Lecture No. 2.

Historical Aspects of Pharmacological Sciences

Lecture No. 2

History

1. The discovery of the drug was through the process of trial and
error as people tried various plants, animals and mineral substances as
source of food.

2. These experiences showed that ingestion of certain plants would

produce diarrhea or vomiting and that chewing the bark of trees would
cause constipation. Therefore, ingestion of tannins in bark would
relieve diarrhea.

3. Such accumulated knowledge gave rise to oral traditions within

tribes and a folklore on drug developed.

4. The foundation of therapeutics was laid at different periods of

times in different countries.

5. The world’s oldest known pharmacological or therapeutic writings

came from India and China.

6. The earliest Indian records are the Vedas.

7. Rigveda (3000 B.C) contain medical descriptions.

7a. Ayurveda, Ayur = life

Veda = Knowledge/Science/Way of living

The practice of this system of medicine is almost 3000-4000 years old.

Ayurveda originated through ATHARVAVEDA, an ancient book of
knowledge pertaining to vedic age. It had continuous development upto
1000-1500 B.C. Its teaching were transmitted orally for thousands of years
and then written down for fosterity in melodious Sanskrit poetry.

Concepts and principles of Ayurveda

There are four key concepts in Ayurveda. These concepts collectively guide
the preventive, promative and curative aspects of the practice of this

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alternative remedial science. These concepts are PANCH BHUTAS,

TRIDOSHAS, SAPTDHATUS and MALAS.

A. PANCH BHUTAS (Basic elements) – Panch Bhutas refer to

five basic elements of air, water, fire, earth and sky. Creation of all
forms of life is credited to these five elements.
B. TRIDOSHAS (Physiological Functions): These concepts
together explain all the physiological and biological aspects taking
place in a living body.

1) VAT Mental – enthusiasm, concentration

Physical – respiration and circulation

Modern : Nervous system, cerebrospinal, e.g. hypertension

2) PITTA Mental – intellect

Physical – digestion and assimilation

Modern: Nutritional activity of endocrines, e.g. indigestion, dysentery.

3) KAPHA Mental – courage, tolerance

Physical – Bodily strength, joints functions

Modern: Skeletal + anabolic e.g. muscular pain

C. DHATUS (structural components): Dhatus refers to different

vital body organs or parts. These are:
i) Rasa (Body fluids)
ii) Rakta (blood)
iii) Mansa (muscular tissue)
iv) Meda (Edipose tissue)
v) Asthi (Bone tissue)
vi) Majja (nervous tissue and bone marrow)
vii) Shukra (Generative tissue including sperms & Ovas)

D. Malas (Excretion): refers to waste products of the body. The

food consumption by a living body is essential for existence and
further utilized for various dhatus. During the process of utilization of
food each organ produces a specific waste or mala such as stool,
urine, sweat, nails, hair etc.

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In Ayurveda, the examination of the patient and the disease

both are extremely important.

8. The renowned ancient Indian physicians, viz. Charak, Sushruta and

Vagbhata, described various medicinal preparations included in
Ayurveda ______The science of life.

9. Charak described about 300 herbal drugs and classified them

according to their effects mostly on symptoms, into 50 groups. It is
called as CHARAK SAMHITA (1000) B.C.

9a. Other authetic books are Sushrata samhita and Ras Shastra. Ras
Shastra was introduced in twelfth century AD Ras Shastra is a
connection of Chemical preparation.

10. Ayurveda gave as some useful remedies but still knowledge has not
advanced because of two reasons.

i) The system of medicine insisted on the correctness of

TRIDOSA theory.
ii) Religious orthodoxy prohibited the study of anatomy as
cadavera.

11. The great herbal or Chinese materia medica, the Pen Tsao was
written by emperor, Shennung in 2735 B.C. It contained many plant
and metallic preparations and few animal products.

12. The code of Hammurabi (≈2200 B.C.) described penalties for

malpractice by practitioners.

13. The earliest source of Western medicine comes from Egypt and the
two kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia.

14. Babylonians were specialized in Astronomy and Astrology. They laid

great stress on the influence of stars. They used iron in the treatment
of anaemia due to the belief that Mars influenced the blood and iron
was dedicated to Mars.

15. Assyrians were specialized in compounding prescriptions and these

prescriptions were written as clay bricks with pharmaceutical

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directions. Such a clay tablet (700 B.C.) has been discovered which
mentions about 300 drugs.

16. The papyri were the first written account of medical experiences from
Egypt.
i) Kahun papyrus, which was written about 2000 B.C., deals
with Vety. Medicine and uterine disease of women and contain
no. of prescriptions.

ii) Ebers Papyrus, is the papyrus discovered by Ebers in 1872,

was prepared in 1500 B.C. It is a collection of drugs prevalent
at that time in Egypt with classification and uses. It contains
829 prescriptions including castor oil, pomegranate bark and
opium.
17. Greek borrowed much from the then existing system of medicines in
different countries. Greeks were philosopher and warriors. During
their travel from different countries, they collected medicinal
knowledge available in these countries.

18. Greek medicine is said to be the foundation of modern medicine and

therapeutics. Modern medicine is considered to date from Hippocrates
(5th century B.C., 460 – 375 B.C.), a Greek physician, separated
medicine from religion. Today’s rational medicine was given by him.
He said, ‘There is no authority except facts and these facts should be
obtained by accurate observations’. He formed a team of physicians
known as Hippocratic School.
They were great diagnosticians and brilliant surgeons and maintained
high ethical standards. They had little use of drugs as they recognized
that sick people usually tend to get well regardless of the treatment.
This concept of healing power of nature was known as ‘Vis
Medicatric Naturae’.

19. Greeks also believed in hygienic measures as a part of therapy and

instituted, “Temples of Health”.

20. Galen was a famous Gk. Physician who practiced in Rome (131-201
A.D.). His work is popularly known as Galenical drugs and is still
remembered for his contributions. His work was on physiology

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and Vegetable material medica. He gave formula for cold cream,

which is still in use as Unguentum Aqua Rosa.

21. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), made and recorded numerous observations

on animals.

22. Theophrastus (380-287 B.C.), systematically classified medicinal

plants on the basis of individual characteristics. He is known as
Father of Pharmacognosy.

23. Dioscorides, a surgeon, compiled the first Materia Medica. This

consisted of six volumes and describe about 600 plants.

24. Then with the decline of Roman Empire, Custodian of knowledge and
developers of medical thoughts were found in Muslim culture. They
were the first to distil wines & beers to obtain ethanol for preparing
tincture.

25. Geber Ibn Hajar (702-765) – a Persian Writer. He classified the drugs
and poisons of his time and reconised that the diference between a
drug and a poison was a matter of dosage. A drug can be toxic if given
in large amount.

26. Valerius Cordus (1514-44): A German compiled the first

pharmacopoeia.

27. Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim (1493-1541): called

himself as Philiphus Aureolus Paracelsus introduced the clinical use
of opium. He advocated for rationale use of drugs.

28. John Hunter (1728-93), an English Physician conducted controlled

clinical experimentation.

29. Willium Withering (1741-99): gave some observation on the use of

digitalis in the treatment of dropsy (ascites due to CHF) in – “An
account of the Foxglove and some of its Medical uses”.

30. Willium Harvey (1578-1657): discovered blood circulation and said

drugs are distributed to various body parts by this mean.

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31. Christopher Wren (1632-1723): made first I.V. inj. of drugs into a
dog.

32. Alexander Wood (1817-84): devised hypodermic syringe and needle

in 1853.

33. Friedrich Serturner (1783-1841), a German pharmacist isolated the

morphine from opium and named it after the Roman God of Sleep,
Morpheus.

34. Francois Magendie (1783-1855) & Pierre Pelletier (1788-1842)

developed organized exp. to elucidate physiologic processes and
actions of drugs on body.

35. Magendie and his two students – Claude Bernard (1813-78) and
James Blake (1814-93) established the foundation for modern
pharmacology. They outlined various scientific problems like:

- dose-response curve
- drug disposition in the body
- mechanism of action of drug
- SAR

36. Rudolf Buchheim (1820-79) established first laboratory to study

pharmacology at university of Dorpat in Estonia.

37. Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838-1921): Buchheim’s student established

pharmacology as an independent scientific discipline based upon
experimental methodology. He is known as Father of Pharmacology.

38. Some students of Oswald Schmiedeberg became leaders in the

development of pharmacology. They were:

Hans Meyer (1853-1939) at Viena

John J. Abel (1858-1938) – established department of
Pharmacology at Univ. of Michigan and Johns Hopkins Univ.
in USA. He is considered as Father of Pharmacology in
U.S.A.

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39. He was instrumental in formation of American Society of

Pharmacology and Experimental therapeutics”. He also funded two
journals –
1. Journal of Biological Chemistry
2. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

40. During 20th century:

i) The science of pharmacology flourished in medical

and pharmacy schools.
ii) The focus of leadership shifted from Europe to USA
iii) European schools of Vety. Medicines were
established in conjunctions with schools of human medicine
first but then two professions were separated and developed
more or less independently.
iv) In Vety. Schools, material medica was taught until
early 1950’s. L. Meyer Jones was instrumental in shifting
emphasis from materia medica to Vety. Pharmacology. He
published the first edition of the text book – Vety.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics in 1954.
v) Sir Col. Ram Nath Chopra (1882-1973) – was the
first Professor of Pharmacology in India (1921) at Calcutta
School of Tropical Medicine; Head, Dept. of Pharmacology,
Calcutta Medical College. Founder Director, Drug Research
Laboratory, Jammu. He is acclaimed as Father of Indian
Pharmacology.

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