NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

P311

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

pg. 0

‫جات " (المجادلة‪)11:‬‬
‫ق " (فصلت‪)53 /‬‬ ‫س ِه ْم َحتهى يَتَبَيه َن لَ ُه ْم أَنههُ ا ْل َح ُّ‬
‫‪NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB‬‬
‫الر ِح ِيم‬
‫الرحْ َم ِن ه‬
‫َّللا ه‬
‫س ِم ه ِ‬ ‫ِب ْ‬
‫ِين أُوتُوا ا ْل ِع ْل َم د ََر َ‬
‫ِين آ َمنُوا ِم ْن ُك ْم َوالهذ َ‬ ‫" يَ ْرفَ ِع ه‬
‫َّللاُ الهذ َ‬
‫اق َوفِي أ َ ْنفُ ِ‬
‫يه ْم آيَاتِنَا فِي ْاْلفَ ِ‬
‫سنُ ِر ِ‬
‫" َ‬
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 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

The Nuclear Physics Lab Experiments

N Experiment
1 Operating characteristics of Gieger-Muller counter.

2 Dead time of Gieger-Muller counter.

3 Verification of inverse square law for nuclear radiation.

4 Gamma Absorption.

5 Beta Absorption.

6 Statistics of Radiology.

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Introduction

EVERY IDEA ORIGINATES DUE TO A PROBLEM!

Our problem was appeared and discovered by the discovery of nuclear radiation by
two scientists: Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie.
Henri Becquerel -accidently- discovered radioactivity in 1896 when he left a uranium
salt in a desk drawer (no light inside) on a photographic plate wrapped in black paper.
An invisible penetrating radiation was registered on the photographic plate. So, he
hypothesized that the uranium salt spontaneously emits some type of energetic
radiation (Radioactivity). This discovery led to the development of the field of nuclear
physics.
Marie Curie, along with her husband Pierre Curie, continued the work of Becquerel
and discovered two new radioactive elements, polonium, and radium.

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Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from the atom of an

unstable nucleus, and it is a statistical process governed by a mathematical law.
Generally, radiation can be classified as being either ionizing or non-ionizing
radiation.
• Non-ionizing radiation can transfer energy into a material through which it
passes, but because it has relatively low energy, it does not have to ability to
break the molecular bonds that exist in the material or cause electrons to be
removed from the atoms in the material.
• Ionizing radiation, however, can impart enough energy to the material upon
which it impinges so that molecular bonds may be broken, and electrons may be
stripped from the atoms in the material. When electrons get removed from an
atom, the result is the creation of ions, the presence of which can be hazardous
to living cells in plants and animals, including people.

The common types of ionizing radiation are:

• Alpha particles

• Beta particles

• Neutrons

• X-rays

• Gamma rays

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Alpha particles
An alpha particle is a type of ionizing radiation consisting of two protons and two
neutrons, essentially a helium-4 nucleus. It is relatively large and carries a positive
electrical charge.
𝑨 𝑨−𝟐
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟐𝑿 + 𝟐𝟐𝑯𝒆(𝜶)

Beta particles
Beta particles are another form of particle radiation (electron or positron). Being
lighter than alpha particles, beta particles can travel a greater distance. Nucleus decay
beta particles when a neutron converts into a proton (negative electron) or when a
proton converts into a neutron (positron)
𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒− + 𝑣
𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝑣

Neutrons
Neutron particle emission refers to the release of free neutrons from the nucleus of an
atom. This emission can occur through various nuclear reactions, such as nuclear
fission.

X-rays and Gamma rays

Both X-rays and gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic radiation which travel at
the speed of light, and which can penetrate materials easily because of their high
energy levels. X-rays emission related to the electron transfer between the atomic
levels and the interaction with the outside electric field of the nucleus but gamma rays
emission related to the excited nucleus itself (from inside it)

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The purpose of radioactivity detection means!

Because humanity broadly direct to use the radioactive materials in different fields
like nuclear power, nuclear wars, and nuclear medicine. Researchers began to study
the ionizing radiation effects on people to recognize what can cause and how we can
limit their negative effects. It was necessary to invent means and instruments can
characterize and detect the level of radiation in surroundings.

Radioactivity Units
Becquerel (Bq): The Becquerel is the (SI) unit of radioactivity. It represents the
number of disintegrations per second.
𝑑𝑖𝑠
1 𝐵𝑞 = 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Curie (Ci): The Curie is a non-SI unit of radioactivity. It is equal to 3.7 × 1010
disintegrations per second.
1𝐶𝑖 = 3.7 × 1010 𝐵𝑞
Rutherford (Rd): The Rutherford is another non-SI unit of radioactivity. It is equal to
one million radioactive disintegrations per second.
1 𝑅𝑑 = 1010 𝐵𝑞

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Types of Radiation Detectors

Radiation detectors may be characterized by the type of radiation that they are
designed to sense or by their underlying operating principals or by their functions.

From a functionality perspective, radiation detectors include counters, spectrometers,

and dosimeters.

1. Radiation Counter

A radiation counter is a device that detects and

measures the activity or intensity of radiation in
counts per second (cps).

An old version of G-M counter

2. Radiation spectrometer

A radiation spectrometer is a device that

measures the energy distribution of radiation
over a specific range of wavelengths or
frequencies. It can provide information about the
type and energy of the radiation, as well as its
intensity.

3. Dosimeter

A dosimeter is a device that measures the amount of radiation

a person has been exposed to over a period of time. It can be
worn by people who work in occupations where they may be
exposed to radiation, such as medical professionals or nuclear
workers. Dosimeters can provide information about the
accumulated dose of radiation, which is measured in units of
Sieverts or Rems.

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From the used sensitive material perspective, the radiation detectors classified as:
• Gas-filled detectors
• Scintillation detectors
• Solid-state detectors

1. Gas-filled radiation detectors

These detectors utilize a gas-filled chamber as the sensing medium. When ionizing
radiation enters the chamber, it ionizes the gas atoms or molecules, creating free
electrons and positively charged ions. An electric field is applied within the chamber,
causing the charged particles to drift towards oppositely charged electrodes. The
resulting electric current or charge is then measured and analyzed to determine the
characteristics of the detected radiation.
Gas-filled detectors can be designed and classified in various configurations,
including (i) proportional counters, (ii) Geiger-Muller counters, and (iii)
ionization chambers, each offering different levels of sensitivity and operating ranges
of voltage.

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2. Scintillation radiation detectors

Scintillation detectors work by utilizing scintillator materials that emit flashes of light
(scintillations) when they interact with ionizing radiation. When ionizing radiation
enters the scintillator material, it transfers energy to the atoms or molecules within the
material, causing excitation. The excited states then de-excite, emitting scintillation
light in the process. The scintillation light is detected using light-sensitive detectors,
such as photomultiplier tubes or silicon photomultipliers, which convert the light into
electrical signals. These signals are amplified, processed, and analyzed to provide
information about the detected radiation, including its energy and intensity. By
detecting and measuring ionizing radiation, scintillation detectors find applications in
various fields, including medical imaging, nuclear physics, and environmental
monitoring.

3. Solid-state radiation detectors

The working mechanism of semiconductor
detectors is based on the principles of solid-
state physics. These detectors are typically
made of high-purity semiconductor materials
such as silicon or germanium. When ionizing
radiation enters the semiconductor material, it
interacts with the atoms or molecules, creating
electron-hole pairs. The created charges are
then collected and measured using an electric
field applied across the semiconductor material. The resulting electrical signal is
proportional to the amount of radiation absorbed, allowing for the detection and
quantification of ionizing radiation.

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CONSTRUCTION OF GEIGER-MULLER COUNTER:

It consists of a hollow metal cylindrical tube enclosed in a thin glass tube. This
hollow metal tube acts as a cathode.
A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by ebonite
plugs. This fine tungsten wire acts as anode.
The tube is evacuated and then partially filled with a mixture of 90% argon (as an inert
gas) at 10 cm pressure and 10% ethyl alcohol vapors at 1cm pressure.
The fine tungsten wire is connected to positive terminal of a high-tension battery
through a resistance R and the negative terminal is connected to the metal tube.
The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a discharge
between the electrodes.
At one end of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of
radiation into the tube.

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Working Principle of Geiger-Muller counter

The working mechanism of a Geiger counter relies on the ionization of gas atoms or
molecules by incoming ionizing radiation. When radiation enters the tube through the
window, it ionizes the gas, creating free electrons and positively charged ions. The
strong applied electric field accelerates the free electrons towards the anode, causing
further ionization (secondary electrons and positive ions) due to secondary collisions
caused by the produced primary electrons and creating an avalanche of ionization
events.
This avalanche generates a detectable electrical pulse, The current through R produces
a voltage pulse of the order of 10μV. An electron pulse amplifier accepts the small
pulse voltage and amplifies them to about 5 to 50 V. The amplified output is then
applied to a counter. As each incoming particle produces a pulse, the number of
incoming particles can be counted.
In a GM tube, after the ionization caused by incident radiation triggers a discharge, it
is essential to ensure that the ionization stops once the discharge is detected and
counted. If the discharge were to continue indefinitely, it would prevent accurate
measurement of individual radiation events and could damage the detector.
Quenching is the process by which the discharge in a GM tube is rapidly stopped or
"quenched" after each event, allowing the tube to reset and be ready to detect
subsequent radiation events.
The quenching gas (ethyl alcohol) present in the tube helps to quickly extinguish the
ionization process after each avalanche, ensuring that the detector is ready for
subsequent radiation events.

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Advantages of GM Counter
• It can count alpha, beta, gamma particles as well as cosmic rays.
• It has high sensitivity.
• Power supply need not be precisely regulated as the pulse height is constant
over a large range.
• Because of the fact that output pulse is very high, so the Amplification needed
is also very subtle.
Disadvantages of GM Counter
• Energies cannot be measured by it as it has a lack of differentiating abilities.
• It cannot detect uncharged particles like Neutrons.
• It is less efficient due to the large dead time.
• Quenching agent used in this counter often decomposes, leading to less lifetime
of the GM Counter.

Background of Ionizing Radiation

Background of ionizing radiation refers to the natural radiation present in the
environment from sources such as cosmic radiation, terrestrial radiation, radionuclides
in the environment.
Note: The ionizing radiation detectors can count a value (𝑁𝐵 ) without a radioactive
source in front of the detector due to the background radiation in the surrounding
environment then the actual count rate due to a radioactive source is
𝑵 = 𝑵𝒎 − 𝑵𝑩

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Experiment (1): Geiger-Müller Detector operating

characteristics

Experiment Aims:
1. Plotting the characteristic curve of the GM counter.
2. Determining the starting voltage (𝑉𝑠 ).
Determining the threshold and breakdown voltage (𝑉𝑡ℎ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑏𝑑 ).
Determining the plateau region (𝑉𝑡ℎ − 𝑉𝑏𝑑 ).
Determining the operating voltage of GM counter.
3. Calculation of the percentage gradient of the GM detector.

Theory:
Plateau graph of Geiger Muller counter
The Characteristic curve typically shows the relationship between the voltage applied
to the GM tube and the number of counts registered by the counter. It demonstrates the
behavior of the counter over a range of operating voltages.

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From the characteristics curve, we can deduce the following characteristics:

Starting voltage (Vs): It is the minimum voltage applied the detector make it operate.
If the applied voltage is increased further, then a point will be reached called
threshold voltage (𝑽𝒕𝒉 ) after which the count rate remains constant over a certain
region. This region is known as plateau region or Geiger region. This region is used
for Geiger Muller operation. If the applied electric field is increased so high, then a
point will be reached called Breakdown Voltage (𝑽𝑩𝑫 ) after which a continuous
discharge takes place in the tube and the count rate increases very rapidly.

Plateau length (or operating plateau region): The range voltage corresponding to the
flat part of the characteristic curve.
Plateau Length = (𝑽𝑩𝒅 − 𝑽𝑻𝒉 )

Operating voltage (or working voltage) (V0): It is the voltage corresponding to the
midpoint of the plateau region.
(𝑽𝑩𝒅 − 𝑽𝑻𝒉 )
𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽𝒐 ) =
𝟐

Percentage Gradient: It is the percentage change in counting rate per volt through the
plateau region.
(𝑵𝑩𝒅 − 𝑵𝑻𝒉 )
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑵𝒐 (𝑽𝑩𝒅 − 𝑽𝑻𝒉 )

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Apparatus:

• Source of radiation.
• Geiger detector.
• HV power supply.
• long-handled tongs

Procedure:

1. Connect the plugs of the electric mains.

2. Set the timer to 60 s and the HV to 100 Volt.
3. Put the source in front of the Gieger tube on a shelf from top.
4. Record the count rate per one minute (N).
5. Increase the applied voltage gradually until the detector begins to operate, this is the
starting voltage (Vs).
6. Increase the applied voltage and record the count rate per one minute (N) for each
voltage until reaching the discharge voltage (when count rate increases so rapidly).
7. Decrease the applied voltage gradually and turn the counter off.
8. Plot the counting rate (N) versus the applied voltage (V) and deduce the threshold
voltage, the plateau length, the operating voltage and the percentage gradient of the
detector.

V (voltage) N (C/min)

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Experiment (2): Dead Time Geiger-Müller Detector

The Experiment Aims:

• To determine the G-M counter dead time.

Theory:

Dead time refers to the time taken by the tube to recover between counts. It requires
about 200 μs for the tube to recover.
After a count has been recorded, the G-M takes tube takes a certain amount of time to
reset itself to be ready to record the next count. The resolving time or "dead time", T,
of a detector is the time it takes for the detector to "reset" itself. Since the detector is
"not operating" while it is being reset, the measured activity is not the true activity of
the sample. If the counting rate is high, then the effect of dead time is very important
and some particles may not be counted.

We will discuss how to correct for dead time, and then discuss how one can measure
what it is.

Correcting for the Resolving time:

We define the following variables:
T = the resolving time or dead time of the detector
𝒕𝒓 = the real time that the detector is operating. This is the actual time that the
detector is on. It is our counting time. 𝑡𝑟 does not depend on the dead time of
the detector, but on how long we actually record counts.
𝒕𝒍 = the live time that the detector is operating. This is the time that the detector is
able to record counts. 𝑡𝑙 depends on the dead time of the detector.
C = the total number of counts that we record.
𝑪
n = the measured counting rate, 𝒏 =
𝒕𝒓
𝑪
N = the true counting rate, 𝑵 =
𝒕𝒍

𝒏
• the ratio is equal to:
𝑵

𝐶⁄
𝑛 𝑡𝑟 𝑡𝑙
= =
𝑁 𝐶⁄ 𝑡𝑟
𝑡𝑙

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This means that the fraction of the counts that we record is the ratio of the "live time"
to the "real time". This ratio is the fraction of the time that the detector is able to
record counts.

• The relationship between the real time, live time, and dead time. To a good
approximation, the live time is equal to the real time minus C times the dead
time T:

𝒕𝒍 = 𝒕𝒓 − 𝑪𝑻
This is true since CT is the total time that the detector is unable to record counts
during the counting time tr.
• Dividing the last equation by 𝑡𝑟 , we get

𝒕𝒍 𝑪𝑻
=𝟏− = 𝟏 − 𝒏𝑻
𝒕𝒓 𝒕𝒓
• From the first equation, we see that the left side is equal to
𝒏
= 𝟏 − 𝒏𝑻
𝑵
• Solving for N, we obtain the equation:
𝒏
𝑵=
𝟏 − 𝒏𝑻
This is the equation we need to determine the true counting rate from the measured
one.
Notice that N is always larger than n. Also note that the product (nT) is the key
parameter in determining by how much the true counting rate increases from the
measured counting rate.
• For small values of nT, the product nT (unitless) is the fractional increase that N
is of n. For values of nT < 0.01 dead time is not important and are less than a
1% effect.
• Dead time changes the measured value for the counting rate by 5% when nT =
0.05.
The product nT is small when either the counting rate n is small, or the dead time T is
small.

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Measuring the Resolving Time (Dead Time)

The resolving time for a G‐M tube can be determined by using a set of split sources of
radiation, as shown Figure:

First, we determine the counting rate with one half alone, call this counting rate 𝒏𝟏 .
Then we add the second half next to the first one and determine the counting rate with
both sources together. Call this counting rate 𝒏𝟏𝟐 . Finally, we take away the first half
and measure the counting rate with the second half alone. We call this counting
rate 𝒏𝟐 .
You might think that the measured counting times 𝒏𝟏𝟐 should equal 𝒏𝟏 plus 𝒏𝟐 . If
there were no dead time this would be true. However, with dead time, 𝒏𝟏𝟐 is less than
the sum of 𝒏𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 . This is because with both sources present the detector is "dead"
more often than when the sources are being counted alone.

The true counting times do add up:

𝑵𝟏𝟐 = 𝑵𝟏 + 𝑵𝟐

since these are the counting rates corrected for dead time. Substituting the expressions
for the measured counting times into the above equation gives:
𝑛12 𝑛1 𝑛2
= +
𝟏 − 𝑛12 𝑻 𝟏 − 𝑛1 𝑻 𝟏 − 𝑛2 𝑻

It is found after a bit of algebra that An approximate solution to these equations is

given by
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏𝟐
𝑻≈
𝟐𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

In our laboratory we will measure 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , and 𝑛12 and used the formula above to
get an approximate value for the dead time of the Geiger counter. It is difficult to get
a precise value for T. one needs to be very careful that the positions of source 1 and 2
with respect to the detector alone is the same as the positions of these sources when

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they are measured together. Also, since 𝑛12 is not much smaller than 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 , one
needs to measure all three quantities very accurately. For this one needs many counts,
since the relative statistical error equals for the three quantities. For sufficient accuracy
one needs to use an active source for a long time.
The values that we usually obtain in our experiments range from 100 to 500 𝜇sec.

Apparatus:

• Radioactive Source (two halves).

• Geiger detector.
• HV power supply.
• long-handled tongs

Procedure:

1. Connect the plugs of the electric mains.

2. Set the timer to 60 s and the HV to the operating voltage.
3. Take a background reading many times without the radioactive source and
calculate the average.
4. Put the first half of the source in front of the Gieger tube on a certain shelf from
tube window.
4. Record the measured count rate (𝑛1𝑚 ) many times and subtract the background
every time (𝑛1 = 𝑛1𝑚 − 𝒏𝒃 ).
5. Repeat the last step for the second half alone and the two halves together.
6. Decrease the applied voltage gradually and turn the counter off.
7. Substituting in the dead time equation to obtain the value.

𝒏𝑩𝟏 + 𝒏𝑩𝟐 + 𝒏𝑩𝟑

𝒏𝑩 =
𝟑
First half Second half Two halves
i 𝑛1𝑚 𝑛1 = 𝑛1𝑚 − 𝒏𝒃 𝑛𝟐𝑚 𝑛𝟐 = 𝑛𝟐𝑚 − 𝒏𝒃 𝑛𝟏𝟐𝑚 𝑛1𝟐 = 𝑛1𝟐𝑚 − 𝒏𝒃
1
2
3
avg

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Experiment (3): Inverse Square Law of Radiation

The Experiment Aims:

• Verification of Inverse Square Law for a radioactive point source.

• Understand the application of the Inverse Square Law in Radiation Safety.

Theory:

Inverse Square law of radioactive point sources states that the radiation Intensity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

1
𝐼∝
𝑑2

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This law is based on the principle that radiation spreads out evenly in all
directions from its point source, forming spherical wavefronts. As the
distance from the source increases, the same amount of radiation is spread
over a larger surface area, resulting in a decrease in intensity .

The nuclear radiation inverse square law is essential for understandi ng

radiation safety and protection. It helps in determining the appropriate
shielding and safety measures required at different distances from radiation
sources.

Apparatus

• G-Mcounter
• HV power supply
• A source of radiation with source holder
• long-handled tongs

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Procedure:

1. Set the timer to 60 s and the HV to the operating voltage.

2. Take a background reading twice without the source of γ radiation and calculate the
average.
3. Place the gamma source at a chosen distance from the geiger counter and start
counting.
(Note: Subtract the measued values from the background reading (𝑵 = 𝑵𝒎 − 𝑵𝑩 ).
4. Calculate the real count rate using the dead time value of the counter.
5. Repeat the last steps with changing distances.
6. Plot a relation between the real count rate and the inverse square of distance.

d(cm) 𝟏⁄ (𝒄𝒎−𝟐 ) 𝑵𝒎 𝑵 = 𝑵𝒎 − 𝑵𝑩 𝑵
𝒅𝟐 𝐦=
𝟏 − 𝐍𝝉

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Experiment (4): Gamma Absorption

Experiment Aims:
• To estimate the linear and mass absorption coefficient (𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼) of some types
of material
• To determine the half value thickness (HVT)

Theory:

Gamma and x-rays are attenuated exponentially when they pass through materials due
to interactions with matter.
The intensity variation (dI) of a monoenergetic gamma ray beam passing through a
material of thickness x (cm) is described by the expression:
𝒅𝑰
− = 𝝁𝑰
𝒅𝑿
where µ is the linear attenuation coefficient and It is defined as the fraction of the
incident intensity that is absorbed or scattered per unit path length and is dependent
upon the proton (Z) number of the attenuating material, the material density and the
photon energy.

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By solving this differential equation, the intensity as a function of the length traversed
I(x) can be obtained:
𝑰 𝒙
𝒅𝑰
∫ = −𝝁 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑰𝒐 𝑰 𝟎

𝒍𝒏𝑰 − 𝒍𝒏𝑰𝒐 = −𝝁𝒙

𝑰
𝐥𝐧 ( ) = −𝝁𝒙
𝑰𝒐
𝑰(𝒙) = 𝑰𝒐 𝒆−𝝁𝒙

There is another coefficient called the mass attenuation coefficient (𝛼) of radiation
refers to the rate at which rays are absorbed or attenuated per unit mass of a material.
𝝁
𝜶=
𝝆

Half Value Thickness (HVT) expresses the thickness of absorbing material which is
needed to reduce the incident radiation intensity by a factor of two. This concept is
very important and widely used in shielding.
𝑰𝒐
= 𝑰𝒐 𝒆−𝝁𝒙𝟏⁄𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 = −𝝁𝒙𝟏⁄𝟐
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒙𝟏⁄ =
𝟐 𝝁

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Attenuation Mechanisms

Radiation can be attenuated in matter through several mechanisms, depending on the

type of radiation and the properties of the material. The main mechanisms of radiation
attenuation are:
Photoelectric Effect: In this process, gamma photons interact with atoms in the
material and are completely absorbed. The photon transfers its entire energy to an
atomic electron, which is ejected from the atom. This mechanism is more dominant at
lower energies and for materials with high atomic numbers.
Compton Scattering: Gamma photons interact with electrons in the material, causing
a partial transfer of energy and a change in direction (scattering). The gamma photon
loses some of its energy and continues to travel in a different direction, while the
electron recoils with some transferred energy. Compton scattering is more significant
at intermediate energies.
Pair Production: At high energies, gamma photons can convert their energy into
matter by creating an electron-positron pair in the vicinity of the atomic nucleus. The
produced electron and positron then interact with the material, contributing to further
attenuation.

Figure shows the probability of the three dominant interaction processes in matter as a
function of photon energy, the decrease of the probability of photoelectric effect when
the energy increases, the dominance of Compton scattering at medium energies and
the dominance of pair production at higher photon energies.

pg. 26
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Apparatus

• G-Mcounter
• HV power supply
• A source of γ radiation with source holder
• long-handled tongs
• Vernier caliper

Procedure:

1. Set the timer to 60 s and the HV to the operating voltage.

2. Take a background reading many times without the source of γ radiation and
calculate the average.
3. Measure the thickness of the shielding (attenuating) material.
4. Place the gamma source at a chosen distance (constant during the experiment) from
the geiger counter placing the shielding material over the source and start counting.
(Note: Subtract the measued values from the background reading. 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑁𝐵 )
5. Calculate the real count rate using the value of G-M tube dead time (𝜏).
6. Repeat the last step with changing the attenuating material thickness (x).
7. Plot a relation between the count rate and ln(x)

𝑵𝑩𝟏 + 𝑵𝑩𝟐 + 𝑵𝑩𝟑

𝑵𝑩 =
𝟑
𝑵
x(cm) Ln(x) 𝑁𝑚 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑵𝐵 𝒎=
𝟏 − 𝑵𝝉

• Slope = −𝜇
𝝁
• 𝜶=
𝝆

𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
• 𝒙𝟏⁄ =
𝟐 𝝁

pg. 27
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Experiment (5): Beta Absorption

Experiment Aims:

• To estimate the linear and mass absorption coefficient (𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼) of some types
of material
• To determine the range of beta radiation inside the used materials.

Theory:

Beta radiation is attenuated exponentially when they pass through materials due to
interactions with matter.
The intensity variation (dI) of beta radiation passing through a material of thickness x
(cm) is described by the expression:
𝒅𝑰
− = 𝝁𝑰
𝒅𝑿
where µ is the linear attenuation coefficient and It is defined as the fraction of the
incident intensity that is absorbed or scattered per unit path length and is dependent
upon the proton (Z) number of the attenuating material, the material density and the
photon energy.

pg. 28
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

By solving this differential equation, the intensity as a function of the length traversed
I(x) can be obtained:
𝑰 𝒙
𝒅𝑰
∫ = −𝝁 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑰𝒐 𝑰 𝟎

𝒍𝒏𝑰 − 𝒍𝒏𝑰𝒐 = −𝝁𝒙

𝑰
𝐥𝐧 ( ) = −𝝁𝒙
𝑰𝒐
𝑰(𝒙) = 𝑰𝒐 𝒆−𝝁𝒙

There is another coefficient called the mass attenuation coefficient (𝛼) of radiation
refers to the rate at which rays are absorbed or attenuated per unit mass of a material.
𝝁
𝜶=
𝝆

Half Value Thickness (HVT) expresses the thickness of absorbing material which is
needed to reduce the incident radiation intensity by a factor of two. This concept is
very important and widely used in shielding.
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒙𝟏⁄ =
𝟐 𝝁
Range of beta radiation (R or 𝒙𝒐 ) is the thickness of material required to absorb the
beta particles energy completely.

pg. 29
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Attenuation (Absorption) Mechanisms

(i) Inelastic collisions of incident electrons with bound atomic electrons in the matter
is the most important mechanism by which incident electrons lose their energy in their
passage through matter. During such inelastic collisions incident electron transfer part
of its energy to a bound atomic electron taking it to an excited state (excitation) or an
unbounded state (ionization).
(ii) Radiative collisions of electrons with atomic nucleus since incident electron
passing through the field of a nucleus experiences a deflection with a resultant
emission of radiation due to a loss of kinetic energy (this process is known as
Bremsstrahlung radiation).

Apparatus

• G-Mcounter
• HV power supply
• A source of beta radiation with source holder
• long-handled tongs
• Vernier caliper

Procedure:

1. Set the timer to 60 s and the HV to the operating voltage.

2. Take a background reading many times without the source of beta radiation and
calculate the average.
3. Measure the thickness of the shielding (attenuating) material.
4. Place the beta source at a chosen distance (constant during the experiment) from
the geiger counter placing the shielding material over the source and start counting.
(Note: Subtract the measued values from the background reading. 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑁𝐵 )
5. Calculate the real count rate using the value of G-M tube dead time (𝜏).
6. Repeat the last step with changing the attenuating material thickness (x).
Plot a relation between the count rate and ln(x)

pg. 30
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

𝑵𝑩𝟏 + 𝑵𝑩𝟐 + 𝑵𝑩𝟑

𝑵𝑩 =
𝟑
𝑵
x(cm) Ln(x) 𝑁𝑚 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑵𝐵 𝒎=
𝟏 − 𝑵𝝉

• Slope = −𝜇
𝝁
• 𝜶=
𝝆
• 𝒙𝒐 𝒐𝒓 𝑹 = ⋯ 𝒄𝒎

pg. 31
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Experiment (6): Statistics of Radiology

Experiment Aims:
To investigate the counting statistics in a fixed time interval from a radioactive source:
1. The mean value of measurement (𝑥̅ )
2. Absolute deviation (Δ 𝑥𝑖 )
3. Standard deviation (s)
4. Variance (a = 𝑠 2 )
5. The coefficient of variance (CV)

Introduction:

The spontaneous radioactive disintegration of atomic nuclei is a statistical process. If

we have a certain number of nuclei in a sample, we cannot predict exactly when a
particular nucleus will decay.
One nucleus in the group might decay during the next two-minute period. Another
nucleus might only decay after many years. All that can be predicted is the mean
number of nuclei that will decay in a particular interval. In this experiment you are
asked to make a large number of measurements of the count for a short time interval,
and to make a statistical description of this set of measurements. This description will
be compared with various mathematical functions.

Theory:

When measuring a physical quantity, we can not measure the physical magnitude
exactly due to systematic errors and random errors.
Systematic errors are errors that occur consistently in the same direction and
magnitude every time a measurement is made. These errors are caused by flaws in the
measurement equipment or in the experimental design.
For example, if a scale is consistently miscalibrated by a certain amount, then every
measurement made on that scale will be consistently off by that same amount.

pg. 32
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Random errors are errors that occur randomly and unpredictably in both direction and
magnitude every time a measurement is made. These errors can be caused by a variety
of factors, such as environmental fluctuations, human error in reading instruments, or
simply the limitations of the measurement equipment.

A good example of "random error" is the statistical error associated with sampling or
counting. For example, consider radioactive decay which occurs randomly at a some
(average) rate. If a sample has, on average, 1000 radioactive decays per second then
the expected number of decays in 5 seconds would be 5000. A particular measurement
in a 5 second interval will, of course, vary from this average but it will generally yield
a value within 5000 +/-. Behavior like this, where the error can be determined as
following,

n = nexp ected

is called a Poisson statistical process. Typically, if one does not know nexp ected it is
assumed that,

nmeasured = nexpected
Calculation of Errors

1. The mean value of measurement

The mean value, also known as the arithmetic mean, is a statistical measure that
represents the central tendency of a set of numbers or measurements.
The formula for calculating the mean value Is:
Mean value = (sum of values) / (number of values)
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥
𝑥̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛
The mean value is a commonly used measure of central tendency that provides a
useful summary of a set of data. However, it is important to note that the mean can be
Influenced by extreme values or outliers in the data set, which can skew the results. In
such cases, other measures of central tendency such as the median or mode may be
more appropriate.

pg. 33
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

2. Deviation
Deviation is important In statistics because it helps to identify outliers, or data points
that are far from the mean or median. Outliers can affect the accuracy of statistical
analyses and may need to be removed or treated separately.
There are different types of deviation measures used in statistics, including:
(i) Absolute deviation
The absolute deviation is a measure of the average distance between each data point
and the mean of the data set .
Δ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 – 𝑥̅

(ii) Standard deviation

Standard deviation Is a statistical measure that calculates the amount of variability or
dispersion in a set of data. It is denoted by the symbol sigma (σ) for a population and s
for a sample.
To calculate the standard deviation, you first need to calculate the mean (average) of
the data set. Then, for each data point, you find the difference between the data point
and the mean (i.e. calculate the absolute deviation), square that difference, and take the
average of all the squared differences. Finally, take the square root of that average to
get the standard deviation.
So the formula for the sample standard deviation Is:

∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 (Δ 𝑥𝑖 )2
𝑆=√ = √
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

Where s is the sample standard deviation, x Is the data point, x̄ Is the sample mean,
and n is the sample size.
Standard deviation is useful because it provides a measure of how spread out the data
is. A small standard deviation Indicates that the data points are clustered closely
around the mean, while a large standard deviation indicates that the data points are
more spread out.

pg. 34
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

3. Variance
Variance is a statistical measure that is as the standard deviation describes how spread
out a set of data Is. It measures the degree of deviation of a set of values from Its mean
or expected value. In other words, variance measures the average squared distance of
each value from the mean.
The formula for variance is:
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑𝑛𝑖=1(Δ 𝑥𝑖 )2
2
𝑎=𝑠 = =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
.
A high variance indicates that the data points are spread out over a larger range of
values, while a low variance indicates that the data points are clustered around the
mean.
4. The coefficient of variance (CV)
coefficient of variance is a statistical measure that expresses the standard deviation of
a set of data as a percentage of the measurement mean value. It is also a relative
measure of dispersion used to compare the variability of different sets of data that
have different scales or units of measurement .
The formula for the coefficient of variance is:
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠
𝐶𝑉 = ∗ 100% = × 100%
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑥̅
A high coefficient of variance indicates that the data points are widely spread out
relative to the mean, while a low coefficient of variance Indicates that the data points
are tightly clustered around the mean.
It Is important to note that the coefficient of variance is only meaningful when the
mean of the data set is non-zero. If the mean Is zero or close to zero, the coefficient of
variance may become undefined or misleading.

pg. 35
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS LAB

Apparatus:

• Source of radiation.
• Geiger detector.
• HV power supply.
• long-handled tongs

Procedure:

1. Connect the plugs of the electric mains.

2. Set the timer to 30 s and the HV to the operating Voltage.
3. Take the background reading many times without the radioactive source and
calculate the average.
4. Put the source in front of the Gieger tube on a shelf from top.
5. Record the count rate per a fixed certain time interval (𝑁𝑚 ) and subtract the
background (𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑁𝐵 ).
6. Repeat the last steps many times without change anything.
7. Decrease the applied voltage gradually and turn the counter off.
8. Use this table to calculate the statistical functions (Mean Value (𝑁 ̅ ), Absolute
Deviation (Δ 𝑥𝑖 ), Standard Deviation (s), Variance (a = 𝑠 2 ), and the coefficient of
variance (CV)).
Results
𝑵
i 𝑁𝑚 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚 − 𝑁𝐵 𝒎= Δ 𝒎𝒊 = 𝒎 𝒊 – 𝒎
̅ (Δ 𝒎𝒊 )𝟐
𝟏 − 𝑵𝝉
1
𝒎𝒊

(𝚫 𝒎𝒊 )𝟐

2
𝑛
𝑖=1
∑𝑛

3
̅ =

𝑖=1

4
𝑛
𝒎

…
n

pg. 36