University of Nottingham School of Civil Engineering

Concrete Technology - Module H24S06

Lecture 6. Pumped and Sprayed Concrete

6.1. Pumped Concrete

See Neville, 4th Edition, p217 to 222

Pumping concrete through a steel pipeline is a convenient method of transporting it from the mixer to the
place of deposit, provided above a certain quantity has to be placed, and is especially applicable on
congested building sites. An ordinary single-cylinder reciprocating ram pump is often used and the concrete
can be pumped for over 300m horizontally or to a height of up to 80m. Concrete can be pumped downhill
successfully and into compressed air and under water provided certain precautions are taken. Concrete can
also be delivered through pipelines by the use of compressed-air concrete placers. To pump easily, concrete
should have a slump of between 75 and 100 mm and should be currently graded with a slight excess of
fines.

It is difficult to pump concrete made with light or porous aggregate and although it is difficult to pump a
liquid neat cement grout, a fairly stiff sand and cement grout can be pumped. Rapid-hardening and quick-
setting cements can be pumped and also hot or cold conditions do not matter provided the obvious
precautions are taken.

Before pumping is commenced the inside of the pipe should be wetted and some cement grout should be
pushed in front of the concrete, a paper plug being inserted in front of the grout to ensure that the grout fills
the pipe. The pipeline should be cleared at the end of operations and this can be done by disconnecting the
pipes and cleaning them out individually, by washing with water, and by using compressed air.

6.2. Concrete as a Material for Pumping

In pumping any material there is necessarily a pressure gradient falling in the direction of flow, owing to
friction as well as head, ie. the material must be capable of transmitting sufficient pressure to overcome all
resistances throughout the length of the pipeline. Of the ingredients in concrete, only water is pumpable in
its natural state. It is the water, therefore, that transmits pressure to all the other ingredients when concrete
is pumped. The solids of the mix must combine together in such a way that the water can transmit pressure
but cannot escape from the mix. If the water escapes, pressure is not transmitted to the solids and blockage
occurs.

The pressure at which bleeding or segregation occurs varies according to the design of the mix. Provided
that this pressure is greater than pressure needed to overcome friction and head, concrete is pumped
successfully. It is possible to raise the segregation pressure of a mix by using a sand which packs together
closely and offers high resistance to the escape of water, or cement slurry.

1
6.3. The Pump

Pumps are available for pumping concrete having a maximum aggregate size of up to 38 mm through
considerable horizontal distances and heights. It is claimed that they will pump normal concrete and that
there is no need for over-sanding the mix. A schematic diagram showing the wholly hydraulic system of
operation of a twin-cylinder pump is given in Fig. 1. The general system of operation is shown in Fig. 2.
Telescopic boom carriers can be obtained and shown in Fig. 3. An advantage of the trailer-mounted pump
is that it can be placed where the ready-mixed concrete trucks have easy access and deliver from there to the
lorry carrying the telescopic boom which has to be near the work. The telescopic booms can be rotated in a
horizontal direction through 360˚ and can reach to a height normally of 20m and possibly higher.

There are two reasons for failure of a pump:-

(a) When the void spaces are not small enough or intricate enought to provide sufficient
internal friction within the mix to overcome the resistance of the pipeline and the water
bleeds through the mix without moving the mass.
(b) When the solids of the concrete are such that they produce so high a pipeline friction that
the pressure exerted by the piston through the water phase is not sufficient to move the
mass.

Condition (a) will occur generally with medium and low strength mixes and (b) with high strength mixes, or
mixes containing a high proportion of very fine materials, or fly ash, stone dust, etc. The factors
contributing to these conditions are in (a), high voids caused by irregular or gap grading, and in (b), the high
surface area of the solids produced by excess of fines.

Fine materials which have a large number of small individual voids offer a greater resistance to the passage
of water than coarse materials with their large individual voids. Although fines are essential to create the
‘blocked filter’ effect which allows the water phase to transmit pressure but not to escape from the mix, they
also create high frictional resistance in the pipe, on account of their high surface area. The aim must
therefore be to produce maximum frictional resistance within the mass of the mix with minimum void sizes
and minimum frictional resistance to the walls of the pipe with a low surface area of aggregates. This
means that a high proportion of coarse material should be used and should be graded to produce a low void
content in order that the fines required to produce the blocked filter effect are kept to a minimum.

6.4. Voids and Grading for Pumpable Concrete

There are two aspects of voids to be considered: the individual void size, which governs the internal
resistance to the passage of water; and the total volume of voids, which indicates the cross-sectional area
available for the water to be forced through.

The void volume of an aggregate is reduced by grading with particles of smaller sizes. The objective is not
to fill the voids between particles with particles equal to the size of these voids, because within the random
packing of any normal aggregate there is no consistent void size, and it would be a vain hope that each
particle added would fit its own particular void space. The materials are graded so that they do not fill the
voids but are continuously reduced in size (19mm, 16mm, 12mm, etc.) - thus the voids are not filled but are

2
continuously re-formed, producing voids of smaller individual size and less total volume. By continuous
grading minimum total voids are mass composed of a variety of particle sizes which lock together.

The grades which have the most effect on void content are:
passing 5 mm and resting on 2.36 mm sieve;
passing 0.6 mm sieve and resting on 0.3 mm sieve;
passing No. 0.3 mm sieve and resting on 0.15 mm sieve.
Of these, the amount of material resting on 2.36 mm sieve is probably the most critical, because too little or
too much of this size will give high void contents. Natural sands tend to have a predominance of material
passing the 0.6 mm sieves and this is an advantage for pumping, provided that there is also a reasonable
quantity (6-7 per cent) or material resting on 2.36 mm sieve which has the effect of reducing the total
surface area as well as the void content. See Neville Table 4.6 (p221) for sieve analysis.

Many sands and aggregates are produced with a natural grading that gives low void contents and as such are
immediately suitable for producing pumpable concrete. Natural gravel produce better mixes for pumping,
but this is almost entirely due to the tendency for their shape to be rounded and to the fact that within a
grade there is a much wider range of sizes than could be expected to occur in crushed rock aggregates - and
both of these factors help in achieving low void contents. On the other hand, crushed rock producers offer a
wider range of single-size material from which gradings can be produced: this to some extent offsets the
advantage of natural aggregates. Crushed rock aggregates usually require higher sand contents than natural
aggregates in order to achieve the required void content.

It will be seen from Fig. 4 that a concrete can be pumped when the cement content is approximately equal to
or above the void content of the aggregate. The fine aggregate must on its own provide sufficient resistance
to the passage of water and for this reason it must contain some material between a 0.6 mm and a 0.3 mm
sieve. Sand coarser than passing a 0.6mm sieve offers little resistance to the passage of water and if finer
sand is not present, the cement will be washed through the aggregate by the water and blockage will occur.
If cellulose ether is added to the water, the resistance to the passage of water through the fine aggregate is
increased and the liability of the cement being washed through the fine aggregate reduced.

6.5. Remedies for Non-Pumpable Concrete

If a mix fails by segregating, then the void sizes are too large or there are insufficient fines to provide the
internal resistance in the concrete. The adjustments may be any one of the following:
(a) improve the grading by adjusting coarse and fine aggregate proportions
(b) introduce another size of aggregate
(c) increase cement content
(d) use a flocculating type additive.
Which method is used will be dependent on circumstances, availability of materials and the distances it is
required to pump. With short pipe-lines (<50 metres) an increase in pipeline friction may be acceptable. In
this case extra fines can be added - cement, fly ash, or fine sand. Adjustment of the grading to give lower
void content is the ideal solution, where convenient and economic, as this gives pumpability with minimum
effort from the pump.

3
When failure is due to the pump not producing sufficient power to overcome friction in the pipeline then the
mix may be improved by:
(a) reducing surface area by increasing proportion of materials in middle of grading
(b) increasing water content
(c) using of a wetting agent type plasticiser.

6.6. Sprayed Concrete

The origins of sprayed concrete are thought to have been in the USA although, when the first US patent was
issued for ‘gunite’ in 1911, European patents also existed for a similar products. A variety of other trademarks
were introduced and the terms ‘pneumatically applied concrete’ evolved to describe similar processes. In the
early 1930's the generic term 'shotcrete' was introduced and in 1951 and was adopted by the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) to describe the dry-mix process. The wet mix process originated at about the same time as the
dry mix alternative. The more recent development of dependable concrete pumps advanced the technology but
the material produced remained little more than pumped concrete, blasted into place, until modern admixtures
significantly improved wet mix sprayed concrete properties.

The term 'shotcrete' is now defined by the ACI as 'mortar or concrete pneumatically projected at high velocity
onto a surface'. Similarly the Concrete Society define sprayed concrete as 'a mixture of cement, aggregate and
water and which may include fibres and/or admixtures, projected at high velocity from a nozzle into place to
form a dense homogeneous mass'. Shotcrete thus embraces both wet and dry processes while the term gunite
applies only to the dry process and by general consensus to material with a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm.

6.7 Dry Mix Sprayed Concrete

In the dry mix process a dry or lightly damped mixture of cement, sand and aggregate is introduced to a purpose
made machine or gun. Fig. 5. The gun entrains the mixture into a compressed air stream which conveys it down
a delivery hose to be wetted or 'hydrated' at a watering ring before it emerges through a nozzle directing the
material onto the target surface. Dry mix sprayed concretes are typically rich in cement, have low water/cement
ratios and correspondingly high compressive strengths. The material has zero slump in-situ with compaction
achieved as the material impacts on the target surface. The dry mix process has three major disadvantages:
- it produces a lot of dust at the gun and nozzle,
- the water/cement ratio is variable and is entirely under the control of the nozzle operator,
- a significant amount of material is lost through rebound.

6.7.1 Sprayed Concrete Guns and Nozzles

Single chamber or batch guns provide intermittent operation by placing a charge of material into the chamber
which is then sealed and pressurized causing the material to feed into a delivery pipe or hose. Double chamber
guns allow for continuous operation by using the upper chamber as an airlock during the charging cycle.

Rotary type guns provide a continuous feeding action using a rotating airlock principle. The rotating barrel gun
consists of a multi-chamber element rotating in a horizontal plane between two fixed airtight plates. Material is
gravity fed from the hopper into the chambers of the rotor. The chamber then passes under a sealing plate and is

4
discharged by coming under air pressure from above which forces the material into the outlet where a further air
supply blasts the mix into the delivery hose.

Discharge nozzles comprising a nozzle body and nozzle tip are attached to the end of the material delivery hose,
their primary function is to inject water into the moving stream of material. They must also premix the water
and solids before the material leaves the nozzle tip (a process referred to as hydration) and provide a uniform
distribution of the mixture. Nozzle tips are usually either rubber lined. Most are designed to induce turbulence
in the material stream.

An ample supply of compressed air at constant pressure is essential for satisfactory production. Water pressure
should not be less than 400 kPa and may be mains supplied if this requirement is met. Failing this a pump can
be used but the most suitable arrangement is a pressurized water bowser because supply pressure does not
fluctuate.

6.7.2 Materials and Mix Design

While ordinary Portland cement is most common, rapid hardening and sulphate resisting cements may be
employed when their particular properties are required. Sands in sprayed concretes should comply with the
requirements for fine aggregate in BS 882: 1983. A 3:1 mix is most common giving fcu = 70 N/mm2. The
water/cement ratio is controlled solely by the nozzle operator who develops a 'feel' for the right water content.
Most estimates vary between 0.30 and 0.50.

6.7.3 Rebound
Rebound is material which does not adhere to the target surface during spraying and either bounces back or is
blown away from the placement area. It consists mainly of the larger sized aggregate particles with a small
fraction of the mix water and cement. The nozzle operator's technique has a profound effect on rebound. The
mix and shooting conditions determine a fairly narrow range of satisfactory water contents within which
shooting at the wettest stable consistency can significantly reduce rebound.

6.8 Wet Mix Sprayed Concrete

A wet mix sprayed concrete unit consists of little more than a concrete pump with a nozzle added at the end of
the delivery pipe to inject compressed air which blasts the concrete onto the target surface. Fig. 6. The
advantages of the wet process are that it produces considerably less rebound and dust than the dry mix process
and that a constant water/cement ratio can be maintained.

The original wet mix process was little more than an alternative concrete placement method with compaction
achieved through blasting the mix into place rather than by vibration. When spraying into anything other than a
conventional form the slump must be minimized to allow placement. The process has been revolutionised in
recent years by the introduction of superplasticizers and silica fume, which now allow pumpable concretes with
low water/cement ratios to be sprayed and achieve high in-situ strengths. Mixes typically contain a 5-10 %
addition of silica fume, by weight of cement, and liquid accelerators are added at the nozzle. Wet mix aggregate
gradings and aggregate/cement ratios are similar to those for in the dry process.

5
The basic techniques of dry mix spraying are also applicable to the wet mix process although the wet mix nozzle
operator has much less influence over the material itself. In some cases the nozzle operator may have to adjust
the accelerator dosage at the nozzle but it is more commonly linked automatically to the pump output. Wet mix
rebound is reduced in comparison with the dry process.

6.9 Wet Mix or Dry Mix?

The choice of wet or dry process will depend on the nature of an application, most types of work can be carried
out by either method. For thin applications and repair work the dry process is often more appropriate as it is
better suited to intermittent operation. Increased productivity through high output and reduced rebound give wet
mix the edge when large areas are sprayed.

The demand for high output in modern tunnelling methods has led to the development of mechanical spraying
arms to support the nozzle so that output is not limited by the physical demands placed on the nozzle operator.
The nozzle is controlled by a remote operator though robots are used to reproduce some of the regular
movements made by a human nozzle operator. Putzmeister's Spray Buffalo is among the largest of these
machines: a complete wet mix sprayed concrete unit is mounted on a crawler chassis and has two spraying arms
to give a theoretical spraying output of 30 m3/hr. Although high outputs are often required the dry mix process
is still used in tunnelling work.

6.10 Steel Fibre Reinforcement in Sprayed Concrete

NOTE : This section should be read in conjunction with Lecture 11 on fibre reinforced concrete.

Steel fibre reinforcement had been shown to significantly alter the behaviour of the concrete matrix providing
increased flexural strength and post-crack ductility. Fibres are relatively expensive and particularly in the dry
process fibre losses due to rebound are significant. They also present some difficulties in mixing and spraying.
However, when compared with the traditional method of providing mesh reinforcement fibre reinforcement may
offer: increased energy absorption capacity manifested in greater post-cracking toughness and improved impact
resistance.

Mix design for wet and dry processes is similar to that for non-fibre mixes, though the increased dosage of water
reducing admixtures may be required to maintain the slump needed for pumping wet mixes. Steel fibres range
from 13-38 mm long and 0.25-0.50 mm in diameter. Fibre aspect ratios are normally kept below 70. The
improved handling characteristics of melt extract fibres have eased the problems associated with drawn wire
fibres. However the introduction of fibres into the mix remains a critical part of the process.

In the wet mix process batching commonly takes place off site, and is similar to that for cast applications of fibre
mixes. The problem of fibre dispensing on site may be overcome by using bagged preblended material adding
only the mix water on site. Site batching is more common in the dry mix process. Steps must be taken to avoid
balling and the method is unsuitable if high output is required.

6
6.11 Fibre Rebound
Steel fibre rebound is greater than material rebound and may vary from 25% to 80% of the fibre content. While
the basic techniques used to reduce material rebound will also reduce fibre rebound the use of shorter fatter
fibres has been observed to improve fibre retention. The insitu fibre content FCi may be expressed as a
percentage of that in the sprayed material FCdm (dry mix suffix is dm), to calculate fibre retention. However
fibre retention calculated in this manner does not account for the material rebound of fibre mixes and
underestimates the actual fibre losses.

The true fibre loss on rebound Rf may be calculated from the following. It is assumed that the rebound consists
only of aggregate and fibres, so that the deposited insitu material will have the same water/cement ratio (WCR).
The insitu aggregate/cement ratio (ACRi) and the insitu fibre/cement ratio (FCRi) will have smaller values than
that of the dry mix as given in the table below.

Cement Aggregate Water Fibres

As sprayed (i.e. dry) 1 ACRdm WCR FCRdm
Insitu 1 ACRi WCR FCRI
Rebound ACRdm – ACRi FCRdm – FCRI

The percentage of fibres lost on rebound

dry fibres − insitu fibres  insitu fibres 

Rf = x 100 = 1 −  x 100
dry fibres  dry fibres 
100 x FCR i
Rf = 100 - (1)
FCR dm

Fibre content is commonly expressed as a percentage of the insitu materials. Thus the of insitu fibre/cement ratio
FCRi may be expressed as:
wet insitu fibre content (% ) x (cement + water + aggregates)
FCRi =
cement content x 100

Dividing through by the cement content gives:-

FCRi = WFCi (1 + WCR + ACRi) /100 (2)
WFC i (1 + WCR + ACR i )
Then Rf = 100 − (3)
FCR dm
where: WFCi is the wet insitu fibre fraction expressed as % of wet material.

In order to calculate the above parameters from those which can be measured on site, it is necessary to note the
following. The fibre content may be expressed in terms of the dry materials (cement + aggregate):-
FCR dm
FCdm = in the original dry mix spray (4)
1 + ACR dm

FCR i
FCi = in the deposited insitu mix (5)
1 + ACR i

7
Example.
From a sample of insitu material the wet insitu fibre content is determined as 2.5% and the aggregate/cement
ratio is 2.4. If the original mix had a fibre content of 5%, a water/cement ratio of 0.4, and a aggregate/cement
ratio of 3.0, calculate the fibre rebound. Check that the insitu fibre content when expressed in terms of the dry
materials is actually less than the original fibre content.

Ans. WFCi = 2.5%; ACRi = 2.4; FCdm = 5%; WCR = 0.4; ACRdm = 3.0.
FCR dm
Eq. 4. 0.05 = FCRdm = 0.2
1 + 3.0

2.5 (1 + 0.4 + 2.4)

Eq. 3. Rf = 100 − = 52.5%
0.2
Alternative route:
Eq. 2. FCRi = 2.5 (1 + 0.4 + 2.4)/100 = 0.095
100 x 0.095
Eq. 1. Rf = 100 - = 52.5%
0.2
0.095
Insitu fibre content, eq. 5. FCi = = 0.028 < 0.5. OK
1 + 2.4