logic is the science and
art of correct thinking. It uses methods to achieve accuracy and objectivity in explaining what
a valid logical argument is. In logic, an argument is composed of premises and a conclusion. A

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premise is an assumption that something is true. From the initial premises, philosophers try
to work out answers to basic philosophical questions. A conclusion is a claim that has been
reached through the process of reasoning and is justified by preceding premises.
Formulating philosophical arguments is an important part of the philosophical method.
Philosophers usually offer arguments for the different claims they make. Thus, this indicated
that philosophy is a quest for the most logical and valid arguments. Logic provides a means of
analyzing basic concepts to determine if they are true or false, valid or invalid, and consistent
or inconsistent. It plays an important role in the history of philosophy. Almost all human
knowledge is founded on logical analysis. However, logic is not enough to find answers to
philosophical questions. To arrive at answers to philosophical questions, it is important to
prioritize relevant facts surrounding the question. Specific criteria are needed for selecting
the facts relevant to the issue. Applying a theory helps to determine what facts should be
considered in an explanation (Archie and Archie, 2004).
Exploring the Quest for Wisdom:
Engaging in philosophical inquiry is often regarded as a reflective and enlightening
endeavor that provides individuals with unique insights and a deeper understanding of the
world. This view is grounded in several key aspects of philosophical practice:
1. Critical Examination of Assumptions:

Even own assumptions and beliefs are critically examined because of philosophical
inquiry. Individuals can uncover their assumptions and biases by questioning their
foundations of thoughts that would influence their understanding of the world.

2. Exploration of Fundamental Questions:

Philosophy deals with fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, morality,

and the nature of reality. We quest for meanings and purpose in everyday experiences,
examining the underlying principles that govern an action or situation. Believing that
everything happens for a reason makes us more reflective of our experiences.
3. Development of Analytical and Logical Thinking:

Philosophical inquiry often encompasses thorough analysis and logical reasoning.

Arguments are examined, and evidence is evaluated which leads to developing critical
thinking skills that apply not only to philosophical questions but also to a wide range of
disciplines and real-life situations.
4. Cultivation of Open-mindedness:

Philosophical exploration encourages open-mindedness and a willingness to consider

alternative perspectives. Engaging with diverse philosophical traditions and ideas helps
individuals appreciate the complexity of human thought and fosters intellectual humility.

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 5. Understanding Different Philosophical Perspectives:

Philosophy exposes individuals to an array of philosophical perspectives which would

equip them with a comprehensive understanding of historical and cultural dimensions
that have shaped different worldviews.

6. Ethical Reflection:

Philosophy examines philosophical questions that lead to reflection on moral

principles and values. Ethical reflection improves self-awareness and appreciation of one's
ethical perspective which would eventually lead to better decision making.

PROMINENT PHILOSOPHERS IN QUEST FOR WISDOM AND TRUTH

Numerous historical philosophers have been motivated by the pursuit of wisdom or truth.
Their works and contributions have significantly shaped the landscape of philosophy. Here
are examples of some prominent philosophers whose motivations were deeply rooted in the
quest for wisdom or truth:
A. Socrates (469–399 BCE):
Socrates, a central figure in ancient Greek philosophy, is renowned for his commitment
to the pursuit of truth through dialogue and questioning. His method, known as the
Socratic method, involved engaging in conversations with individuals to explore and
clarify their understanding of concepts, ultimately aiming at the discovery of truth.
B. Plato (427–347 BCE):
A student of Socrates, Plato founded the Academy in Athens and is known for his
dialogues that explore the nature of reality, knowledge, and morality. In works such as
"The Republic," Plato sought to understand the nature of justice and the ideal state, driven
by a pursuit of truth and the quest for a more just society.
C. Aristotle (384–322 BCE):
Aristotle, a student of Plato, contributed significantly to various fields, including
metaphysics, ethics, and biology. His systematic approach to inquiry aimed at
understanding the fundamental principles of existence and morality. Aristotle's works
reflect a commitment to uncovering truths through careful observation and analysis.
D. Confucius (551–479 BCE):
Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, focused on ethics, morality, and the development of a
virtuous society. His teachings, compiled in the "Analects," emphasize the pursuit of
wisdom through self-cultivation, ethical behavior, and the quest for a harmonious and just
social order.
E. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804):
Kant, a German philosopher from the Enlightenment era, sought to reconcile reason and
empirical observation. In his seminal work "Critique of Pure Reason," Kant explored the

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nature of human knowledge and the conditions that make knowledge possible, driven by
a desire to establish the limits and possibilities of human understanding.
F. Rene Descartes (1596–1650):
Descartes, a French philosopher and mathematician, is often referred to as the father of
modern philosophy. In his quest for certainty, Descartes famously declared, "Cogito, ergo
sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). His "Meditations on First Philosophy" reflects a profound
commitment to doubt everything in the pursuit of indubitable truths.
G. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900):
Nietzsche, a German philosopher, explored existential questions and the nature of
morality. His works, such as "Thus Spoke Zarathustra," were driven by a desire to question
traditional values and uncover new perspectives on truth, wisdom, and the human
condition.
H. John Locke (1632–1704):
Locke, an English philosopher, contributed significantly to political philosophy and
epistemology. His "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" reflects a dedication to
understanding the origins and limits of human knowledge, driven by a desire for a more
empirically grounded understanding of truth.
These philosophers, among many others, have left lasting legacies in the pursuit of
wisdom or truth. Their works continue to inspire contemporary philosophical inquiry and
reflect the diverse ways in which individuals have sought to uncover fundamental truths
about the world and human existence.

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Distinguishing Opinion from Truth:
Opinion vs Truth

OPINION
OPINION VS TRUTH

Truth, in metaphysics and the philosophy of language, is the property of sentences,

assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with
the facts or to state what is the case (Blackburn, 2023). It is often associated with the accuracy
of statements or beliefs in describing the real world. When a statement aligns with facts,
events, or the actual state of affairs, it is considered true. A person does not readily accept a
statement as truth which is why philosophical inquiry is applied to examine the truthfulness
of a situation or statement.
The concepts of fact, truth, claim, and opinion are interconnected in the search for
truth, but they play distinct roles in the process. A fact is a statement that can be objectively
verified and proven to be true. Facts are considered to be accurate representations of reality
They are often based on empirical evidence, observation, or measurement. In the search for
truth, facts serve as foundational pieces of information that contribute to building a
comprehensive and accurate understanding of a subject.
A claim is a statement or assertion that may be true or false. Claims can be based on
facts, interpretations of facts, or subjective perspectives. When someone makes a claim, it
implies that they are putting forward a statement that they believe to be true. Claims become
relevant in the search for truth when they are examined, analyzed, and either supported or
refuted based on evidence and reasoning.
An opinion is a subjective expression of a person's beliefs, preferences, or judgments.
Unlike facts, opinions are not objectively verifiable and can vary from person to person. While
opinions may be based on personal experiences or values, they may not necessarily align with
objective truths. In the search for truth, opinions are considered in the context of individual

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perspectives and are often distinguished from factual claims. Propositions can be the basis
for claims, opinions, or facts. Claims can be examined if it is aligned with the truth. Opinions
are subjective expressions that may or may not align with objective truths. On the other hand,
facts are objective statements that contribute to the establishment of truth. Below is the
concept map showing the interconnection between claim, opinion, and fact and how it aids
in finding the truth,

Figure 1: Interconnection of Claim, Fact, and Opinion

Truthfulness is an underlying element in building and maintaining trust which is the

main foundation of authentic and harmonious relationships in an organization or society.
Individuals and organizations that consistently convey truthful information are more likely to
be perceived as credible and trustworthy. But how do we know what is truthful or not? And
this is the reason why we philosophize: to know the truth.

The Four ‘Classical’ Theories of Truth

There are four classical theories of truth from philosophical perspectives that attempt to
define and explain the nature of truth. These theories have been influential in the history of
philosophy, they have provided different approaches to understanding when should a
statement or belief be considered true. The following are the four classical theories of truth:
1. The Correspondence Theory of Truth
The correspondence theory of truth says that what is true is what matches observable
reality. The most obvious application of this theory is in science: whenever we experiment
to verify (or disprove) a hypothesis, we are using the correspondence theory, for we
assume that what we observe in the experiment is what is true.

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 It posits that a statement is true if it corresponds to or accurately represents the state
of affairs in the world.
For example: If somebody states, “It is raining” (the proposition) then it is true only if it is
really raining outside (reality).

2. The Coherence Theory of Truth

The coherence theory of truth is the idea that arguments must make sense — that is,
arguments must flow logically from premises and intermediate propositions. This is where
the notion of ‘fallacy’ comes from — if you make a fallacious argument, you are violating
the rules of logic, and therefore your argument may be rejected as false.
For example: I hear a pencil falling to the ground. A second person in the room also hears
it, and the pencil that I just saw on my table a moment ago is now gone. Three observations
fit together: me hearing it, a second person hearing it, and the missing pencil. According
to the coherence theory, the proposition “the pencil hit the ground” is true.

3. The Consensus Theory of Truth

The term consensus means agreement. The consensus theory of truth says that what is
true is what everyone agrees to be true. Statements are considered to be true simply
because people generally agree with them.
Consensus truth is based on the agreement or acceptance of a group or community. It
suggests that truth can be determined by the consensus or shared understanding within
a particular social or cultural context.
Example: The statement “The sky is blue” is considered to be true if and only if it would be
agreed to by all those who investigate it, assuming that the inquiry was to be carried
sufficiently far in that particular direction.

4. The Pragmatic Theory of Truth

The pragmatic theory of truth is the view that whatever is useful to you, or beneficial for
you, is true. This approach stems from the tendency of early pragmatic philosophers to
evaluate ideas for ends, not means; pragmatism is most concerned with ‘practical
consequences’, not theoretical ones. It is the practitioner’s epistemology.

Pragmatic truth focuses on the practical consequences or usefulness of a belief. A

statement is considered pragmatically true if it works or proves effective in achieving
desired outcomes.

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For example: If you find that believing in a religion helps you become a better, more effective
person, then it is perfectly acceptable — from the pragmatist’s perspective — to take up
religion and believe in it as truth. In other words: ‘If it works for you, why not?’

Other Types of Truth

Truth is often categorized based on the context in which truth is considered or the
philosophical perspective being adopted. Here are several types of truth:

A. Objective Truth

Objective truth refers to statements or beliefs that are independent of individual

perspectives, opinions, or interpretations. Beliefs are true just when they correspond
to reality. It is true regardless of personal feelings or biases.

For example: Scientific facts, such as the Earth revolving around the sun, are often
considered examples of objective truth.
B. Subjective Truth

Subjective truth is based on personal perspectives, feelings, or opinions. It varies from

person to person and is influenced by individual experiences. Multiple realities can
exist as a result of differing experiences; there are always three sides to the story:
mine, yours, and the real one. People make the truth, forge it as they see it or as they
want people to see it.
For example: "Chocolate ice cream is the best flavor." This is subjective truth because
it is based on personal taste references.

C. Logical Truth

Logical truth is derived from the principles of logic. Statements that are true by
definition or by logical necessity fall into this category.

For example, "All bachelors are unmarried" is a logical truth.

D. Relative Truth

Relative truth acknowledges that the truth of a statement may depend on the
context, cultural background, or perspective of the observer. What is considered true
in one cultural or contextual setting may not be true in another it differs between
groups (cultures, regions, religions)

Example: Polygamy in Muslim culture is acceptable but for Catholic, it is not

acceptable and is highly discouraged.

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 LET’S APPLY YOUR UNDERSTANDING

You have learned the different philosophical theories and types of truth. Truth as
what had been discussed previously depends on what can be seen (correspondence theory),
what is agreed by the group or community (consensus theory), and on what is practical
consequences or usefulness (pragmatic theory). The statement may also be true if it
corresponds to reality (objective) but it can also be subjective if it is based on personal
perspectives, feelings, or opinions.
Activity: Truth Exploration
Instruction: Classify the statement according to its type of truth: OBJECTIVE, SUBJECTIVE,
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE. Write your answer on the type of truth column

No. STATEMENT TYPE OF TRUTH

1. Chocolate ice cream is the best flavor.
2. I feel happy when I spend time with my friends.
3. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at standard
atmospheric pressure
4. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.
5. Spicy food is delicious.
6. The law of conservation of energy states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change
forms.
7. The sum of the angles in a triangle is always 180
degrees
8. In some cultures, it is customary to greet people with
a bow, while in others, a handshake is more common.
9. Michelle Dee is the most beautiful woman in the
Universe.
10. The Philippines is a Southeast Asian country.

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 LET’S LEARN FURTHER!

Understanding Opinion
Plato was the first to have thematized opinion in philosophy. In the Republic, he defends
the opposition of the “doxa” (the opinion) and the “episteme” (the knowledge). Knowledge
enables us to act wisely. Thus, power had to come back to the “knowers”, in other words, to
the philosophers. In practical terms, the so-called “hard” sciences should not be reduced to
knowledge and the so-called “soft” sciences to opinions. The historian, like the
mathematician, can both tell the truth. The difference between them will be the predictability
of their statement: the causes of the American Revolution, if they are reproduced, will not
necessarily lead to the same consequences. Arithmetic, on the other hand, is predictable.
For Plato, opinion is something intermediary between knowledge and ignorance. Opinions,
according to him, are not grounded in the certainty of knowledge but are based on the
changing and uncertain realm of sensory perception. They are reflections of the physical
world and are subject to the limitations and distortions inherent in the material world.
Opinion is a statement of belief or feeling. It shows one’s feelings about a subject. Opinions
are subjective, meaning the veracity depends on the person's perception rather than an
objective truth. Its validity cannot be proven one way or another but only expressed and
defended.

Using Philosophical Methods in the Search for Truth:

1. Logical and Critical thinking

Logic is centered in the analysis and construction of arguments; a method of

maintaining consistency within our set of knowledge, critical thinking, on the other
hand, distinguish facts and opinions or personal feelings. It suspends all beliefs and
judgments until all facts have been gathered and considered in making rational
choices.

Logic is a truth that is based on reasoning and critical thinking. It is the analysis and
construction of arguments and serves as the path to freedom from half-truths and
deception. Logic is also one of the major branches of Philosophy which increases one’s
ability to reason correctly and distinguish irrational reasoning. There are rules in logic
that can give a person some techniques to create sound arguments and avoid
fallacious reasoning.

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 Two Types of Reasoning:

a. Inductive
Inductive reasoning is premises converted into general premises.
Example: You observe that the sun rises every morning in the east.
Premise: The sun has risen in the east every day throughout recorded
history
Conclusion "The sun will likely rise in the east tomorrow morning."

b. Deductive
Deductive reasoning is where you go from general information to specific
conclusions.
Example: All insects have exactly six legs.
Premise Spiders have eight legs.
Conclusion Therefore, spiders are not insects.

2. Existentialism– On Freedom

It is a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless

of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and
decisions. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life and try to make
rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe. It focuses on the question
of human existence and the feeling that there is no purpose or explanation at the core
of existence. An example of existentialism would be when a person decides about
their life, follows through or does not follow through on that decision and begins to
create their essence. The idea of existentialism is a person will create their essence
over their lifetime and will be finished or fully formed. In existentialism, the existence
comes first and the essence comes second.

3. Analytic Tradition

The conviction that to some degree, philosophical problems, problems, and errors are
rooted in language and can be solved by a sound understanding of language and
careful attention to its workings. For the philosophers of this tradition, language
cannot objectively describe the truth this philosophy was founded by Gottlob Frege in
the late 19th century. It is said that Philosophy should apply logical techniques to
attain conceptual clarity. Analytic Philosophy is also called linguistic philosophy, a
related set of approaches to philosophical problems. This philosophy means using
common experience and ordinary language to analyze concepts and language in
philosophy. An example of analytic philosophy is The Star Trek’s Mr. Spock. Gene
Roddenberry, the creator of the original show was famous for his intense interest in
philosophy and religion, and he was probably aware of the developments in analytic
philosophy during the 1960’s when Star Treck was first made. Manyc of Spock’s

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 attribute his precise speech, suspicion of emotion and incredible clarity of thought
mimic the ideals of analytic philosophy.

4. Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a broad discipline and method of inquiry in philosophy that is based

on the premise that reality consists of objects and events (“phenomena”) as they are
perceived or understood in the human consciousness and not of anything independent
of human consciousness. It is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced
from the first point of view. This philosophy was founded by Edmund Husserl who
worked copiously to establish it as a rigorous science.

5. Postmodernism
Postmodernists believed that humanity should come at truth beyond the rational to the
non-rational elements of human nature, including the spiritual.

6. Socratic Method
The Socratic Method is named after Socrates, who was the teacher of Plato. This method
refers to a process of asking open-ended questions that are committed to finding the
truth. It usually takes the form of a dialogue in which people discuss and analyze a
specific subject matter. It is like a cross-examination. It is also a strategy for teaching any
subject matter between a teacher and a student. (Zack, 2010)

7. Dialectical Method
The Dialectical method can be traced back to Socrates' or Plato's method. The term
‘dialectics’ is derived from the Greek word dialego, which means to debate or discuss.
Although the dialectical method has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, the dialectical
method emphasized here is the one developed mostly by modern philosophers, such as
Hegel and Marx. It is a method of studying and understanding the real development and
change (Cornforth,2015). Reality is in constant conflict. The dialectical method arises
from the opposing realities, and even contradictions are derived from applying the
philosophical categories (Borchert, 2006). Hence the formula of the dialectical method is
a thesis versus antithesis results in synthesis. On the one hand, a thesis refers to a claim.
It may be a hypothesis, speculation, declaration, belief, conclusion, or a certain reality.

15
 Let’s Try This

Evaluating Situations Demonstrating the Difference between Opinion and Truth:

Instructions: The class will be divided into two groups. Each group will discuss among each
member the given case. The group shall refer to the questions for discussion provided below
as a guide for analysis. Each group shall prepare a presentation for the class for critiquing and
final discussion.
Miss Universe 2023 “Rigging” of Results
The Miss Universe Organization (MUO) is a global, inclusive organization that celebrates
all cultures, backgrounds, and religions. They create and provide a safe space for women to
share their stories and drive impact personally, professionally, and philanthropically. The
women who participate in this international platform serve as inspirational leaders and role
models to their communities and fans around the world. The Miss Universe Organization
exists to advocate for a future forged by women with the courage to push the limits of what's
possible. MUO empowers women to realize their ambition and build self-confidence as a
catalyst for future success. The MUO community is a sisterhood that is committed to uplifting
one another.
The most recent owner of MUO is Anne Jakkaphong Jakrajutatip of JKN Global Group, a
Thai media tycoon and trans rights activist. She is the first non-American and first transgender
woman to own the 7-decade-old pageant, In October 2023, Jakkaphong expanded her
business, JKN Global Group, headquartered in Samut Prakan, Thailand, by taking over the
MUO offices in New York City when she bought the Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen
USA pageants for $20 million.
The recently concluded 72nd Miss Universe 2023 held last November 18, 2023, in El
Salvador participated by 84 contingents was very controversial. During the coronation night,
Ms. Universe-Philippines was among the top 10 and is believed to be included in the top 5.
Before the announcement of the Top 5 candidates, an IG post of Miss Universe El Salvador
official page shows the picture of Ms. Universe Philippines as among the top 5 but during the
announcement, Ms. Philippines was excluded. After this, the previous post was deleted and
replaced with a new one reflecting Miss Thailand instead of Ms. Philippines. The Filipino
audience was claiming that Ms. Dee of the Philippines was robbed since she was supposed to
be included in the Top 5 spot considering that she bagged almost all the special awards. The
special awards given to her include the Spirit of Carnival Award, Voice for Change Gold
Winner, Fan Vote Winner, and Best in National Costume.
According to Rappler, Miss Universe Organizers admitted to and apologized for mixing the
names of the Pageant’s Top 5 candidates during the 2023 edition’s coronation night. An
official social media post was made last November 23, 2023, in response to online backlash

16
accusing the organization of allegedly “rigging” the results at the last minute. Accordingly,
the pageant was a “cooking show” because the owner influenced the judges.
Questions for Discussion:
Instructions: Answer comprehensively
1. Can you say that the recent controversy surrounding the 'rigging' of results in Miss
Universe 2023 is more a matter of subjective opinions or objective truth?

2. What do you think is the truth? Can it be true that there is a “rigging” of results? Why
do you say so?

3. Which statements indicated in the story can you consider as claims, opinions, facts,
and truth?

4. How would you distinguish between the perspectives of individuals who may express
doubts about the fairness of the competition and the factual evidence or lack thereof
supporting such claims?"

5. What is your view on this issue? Are you more of an “absolutist” or more of
a“relativist”?

17
 LET’S SEE WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED

A. Using a Venn Diagram, reflect on a personal belief or opinion you hold and analyze it
using the methods discussed in the module. How can you distinguish between your
subjective beliefs and objective truths? Are there any biases or assumptions that
might influence your perspective, and how might you critically examine and challenge
them?

Personal Belief Distinguishing Subjective

and Objective
Ex: "Vegetarian Diet is Healthiest Biases and
and Ethical." Assumptions Ex: Scientific Evidence

Cultural/Regional Considerations.”Cultural/Regional
Considerations.

Critical Examination

Ex: Seeking Diverse Information from

several experts

18
 Post -Test

Instruction: Read the items carefully. Write your answer in a sheet of paper,
1. It refers to a method that encourages individuals to critically examine their own
assumptions and beliefs.
A. common sense
B. philosophical inquiry
C. scientific inquiry
D. philosophical investigation
2. It is a statement that can be objectively verified and proven to be true.
A. claim
B. fact
C. opinion
D. proposition
3. Philosophical which involves the process of asking open-ended questions that are
committed to finding the truth.
A. Dialectical Method
B. Logical and critical thinking
C. Socratic method
D. Phenomenology
4. This theory of truth posit that whatever is useful to you, or beneficial for you, is true.
A. Coherence Theory of Truth
B. Correspondence Theory of Truth
C. Consensus Theory of Truth
D. Pragmatic Theory of Truth
5. It refer to a truth that is based on reasoning and critical thinking.
A. claim
B. logic
C. opinion

19
 D. proposition
6. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
A. A claim maybe truthful if it is supported with facts.
B. A claim is an opinion if it states personal preference about a subject.
C. Claims are always true.
D. A proposition can either be a claim, opinion, or fact.
7. Which of the following statements about opinion is NOT true?
A. Opinion is a subjective truth.
B. Opinions are expressions of personal viewpoints and are not universally
applicable or verifiable.
C. Opinion is an Objective Truth.
D. The validity of opinion cannot be proven one way or another but can expressed
and defended.
8. It is a type of reasoning where you go from general information to specific conclusions.
A. deductive
B. inductive
C. logical
D. scientific
9. It is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said
to agree with the facts.
A. belief
B. claim
C. opinion
D. truth
10. He is referred to as the father of modern philosophy, his "Meditations on First
Philosophy" reflects a profound commitment to doubt everything in the pursuit of
indubitable truths..
A. Aristotle
B. Plato
C. Rene Descartes
D. Socrates

20
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Analytic Tradition means using common experience and ordinary language to analyze
concepts and language in philosophy
Claim is a statement or assertion that may be true or false.
Coherence theory of truth is the idea that arguments must make sense — that is,
arguments must flow logically from premises and intermediate propositions
Correspondence theory of truth says that what is true is what matches observable reality.
Consensus theory of truth says that what is true is what everyone agrees to be true.
Dialectic It is a method of studying and understanding the real development and change
Deductive reasoning is where you go from general information to specific conclusions
Fact is a statement that can be objectively verified and proven to be true. It is considered
to be accurate representations of reality
Inductive reasoning is in particular premises converted into general premises
Logic is a truth that is based on reasoning and critical thinking
Logical Truth are statements that are true by definition or by logical necessity
Objective truth refers to statements or beliefs that are independent of individual
perspectives, opinions, or interpretations
Opinion is a subjective expression of a person's beliefs, preferences, or judgments.
Phenomenology is a broad discipline and method of inquiry in philosophy that is based on
the premise that reality consists of objects and events (“phenomena”) as they are perceived
or understood in the human consciousness and not of anything independent of human
consciousness
Philosophical inquiry is a method geared towards arriving at a clear meaning of common
human issues in everyday life
Pragmatic theory of truth is the view that whatever is useful to you, or beneficial for you, is
true.
Socratic Method refers to a process of asking open-ended questions that are committed to
finding the truth.
Subjective truth is based on personal perspectives, feelings, or opinions. It varies from
person to person and is influenced by individual experiences
Truth is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are
said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what is the case (Blackburn,
2023).

21
 REFERENCES
.
.
Audjarint, Wasamon. (2023, February 04). Thai Entrepreneur Who Bought Miss Universe
Contest Says Brains and Beauty Drive Entrants' Dreams.
https://www.voanews.com/a/thai-entrepreneur-who-bought-miss-universe-contest-says-
brains-and-beauty-drive-entrants-dreams-
/6943311.html#:~:text=Jakkaphong%2C%20a%20Thai%20media%20tycoon,from%2083%20
countries%20last%20month.

Blackburn, Simon W.. "truth". Encyclopedia Britannica, 2 May. 2023.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic. Accessed 25 November
2023.

Corvino, John. (2015, March 4). The Fact/Opinion Distinction. The Philosopher’s Magazine.
https://www.philosophersmag.com/essays/26-the-fact-opinion-distinction

Florida State University. (n.d.). What is Philosophy?

https://philosophy.fsu.edu/undergraduate-study/why-philosophy/What-is-Philosophy

Miss Universe organizers clarify Top 5 graphics mix-up was ‘accident’. (2023, November 23). Rappler.
https://www.rappler.com/entertainment/pageants/miss-universe-organization-statement-
top-five-mixup-accidental/#:~:text=Miss%20Universe%20organizers,10%20PM%20PHT

Methods of Philosophizing. Studoco. (n.d.).

https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/tagum-city-national
highschool/philosophy/methods-of-philosophizing/25719898

Tapang, Jacquilen M. (2016, December 5). METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING. Wordpress.

https://jacquilenmulintapang.wordpress.com/

Walker, Ralph C.S. (18 February 2017). Theories of Truth Book.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118972090.ch21

Villaroya, Al., Enaya, B. & Fernandez E. (2020). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human
Person.
https://philarchive.org/archive/ENAMOP#:~:text=Truth%20is%20neither%20an%20opinion,
however%2C%20usually%20changes%20through%20time

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23

POST-TEST
1. B
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. A
9. D
10. C

TRUTH EXPLORATION
4. The answer varies.
1. Subjective (opinion)
3. The answer varies.
2. Subjective (personal feeling)
2. The answer varies. 3. Objective (scientific fact)
1. The answer varies. 4. Objective (Factual)
VENN DIAGRAM 5. Subjective (personal taste)
6. absolute (scientific law)
7. absolute (mathematical principle)
LET’S TRY THIS 8. relative (cultural practice)
1. The answer varies. 9. subjective (opinion)
2. The answer varies. 10. absolute (geographical fact)
3. The answer varies. .
4. The answer varies.
PRE-TEST
5. The answer varies.
1. D
2. C
LET’S SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY 3. D
KNOW! 4. B
1. The answer varies. 5. A
2. The answer varies. 6. C
3. The answer varies. 7. B
8. C
4. The answer varies.
9. B
5. The answer varies.
10. D

ANSWER KEY