Psych topics for SL & HL Topics for HL

Biological Approach
Brain and Behaviour
1A Techniques of the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – is a technique of brain used to show
the structure of the brain by measuring hydrogen nuclei in the body.
Through 3d imaging, clearly shows brain tumors, bleeding, nerve injury,
and other damage caused in the brain. But it makes a very noise that
people or children with claustrophobia or any certain diseases won´t be
able to use it as they can’t be still inside the scanner for a long time with a
loud sound. People with metal especially iron inserted in their bodies
cannot be able to use it because of its magnetism. As this technique used magnetism it avoids
radiation which is safer than CT and PET but is very expensive.
A study that supports this: Maguire et al(2000)
Aim: To examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive
experience of spatial navigation.
Method: Structural MRI scans were obtained. 16 right‐
handed male London taxi drivers participated; all
had been driving for more than 1.5 years. Scans of 50 healthy right‐
handed males who did not drive taxis
were included for comparison. The mean age did not differ between the two groups. Results: 
Increased grey matter was found in the brains of taxi drivers compared with controls in the right and
 left hippocampi. The increased volume was found in the posterior (rear) hippocampus. The anterior
hippocampal region was larger in control subjects than in taxi drivers. 
Changes with navigation experience –
a positive correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in th
e right posterior hippocampus. Conclusion: The results provide evidence for structural differences b
etween the hippocampi of London taxi drivers and control participants, therefore suggesting that ex
tensive practice with spatial navigation affects the hippocampus. This demonstrates that the brain c
an change in response to environmental demands.
1B Localization
Localization of brain function refers to the theory that different parts of the brain are responsible for
different aspects of human functioning, such as behaviors. For example, hippocamps play a role in
memory and the amygdala plays a role in emotions.
A study that supports this is Maguire et al 2000 – Maguire supports localization because it shows the
changes of behavior in terms of spatial memory which accounted for localized structural changes in
the brain.
1 C Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, is the process in which the brain changes its
structure and adapts in response to environmental demands. This occurs because neurons
continuously stay in touch with the environment. It also means that the brain can compensate for
injuries and rewrite itself to ensure that the brain continues to function properly. There are two
main types of neuroplasticity. Functional plasticity that is the brain´s ability to move functions from a
damaged to an undamaged area of the brain. Structural plasticity of the brain is the ability to change
the physical structure of the brain as a result of learning.
A study that supports this is Maguire et al 2000 – Maguire is an example of neuroplasticity as it
demonstrates how due to environmental demands on taxi drivers neuroplasticity took place in the
form of an increased grey matter, facilitating spatial memory.
Neural Networks are the connections of neurons. The messages are sent via these networks which
enables us to do things. For example, when a ball is thrown in our direction, signals from the brain
are sent to neurons connected to arms or hands via the network so you can move your hand to
catch the ball. The more times you practice this your neural network will be developed and the
better player you could become.
Neural pruning: The formation of neural network. Neurons have branch-like things called dendrites
which help to connect to other neurons. This connection between two neurons is known as the
synapse. These synaptic connections help information spread all over the brain. For example, I
learned a few words of French in 9th grade and never used them in my life again. The synaptic
connection would be gone by now and I won´t remember them anymore.
Both studies Draganski et al
Aim of the study is to investigate if there are any structural changes in the brain when simple
juggling is practiced for 3 months. The sample using self-selected is collected and the participants
were divided into 2 groups. In one group the participants practiced juggling with three balls for 3
months. Whereas the control group did not practice any. MRI scans were taken for both groups
before the experiment, 3 months later the experiment, and 6 months later the experiment. The
researchers found that in the first scan before the experiment there was no difference between
jugglers and non-jugglers.w1 But in the scan after the experiment, they found an increase in grey
matter in both hemispheres which is responsible for the coordination of movement. Although the
grey matter kept decreasing after 6 months, in jugglers it is greater than in the first scan. This study
shows a cause and effect between learning and brain structure.
Neurotransmitters are brain chemicals that help to transfer information throughout the brain and
the body via electrical impulses. They send signals to neurons, transmitting a signal across electrical
synapses from one neuron to another target neuron. The most common neurotransmitters are
Dopamine and serotonin. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in goal-directed behavior such as
pleasure, emotional response, and addictive behavior. It is released in the brain´s reward system.
Drugs such as cocaine and alcohol lead to increased levels of dopamine. Exercise is also associated
with higher levels of dopamine. Serotonin involves mood and emotions. Too few levels of serotonin
lead to depression, anger issues, or OCD. It leads to over-intake of carbohydrates and trouble
sleeping which is also associated with depression.
Fisher et al
Aim: to investigate the physiological correlates of an early stage of romantic love.
Method: The participants consisted of 10 females and 7 males who are in an early stage of romantic
love. They were interviewed by the researchers and were asked to fill out two questionnaires about
passion and general emotional intensity. The participants were shown photography of their beloved
(positive stimulus) and photography of familiar, emotionally neutral, same age and sex of
beloved(neutral stimulus). They have undergone an fMRI scanning while doing 4 tasks, 6 times
repeating: They were shown a photo of a positive stimulus for the 30s. They were given a distracting
task of counting numbers backward for the 40s. They were shown a photo of a neutral stimulus for
30 s. And again, a distracting task for 20 s. They were again interviewed and asked if they followed
all the instructions.
Results: The researchers observed an increased VTA when participants viewed the photo of a
positive stimulus compared to a neutral stimulus. VTA is mostly common know as an activator of
dopamine. They found a positive correlation between self-reported levels of passion and degrees of
attractiveness with partners.
Conclusion: This can be concluded that dopamine is highly activated in the early stage of romantic
love. It is reasonable to conclude that strong goal-directed behavior, emotion, and cognition is an
early stage of romantic love is the activation of the brain´s reward system.
Agonists and antagonists
Synapse
Neuron
Hormone: Hormones are more like neurotransmitters which are chemical messengers that influence
the behavior of the body in various ways. Neurotransmitters transfer signals through neurons
whereas hormones send signals through blood. Example testosterone.
Albert et al
Aim: To investigate the levels of testosterone in alpha male rats.
Method: Alpha male rats(the most dominant and aggressive male rats) were identified and each rat
had undergone one of the 4 conditions:
A – castration, removal of testicles which plays a vital role in a huge drop of testosterone.
B – Castration but implanting tube of testosterone
C – Castartion with empty implanting tube
D – Sham operation in which rats were cut open and sewn, with no castration.
Results: Researchers found that conditions A and C in which testosterone was diminished showed
less aggression while the other conditions continued showing the same. They placed diminished
testosterone rats with other rats, and the second rat took the role of alpha and was more dominant
and aggressive than the rats with diminished testosterone.
Conclusion: Testosterone plays a vital role in aggression and dominance. The higher the testosterone
levels the higher the aggression level.
Pheromones: A pheromone is a chemical messenger that is passed from one individual to another in
which the receiving individual has an effect. They release a specific reaction such as definite
behavior or development process.
Wedekind et al
Aim: To investigate whether human odour and woman preference dependent on persons´s MHC-
gene.
Method: The participants consisted of 49 males and 44 females were tested to identify their MHC
genes. The participants were asked to wear 100percent cotton for 2 days straight and women were
asked to smell them and rate them out of 10 on the 3rd day on how pleasant they were.
Results: Women preferred men with a dissimilar immune system or MHC gene to their own.
Conclusion : Our attraction to other people could be due to the smell of their genes and the more
dissimilar the genes are to our own the more likely we are to be attracted to the scent.

Gene and Behaviour

Gene and behavior : Caspi et al
Genetic similarities : Natt et al
Twin and kinship studies: Minnesota twin study
Evolutionary explanations for behavior: Skateboard study

Approach 2: Cognitive Approach

Memory models: Memory is a cognitive process used to store retrieve and encode
information. There are two types of memory models: The multi-store memory model and
the working memory model. Multi-store memory model is proposed by Atkinson and
Shiffrin which is divided into three components. Sensory memory is a store where the
information is not processed but it detects the information and holds it until it is further
sent to short-term memory or totally lost. Short-term memory is the information stored for
r short period of time. The duration of STM is 15 to 30s. The only way that the information
can be transmitted to long-term memory is through rehearsal. Long-term memory is the
place where a huge amount of information can be stored for an indefinite period. The
information in the sensory store is not given attention and the information in STM is not
rehearsed and is decayed or lost.
• Evaluation: Limitations: The multi-store model describes rather than explains. It does not
tell us why information is stored.
• The model does not account for the process of forgetting; forgetting is seen as a by-product,
rather than an active process.
• The model does not account for how memories are stored based on their importance, nor
does it account for the effect of emotion on memory.
Strengths: Many memory-related models have consisted of multi-store memory
models.
Study: Peterson and Peterson

Working memory model: Baddeley and Hitch (1974) expanded this short-term aspect of
the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, proposing a three-part working memory model that
separates primary memory into three components: the phonological loop; the visuo-spatial
sketchpad; and the central executive. The phonological loop stores sound-based content.
According to the model, the phonological loop is made up of a short-term phonological
(sound) store from which information can decay very quickly, and an articulatory rehearsal
component that can revive or recall sound-based memories. The phonological store is
thought to detect and receive sounds and the articulatory loop process repeats or rehearses
the sounds, preventing decay. The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial
information. Mental images can be created, recalled, and manipulated as spatial tasks. The
visuospatial sketchpad is made up of spatial short-term memory, which remembers
locations and objects memory, which stores objects’ characteristics such as size, shape,
surface texture, and color. The central executive is the most important component of the
model. Although very little is known about it´s function, it is responsible for monitory and
coordinating the phonological loop and visuo spatial sketchpad and relates them to LTM.

Studies: Robins et al 1996, Loftus and Palmer

Schema Theory
A schema is a cognitive structure that provides a framework on how our mind organizes
information, knowledge and memories. Schema theory assumes that people give meaning to
new experiences by fitting them to mental representations (schemas) previously stored in
long-term memory. A schema is a simplified mental representation of an event or situation.
For example, many people have a mental image, or schema, of a typical office that includes
typical office furniture and fittings. Its main responsiblitz is to make us understand the
complex world around us.
Strengths: Schema theory helps to understand stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and
inaccurate or unreliable memory.

• Limitations : Schema theory describes but does not explain how and why schemas are
formed.
• Schemas have not been universally defined and so schema theory is based on a fundamental
concept, the meaning of which has not been universally agreed upon by researchers.

Studies: Brandsford and Johnson, Loftus and Palmer

Thinking and decision making

Thinking is the process of using information and knowledge to analyze and interpret
the world and to generally predict the world. Decision-making is the process of
identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences on the
decision maker. Problem Solving is thinking that is directed toward solving specific
problems using mental strategies. One model of thinking and decision making is Dual
 process model proposed by Tversky and Kahneman. The dual process model of thinking and
decision-making postulates that there are two basic modes of thinking - what Stanovich and
West (2000) refer to as "System 1" and "System 2." System 1 is an automatic, intuitive and
effortless way of thinking. System 1 thinking often employs heuristics. Heuristics a 'rule' used
to make decisions or form judgements. Are mental short-cuts that involve focusing on one
aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. System 2 is a slower, conscious and
rational mode of thinking. This mode of thinking is assumed to require more effort.
Evaluation:
Study 1 Tversky and Kahneman 1983 (Pearson pg 64)
Study 2 : Alter and Oppenheimer 2007(Ib psych matters)

Reliabilty of cognitive process

Reconstructive memory: Memory does not work like a video recording, meaning that our
memories of an event are often incomplete, as we only recall the important points. Reconstructive
memory suggests that in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of
what happened. According to Bartlett, we do this using schemas. These are our previous knowledge
and experience of a situation and we use this process to complete the memory. This means that our
memories are a combination of specific traces encoded at the time of the event, along with our
knowledge, expectations, beliefs and experiences of such an event.
Study 1 : Loftus and Palmer
Study 2 : Neisser and Harsch (need to learn)

Biases in thinking and decision making

Heuristics a 'rule' used to make decisions or form judgements. Are mental short-cuts that involve
focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others. Using heuristics leads to the
cognitive which is the anchoring effect. Anchoring effect is a theory proposed by Tversky and
Kahneman which says that humans tend to real too much on the very first information they are
provided with while making decisions. When people try to make predictions, they use their initial
point and adjust from there.
Study 1: Tversky and Kahneman 1974
Study 2: Strack and Mussweiler (1997)

Emotions and cognition

Flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed
memories of highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as a picture taken by
camera. Flashbulb memory has can be supported by modern neuroscience. It tells us, that more
emotional events are better remembered than the less emotional ones, perhaps because of the
critical role of AMYGDALA. Amygdala is situated closely to the hippocampus, which had very
important role in the formation of explicit memories.
Study 1: Neisser and Harsch
Study 2: Sharot et al 2007di

Social Cultural Approach

Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Social Identity Theory (SIT) is a theory proposed by Tajfel and Turner that attempts to explain inter-
group behaviour, and in particular, conflict, prejudice and discrimination. The theory was an elabora-
tion on Sherif’s Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT). RCT’s major claim was that conflict between groups
exists when there is direct competition for resources. SIT, however, posits that intergroup conflict
can exist even when there is no direct competition for resources. SIT is comprised of four interre-
lated concepts:

• social categorization
• social identity
• social comparison
• positive distinctiveness
Social Cognitive Theory
Study : Sherif et al
Arslan et al 2017: (For self-efficacy in option 2 and SCT)
Arslan et al 2017

Aim: The objective of the study is underlying to the relationship between emotional
self-efficacy and educational stress.
Procedure: The research was conducted on 232 secondary school students. The
participants had to fill in the self-efficacy scale and educational stress scale anony-
mously.
Findings: It was found that there was a negative correlation between emotional self-
efficacy and educational stress. Findings obtained from the structural equation
model; academic stress was negatively predicted by emotional self-efficacy.
Conclusion: The study indicates that high emotional self-efficacy decreases educa-
tional stress. Perceived self-efficacy plays an important role in terms of processing
emotional information; so emotional self-efficacy is positively correlated with social re-
lationships and academic performance. This study supports health promotion in which
one of the factors is self efficacy. This clearly shows the impact on our health.
Evaluation: lacks generalizability because they only focused on secondary school
students.
• The tests were conducted anonymously hence they might not be honest.
• Can be easily replicable
The correlation doesn’t show the causation
Each method two positives and two negatives
Option 2: Stress
Aim: aimed to evaluate the empirical evidence of the Transactional Stress Model in patients
with psychosomatic health conditions.

Procedure: A structural equation model was applied in two separate subsamples of

inpatients from the Department of Psychosomatic Medicine (total n = 2,216) for consecutive
model building (sample 1, n = 1,129) and confirmatory analyses (sample 2, n = 1,087) using
self-reported health status information about perceived stress, personal resources, coping
mechanisms, stress response, and psychological well-being.

Perceived external stressors and personal resources explained 91% of the variance of the
stress response, which was closely related to symptoms of depression .

Conclusion: The empirical data largely confirmed the theoretical assumption of the
Transactional Stress Model, which was first presented by Lazarus and Folkman, in patients
with a wide range of psychosomatic conditions. However, data analyses were solely based on
self-reported health status. Thus, proposed inner psychological mechanisms such as the
appraisal process could not be included in this empirical validation. The operationalization
and understanding of coping processes should be further improved.
Health Promotion Stress
Mindfulness Is a cognitive practice