Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique
used in electronics to encode information in a
pulsing signal by varying the duty cycle of a
fixed-frequency square wave. It is commonly
employed to control the power provided to
electrical devices, especially in applications
such as motor control, lighting systems, voltage
regulation, and communication.
Various PWM Techniques:
1. Single-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM):
SPWM produces a single pulse for each cycle of
the modulating signal. It generates variable-
width pulses based on the amplitude of a
modulating waveform. The pulses vary in width
to approximate the waveform's shape.
2. Multiple-Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM):
MPWM produces multiple pulses within a single
cycle of the modulating signal. It creates several
pulses during one cycle to better approximate
the modulating waveform.
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM):
SPWM aims to approximate a sinusoidal
waveform by generating variable-width pulses. It
adjusts the pulse widths according to a sine
wave reference signal to mimic the desired
sinusoidal waveform.
4. Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation
(SVPWM):
SVPWM is commonly used in motor control
applications. It involves dividing the reference
voltage vectors into smaller vectors, creating a
space vector diagram. By switching between
these vectors, SVPWM generates the necessary
voltage waveform to control the motor.
Differences Between PWM Techniques:
1. Accuracy:
SPWM techniques tend to provide better
accuracy in waveform approximation due to the
variation of pulse widths according to the
modulating signal.
MPWM generates more pulses within a cycle,
providing improved resolution compared to
SPWM.
2. Complexity:
SVPWM is more complex as it requires vector
calculations and switching between voltage
vectors to create the desired output waveform.
SPWM techniques are simpler and more
straightforward in comparison.
3. Performance:
SVPWM is preferred in applications like motor
control due to its ability to provide higher output
voltage with reduced harmonic distortion.
SPWM methods are commonly used for simpler
applications where moderate accuracy is
sufficient.
4. Waveform Distortion:
SVPWM tends to produce less harmonic
distortion compared to other techniques.
SPWM and MPWM may introduce more
harmonic content depending on the precision
and resolution of pulse width generation.
These various PWM techniques differ in their
complexity, accuracy, harmonic content, and
suitability for specific applications. The choice of
PWM technique often depends on the
requirements of the application, the desired
accuracy in waveform generation, and the trade-
offs between complexity and performance.
Operation of Half-Bridge Topology in SMPS
The half-bridge topology is a commonly used
configuration in Switched-Mode Power Supplies
(SMPS) to efficiently convert DC input voltage to
a different output voltage, often used in
applications like computer power supplies,
consumer electronics, and industrial equipment.
It's a type of isolated DC-DC converter that
provides a balanced output voltage and enables
higher efficiency.
Operation of Half-Bridge Topology in SMPS:
The half-bridge converter consists of two
switches (transistors or MOSFETs), typically
denoted as Q1 and Q2, along with a center-
tapped transformer and a diode bridge rectifier.
The operation involves a high-frequency
switching cycle to regulate the output voltage.
1. Switching Operation:
During the first phase of the switching cycle, Q1
is turned on while Q2 is off. This allows current
to flow through the upper part of the primary
winding of the transformer, magnetizing the
core.
The energy stored in the transformer's core
during this phase is transferred to the secondary
windings when the switching state changes.
2. Energy Transfer:
After a brief interval, Q1 turns off, and Q2 turns
on. This results in the reversal of the polarity
across the primary winding of the transformer.
As a consequence, the energy stored in the
transformer's core gets transferred to the
secondary windings in the form of a stepped-up
(or stepped-down) voltage.
3. Output Rectification:
The secondary windings of the transformer are
connected to a diode bridge rectifier, which
converts the alternating voltage to a rectified DC
voltage.
This rectified voltage is then filtered using
capacitors to obtain a smooth DC output.
4. Control and Regulation:
The switching of Q1 and Q2 is controlled by a
pulse-width modulation (PWM) controller,
adjusting the duty cycle of the switching signals
to regulate the output voltage.
Advantages of Half-Bridge Topology:
1. High Efficiency:
Provides higher efficiency compared to linear
regulators due to reduced power dissipation in
the switches.
2. Isolation:
Offers isolation between the input and output
sides due to the transformer, ensuring safety
and preventing ground loop issues.
3. Voltage Regulation:
Allows for output voltage regulation through
PWM control, providing a stable output voltage
despite input variations.
4. Reduced Stress on Components:
The transformer's center-tapped configuration
reduces stress on the components by enabling
the primary voltage to swing both positively and
negatively.
5. Suitable for Medium Power Applications:
Well-suited for medium-power applications
where high efficiency and isolation are
necessary.
The half-bridge topology is a versatile and
widely used configuration in SMPS, offering
benefits in efficiency, regulation, and isolation,
making it suitable for various power conversion
applications.
what is current limit control and time
ratio control in chopper
In chopper circuits used for controlling DC
motors or other loads, current limit control and
time ratio control are two different strategies
employed to regulate the output voltage or
current. Both strategies have distinct
characteristics and advantages, and the
preferred choice may vary based on the
application requirements.
Current limit control involves monitoring the
output current and limiting it to a predetermined
maximum value. When the load current reaches
or exceeds the set limit, the chopper circuit
adjusts the duty cycle or switches off to prevent
the current from surpassing the defined
threshold. This method is effective in protecting
the load from excessive current, preventing
damage or overload conditions.
Time ratio control, also known as pulse-width
modulation (PWM), regulates the output voltage
or current by varying the duty cycle of the
chopper. It controls the average output voltage
or current by changing the on-off time ratio of
the chopper circuit. By altering the duty cycle, it
adjusts the effective voltage or current supplied
to the load.
Preference and Application:
The choice between current limit control and
time ratio control depends on the specific
requirements of the application:
1. Current Limit Control:
 Preferred in applications where
protecting the load from overcurrent
is critical, such as in motor control
systems. It prevents excessive
current flow, safeguarding the load
from damage.
2. Time Ratio Control (PWM):
 Often favored for applications
requiring precise control of the
output voltage or current. It offers
better efficiency by varying the duty
cycle, allowing for fine-tuning of the
output to meet specific load
requirements.
Selection Criteria:
 Load Requirements: If the primary concern is
to protect the load from overcurrent, current limit
control is preferred.
 Control Precision: For applications demanding
precise voltage or current regulation, time ratio
control with PWM may be more suitable.
 Efficiency: Time ratio control tends to offer
higher efficiency due to its ability to adjust the
duty cycle.
Hybrid Approaches:
In practical systems, a combination of both
control strategies may be employed. For
instance, PWM control might be used as the
primary method to regulate the output voltage or
current, while a current limit circuitry acts as a
protective measure to prevent overcurrent
situations.
The choice between current limit control and
time ratio control in chopper circuits ultimately
relies on the specific needs of the application,
balancing factors such as load protection,
precision, and efficiency requirements.
 Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) are
electronic circuits used to efficiently convert and
regulate electrical power from one form to
another. They're widely employed in various
electronic devices, including computers, mobile
phones, LED drivers, and industrial power
supplies. SMPS offer advantages such as high
efficiency, reduced size, and weight compared
to traditional linear power supplies.
Components and Operation:
1. Rectification: AC input is rectified to DC using
diodes or a rectifier circuit.
2. Chopper (Converter): Converts the rectified
DC to a high-frequency pulsating DC using
switching components (transistors, MOSFETs)
and a control circuit.
3. Transformer: Isolates the input and output
sides and steps up/down the voltage.
4. Rectification and Filtering: The transformed
voltage is rectified again and filtered to
smoothen the pulsating DC into a stable DC
output.
5. Regulation: Control circuits (like PWM
controllers) adjust the chopper's duty cycle to
regulate the output voltage/current.
Types of SMPS:
1. Buck Converter: Steps down the voltage.
2. Boost Converter: Steps up the voltage.
3. Buck-Boost Converter: Can step up or down
the voltage.
4. Flyback Converter: Utilizes a transformer for
isolation.
5. Forward Converter: Uses a transformer for
better efficiency.
Advantages of SMPS:
1. High Efficiency: SMPS are more efficient than
linear power supplies, reducing energy losses.
2. Compact and Lightweight: Their high
efficiency allows smaller and lighter designs.
3. Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of input
and output voltages.
4. Regulation and Control: Provides better
control over output parameters.
Applications:
 Consumer electronics: Laptops, TVs, mobile
chargers.
 Industrial applications: Motor drives, robotics,
instrumentation.
 Telecommunications: Powering base stations,
network equipment.
 Renewable energy: Solar inverters, wind turbine
converters.
Considerations:
 EMI/Noise: High-frequency switching may
generate electromagnetic interference (EMI) that
needs to be minimized.
 Complexity: Design and implementation may
be more complex compared to linear power
supplies.
 Component Stress: High-frequency switching
can stress components, requiring careful design
and component selection.
Conclusion:
SMPS are essential in modern electronics due
to their efficiency, compactness, and versatility.
They've revolutionized power supply design by
offering better performance and smaller form
factors compared to traditional linear supplies,
making them a cornerstone of many electronic
devices.
For a three-phase controlled full-wave mid-
point type rectifier supplying power to an
inductive load, the load voltage and current
waveforms would exhibit specific characteristics
due to the nature of the rectification and the
inductive load. Let's consider the load voltage
and current waveforms for this scenario:
Load Voltage Waveform:
1. Rectification: The mid-point type rectifier, when
controlled, generates a pulsating DC output from
the AC input.
2. Three-Phase Input: The rectifier uses three-
phase input, producing a smoother DC output
compared to single-phase rectifiers.
3. Pulsating DC: The output will be a pulsating DC
voltage, with the ripples and fluctuations
depending on the control strategy and firing
angles of the thyristors.
Load Current Waveform:
1. Effect of Inductive Load: With an inductive
load, the load current waveform will lag behind
the load voltage waveform due to the
inductance.
2. Current Lag: The load current will lag the
voltage due to the inductance, causing a phase
shift between the two waveforms.
3. Current Ripples: Depending on the control
strategy and the inductance of the load, the load
current may have ripples or fluctuations,
especially during changes in thyristor firing
angles.
Sketch of Load Voltage and Current
Waveforms:
 The load voltage waveform would show the
pulsating DC with ripples.
 The load current waveform, due to the inductive
load, would exhibit a phase lag compared to the
voltage waveform and might show ripples or
fluctuations depending on the circuit
parameters.
For precise waveforms, the firing angles of the
thyristors, the specific control strategy (like
phase control or pulse-width modulation), and
the exact values of the inductance and other
parameters would need to be considered in the
circuit analysis or simulation software.
RL (Resistor-Inductor) and RC (Resistor-
Capacitor) loads are two types of loads used in
electrical circuits. They consist of passive
components (resistors, inductors, and
capacitors) and exhibit different behaviors based
on their configurations.
RL Load:
An RL load consists of a resistor (R) and an
inductor (L) connected in series or parallel in an
electrical circuit. In an RL circuit:
 Behavior: In an RL circuit, the inductor resists
changes in the current flow. When an AC
voltage is applied to an RL circuit, the inductor
causes a phase shift between the voltage and
current waveforms. The current lags the voltage
in an RL circuit.
 Impedance: The impedance of an RL load
varies with frequency. At low frequencies, the
inductive reactance (��XL) dominates, while
at high frequencies, the resistance (�R)
becomes more dominant.
 Time Response: RL circuits exhibit time
constants that affect their response to changes
in voltage or current.
RC Load:
An RC load consists of a resistor (R) and a
capacitor (C) connected in series or parallel in
an electrical circuit. In an RC circuit:
 Behavior: In an RC circuit, the capacitor stores
and releases charge in response to changes in
voltage. When an AC voltage is applied to an
RC circuit, the capacitor causes a phase shift
between the voltage and current waveforms.
The current leads the voltage in an RC circuit.
 Impedance: The impedance of an RC load also
varies with frequency. At low frequencies, the
capacitive reactance (��XC) dominates, while
at high frequencies, the resistance (�R)
becomes more significant.
 Time Response: RC circuits exhibit time
constants that determine their response to
changes in voltage or current.
Comparison:
 Phase Shift: In RL circuits, the current lags the
voltage due to the inductor's behavior, while in
RC circuits, the current leads the voltage due to
the capacitor's behavior.
 Frequency Response: RL and RC circuits
exhibit different frequency responses due to the
dominance of inductive or capacitive reactance
at different frequencies.
 Time Constants: Both RL and RC circuits
exhibit time constants, influencing their transient
response to changes in input signals.
These characteristics differentiate RL and RC
loads in terms of their phase relationships,
frequency responses, and time-domain
behaviors, making them suitable for various
applications in electrical circuits based on their
specific characteristics.