Module III

Working Together

Participatory management of natural resources is a step in the direction towards co-management.

It is also referred to as collaborative, common, or co-operative management. These terms
underscore the fact that we are talking about a process which is driven by a number of people
who need to work together. If their work is to be successful their ability to work together needs to
be nurtured and enhanced. Thus, it is necessary to build up certain identifiable skills in
communication and collaboration.

This module builds much on the experiences of the Palmyra Workshop. When using this material
in another context it is important to adapt it to the very specific context in which it will be used.
Both the selection of tools and the sequence in which they are presented here should then be
carefully reviewed and modified, if needed, to any other situation specific requirements and
needs.

Training Objective:

to promote working successfully as teams/groups

Training content

Session 1 - Existing types of groups in the context of working together

Session 2 - Characteristics of working together successfully
Session 3 - Advantages and disadvantages of working together
Session 4 - Communication within groups and traditional forms of communication
Session 5 - Encouraging group formation for natural resource management
Session 6 - Leadership and participatory management of groups
Session 7 - Decision making in groups

Training Outputs:

- Acquiring a basic understanding and background of team-building and group work

- Acquiring a familiarity with concepts of roles in groups, leadership styles, and joint decision-
making

- Discussing the advantages and disadvantages of group work

Session 1: Existing types of groups in the context of working together

This session provides an entry into the topic, ‘working together’. A discussion about existing
groups in the project area, will reveal the participants' ideas and understanding of the term
"group". These ideas are then put into the context of participation.

Key Issues:

 participants' perceptions of the term ‘group’

 group work transferred to the context of participation
Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Eye-opener: The Nuts Game

Introduce the Nuts Game and its rules to the participants as

described below; divide them into groups, distribute bowls and nuts and invite them to start. Make
sure that each group has a note-taker who keeps records of the results. Set a time limit and see
how far the groups get with their approaches. Run a careful debriefing discussion, highlighting
topics like the need for co-operation, importance of shared concern for sustainability of activities.

GOAL:

Each player's goal is to get as many nuts as possible during the game.

RULES:

 Upon the organiser's signal, the players take nuts out of the bowl - all at the same time,
but using only one hand. This makes one "round".

 The balance left in the bowl is doubled after each round by the organiser, up to the
maximum of 25 nuts.
 The game is over when the bowl is empty, or after 10 rounds.

How it actually works: Experiences with the Nuts Game from Palmyra Workshop
The Nuts Game was carried out in order to re-enforce the importance of cooperation and the
concept of sustainability. Two teams of five volunteers were selected and asked to harvest nuts
from a bowl during a game of eight rounds. They could remove as many nuts as they wished from
a bow using one hand. The bowl was placed in the middle of the group and contained 25 nuts; all
the volunteers were asked to harvest at the same time. They were also told that after each round,
the number of nuts remaining in the bowl would be doubled. The outcome was that none of the
teams were able to get beyond five rounds of playing because they were unable to cooperate
sufficiently to insure that a sustainable number of nuts were left in the bowl for replenishment, the
requirement for a continuation to the next round. One team approached the goal of ending up
with an increasing number of nuts in the bowl (due to replenishment) in the third round of the
game, but they were cut short by lack of time.

Record Sheet - Group 1

Round 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pool 24 24 12 6 24 24 28 36
Replenishment 0 6 3 0 12 14 18 2

Player A 4 1 1 2 2 3 2 5
Player B 4 2 1 2 2 1 2 5
Player C 5 6 2 2 4 1 1 4
Player D 2 2 1 0 2 2 3 4
Player E 5 4 1 0 1 2 2 7
Player F 4 3 3 0 1 1 2 9

Harvest

Record Sheet - Group 2

Round 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pool 25 25
Replenishment 1 11 8 7 2
25 2 25 22 16 14 4
Player A 6 1
Player B 8 1 3 4 1 1 2 0
Player C 2 2 2 3 2 2 0
Player D 3 4 2 1 2 2 0
Player E 5 1 3 3 2 1 1 3
Player F 2 3 2 3 1 1

Harvest 24 2 16 14 9 9 8 4

B. Exercise Existing types of groups in participants’ working environment

 Divide participants into small groups. Ask them to identify and list existing types of
groups in their working context. Don' t give them any further instructions so as not to narrow their focus.

Debriefing:

Look at the lists together, compare the working results of all the groups, looking for common ideas and
differences. Talk about possible similarities of group types, looking at their tasks/purposes, e.g. provision of
services, self-help-activities etc. (see below).

Experience: Types of groups identified during the Palmyra Workshop

In discussion about existing types of groups in their project area, participants of the Palmyra
Workshop came up with the following list:

1. Farmers associations
2. Political parties
3. Ecological societies
4. Transport cooperatives
5. Vocational Associations
6. Housing cooperatives
7. Import & Export organizations
8. Charity societies
9. Emergency groups
10. Animal preservation groups
11. Archaeological preservation groups
12. Cooperative fund
13. Bedouin sub-tribes and lineages
14. Pest control societies
15. Water supply societies
16. Family planning societies
17. Training organizations
18. Rangeland organization societies
19. Conflict resolution societies
20. Rural woman associations
21. This Workshop

The list was strikingly formal, with all the various types of associations and co-operatives existent
in Syria named. The family as a group, however, was not considered, though the tribal lineage
and sub-tribes were.

C. Discussion & Conclusion: Relevance of a group approach in participants' own work

 Hold a discussion about the meaning or applicability of a ‘group approach’
in participants' own work. Ask, for example, which tasks in their working context could be better
solved by a group approach. Ask for experiences of good team work and encourage participants
to draw some conclusions regarding working in groups.

Session 2: Characteristics of working together successfully

Several preconditions have to apply in order for people to work successfully together. A number
of people at the same place at the same time does not necessarily mean there will be
collaboration. This session provides an entry to the topic "working together".

Key Issues:

 characteristics of working together successfully

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Eye-opener: The Pillow Game

Distribute the pre-prepared instruction sheets to the participants

and start the ‘Pillow Game’ (see below). Let them work for about 10 minutes and then encourage
them to sit together and discuss what is happening. Give them another 10 minutes to try to
complete the Pillow Game. Observe what is happening carefully and, if necessary, help them to
find a solution.

Objectives:

This exercise introduces the importance of communications within groups. It focuses on the
necessity of collaboration, the need to work together and the importance of identifying differences
and finding compromises.

Description:
Place pillows in all corners of your workshop and hand out an instruction sheet to each
participant. This tells them to carry the pillows to a certain place - middle, left, or right side of the
room/tent. Give them 15 minutes to carry out their instructions. After 10 minutes ask them to stop
and discuss together what is going on and to try to find a solution.

Debriefing:

Examine the contradictions between the different instructions. Point out to the participants that
the instructions were the driving force behind the different behaviour of the participants. Draw
comparisons to real life situations where peoples’ different behaviours are driven by different
perceptions, interests as well as laws and regulations. Draw out from the participants the fact that
although the activities of the different individuals in the game seemed to be opposing each other,
they could be brought together in a common strategy, once the driving force behind their
behaviour had been openly discussed. As soon as there is communication and collaboration,
differences and common interests can be identified and compromises reached.

Experiences from Pillow Game in Palmyra Workshop

Fifteen participants were each given a different set of instructions as to where to carry the pillows
- middle, left or right side of the tent. They were given 15 minutes to carry out their instructions.
After ten minutes of amusing chaos, they were asked to discuss amongst themselves to find a
solution. They then identified that they were in three groups and began to negotiate strategies to
carry out their instructions amongst each other. The game concluded when the three groups
decided to ignore their instructions as a whole and to split the pillows into three parts and put
them into the areas they had been instructed to put all pillows. This exercise was very popular. In
plenary session it was clear that the message of the need for communication, of working in a
group, of identifying differences and finding compromises was picked up by all.

B. Positioning: Participants' identification with different types of groups

Put together a set of drawings showing people in various types of groups, representing different
types of interaction, for example (see Background Materials):

1. Extension worker lecturing a group from a podium

2. Group of people sitting in a circle listening to a trainer
3. Four people in a row boat
4. Bedouin family group moving across the landscape
5. Women in a crowd as demonstrators in a city.

Pin the drawings up some distance from each other so that everybody can see them well. Then
ask participants to get up and walk around the room and then stand under the drawing that most
represented what they feel suggests a group.

Debriefing:

Ask participants to explain what makes them feel comfortable about the groups they have
selected - talk about the different aspects mentioned and lead to a discussion on what
makes a group. Collect all ideas and add further inputs, if necessary.

C. Exercise: Definition and characteristics of groups

Invite your participants to work in 2 - 4 teams on a definition or characteristics of

groups in general and the preconditions for and characteristics of successful groups in particular (see
below). Distribute pre-designed charts in table form, giving one column for each of the topics and invite them
to put their ideas together. Then ask each team to present its work results to the others. Allow for extended
questioning and discussion. A number of ideas will be forthcoming more than once and new ones will arise
out of the plenary discussion, therefore ask the participants to draw up a common list, which combines the
ideas of all the teams. Let 3 people observe (see instructions for observers under "Background Materials")
this process of finding a consensus and discuss the group process afterwards.

Debriefing:

Once your participants have understood the preconditions and characteristics of successful groups, discuss
with them, which of these must be already present at very beginning of a common process and which of
them may be developed at a later stage. Discuss some ways and means of how to establish positive traits
and enhance particular characteristics within a group.

"What makes a group" - Experiences from Palmyra Workshop

During the discussion of what makes a group, 8 suggestions were taken from the participants.
They seemed to focus more on the principles of successful groups rather than a general
description of what makes a group. It may have been, that the question itself was not clear
enough at the start. The following answers to the question "what makes a group" were given by
participants:

- Need (common need)

- Cooperation/participation
- Similar opinions
- Create social links
- Distribution of roles
- Specialisation
- Communication and collaboration
- Significance of working together
D. Trainers Input: Preconditions for successful participatory groups

Complement participants’ ideas and working results with a brief input, reflecting
your views on what are the preconditions for successful participatory groups are (see below).

"Preconditions for successful participatory groups" - Trainers' Input from Palmyra Workshop

- potential for pay-off/success

- clear objectives
- accepting each others
- sharing information and concerns
- all members participate in regular meetings to discuss and take decisions
- organising for action
- common interests

Additional Background Materials

1. Set of Drawings for Positioning: "Different types of groups"

2. "Positioning" - Experiences from Palmyra Workshop
3. Guidelines for Observers

1. Drawings: "Different types of groups"

1. Extension worker lecturing a group from a podium

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2. A group of people sitting in a circle listening to a trainer

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 3. Four people in a rowing boat

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4. A Bedouin family group moving across the desert

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5. Women demonstrators in a city.

2. "Positioning" - Example from Palmyra Workshop

When carrying out the positioning exercise during the Palmyra Workshop, the results were as
follows:
1. An extension worker lecturing a group from a podium was selected by one person as an
example of the "wrong" type of group.

2. A group of people sitting in a circle listening to a trainer was selected by 6 participants, as it

represented for them people "wanting to learn", the group was harmonious, showing respect, and
clearly interested in learning.

3. Four people in a rowing boat was selected by 8 people, as it represented for them cooperation
with diversity of tasks; different ages working to the best of their experience and strength.

4. Bedouin family group moving across the landscape was selected by 9 people, as it
represented for them organisation and order, with little degradation of the range. They also felt
that it was groups as opposed to individuals who have the future of the desert in their hands.

5. Women as demonstrators in a city was selected by 4 female participants - including the 3

Bedouin facilitators, as it represented to them the concept that Bedouin women are like city girls,
with the same desire for the same rights, shared interests and the importance of their role in
society.

3. Guidelines for Observers

The identification of group activities should address the following issues:

a) group process and working atmosphere

b) structure of a working process (the group remains on track and achieves certain results within
the given time)

Questions for the observation of group processes

- was the working environment/sitting arrangement positive?

- do you have the impression, that all group members were clear about the task/exercise/tool they
were to conduct?

- did all group members participate equally?

- did the facilitator or other group members try to involve all participants equally - did they try to
encourage quieter individuals?

- were people dominating the discussion - did anyone control the influence they had on others?

- were all ideas taken up and discussed - were they all equally taken into consideration?

- did you observe tensions within the group - was there a sense of achievement or
disappointment/frustration?

- did the group look after less-experienced/less-informed persons (e.g. explain abbreviations,
special terms or give background information)?

- could you observe friction or opposing subgroups - what was done in order to bring such groups
together?
- did you have the impression that all participants could follow the topics discussed

Questions for the observation of the working process

- was there an agreement on working steps and timing?

- did participants start work immediately or was there some hesitation - if so, how was this
resolved?

- what did the facilitator/group members do to enhance progress (e.g. technical hints, examples)?

- were there deviations/side-discussions which did not contribute to the actual objectives of the
task - if so, was the group aware of this and how did they deal with it?

- where there problems with the working process - if so, what kind of solutions did the group come
up with?

- did the facilitator or a group member help keep an overview on the process, e.g. by
summarising different opinions or commonalities?

Session 3: Advantages and disadvantages of working together

Participants will have different experiences of working together. This session identifies
participants’ interests and fears of group work. It also promotes a broader discussion concerning
the advantages and disadvantages of working together.

Key Issues:

 participants attitudes towards group work

 advantages and disadvantages of working in groups

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Eye-opener: The Knotty Problem

Introduce the Knot Game (see below) and give participants

about 10 minutes to play the first round and then about 5 minutes for the second round. Have a
short debriefing on the role of outsiders managing groups and the consequences.

The Knotty Problem (Source: adapted from PL&A)

Objectives:

- to demonstrate to participants that groups empowered to solve their own problems are much
more successful than if instructed by outsiders

- to energise the group

Procedure:

a. select 1, 2, or 3 participants to act as managers - they are asked to leave the room while you
instruct the rest of the group

b. ask the remaining participants to hold hands in a circle and tie themselves into as entangled a
knot as possible... - they must not let go of each other’s hands at any cost

c. tell the participants to follow the managers’ instructions literally and not make it easier for them
by doing what they have not been told to do

d. once the knot is complete, the managers are asked to return and try to unravel the knot within
3 minutes, using verbal instructions only

e. instruct the managers to hold their hands behind their back - they are not allowed to touch the
group, only instruct them verbally

f. the first attempt is generally not successful and sometimes even produces a more complex
knot. Now repeat the exercise with the managers participating in the knot - when the knot is
ready, simply ask the participants to get out of the knot themselves

Debriefing:

The second untying process is usually much quicker - ask participants to comment on what
relevance this has to the real world - you can raise various issues, e.g.

- what does the game tell us about the role of ‘outsiders/managers’ and ‘insiders’(in the knot)?

- what does the exercise tell us about the effectiveness of ‘outsiders’ and ‘managers’ in
organising people?

- what does the game teach us about problem solving?

- what does the game imply for facilitating participation in community development?

B. Exercise: Advantages and Disadvantages of working together

Divide participants into groups and ask them to develop a list of advantages of
working together and to write down their finding (see below for examples from Palmyra). Give them about
15 minutes for this exercise. Then break the groups up and invite participants individually to work up a list of
disadvantages of working together.

Debriefing:

First discuss the content of the working results. Compare the different ideas and prepare a summary for
both advantages and disadvantages. If you feel that important points are missing, encourage participants in
a plenary round to think of additional advantages and disadvantages, guiding them with leading questions.
Once you have finished discussing these lists, commence a discussion on how participants felt when they
first started working together. Present the results as a group and then individually. What were the
differences concerning their personal feelings of comfort and discomfort in these processes? This part of the
discussion is important because often participants are aware of organisational and practical reasons for and
against group work, while personal feelings are often not discussed.

Many people dislike working in a group. Hence such discussions and exercises are important, so as to help
participants deal with their hidden fears of group work. Furthermore you can encourage a discussion of
when group work makes sense and when it does not

Experience from Palmyra Workshop: Participants' Working Results on Group Work

As expected by the trainers, more advantages than disadvantages were identified, but they were
quite general and needed further discussion.

Advantages of working together Disadvantages of working together

- quick action - egoism & selfishness
- production increase - difference of opinions
- taking the right decision - depending on others in finding solutions
- overlapping problems individually - dominance of certain individuals
- to compromise for the right solution - takes a long time to take a decision
- criticism & self-criticism - injustice practised by some individuals
- developing collective work spirit - heterogeneity of the group
- common benefit
- common supervision & evaluation
- individual opinion in the group
- moving from planning to action
- developing & exchanging expertise
- handing over the leadership to the most experienced

C. Discussion & Conclusion: "What stage are we at in terms of working together"

If you are working with persons who themselves are in a situation of

working together in a group, begin a discussion as follows:

Pin up the previous lists charting the "Preconditions for and Characteristics of successful groups"
exercise and encourage participants to consider which of the preconditions and characteristics
mentioned in the lists apply to them as a group. Ask them to mark the factors to be dealt with
further and to think of preliminary strategies to improve working together.

Session 4: Group dynamics and types of behaviour

Those who have to facilitate participatory processes and encourage group formation should be
aware of group dynamics. When they are familiar with the stages of group formation and have
an understanding of the types of behaviour, they will find it easier to support the group in these
processes.

Key Issues:

 Stages of group development

 How do people behave in groups;
 Types of behaviour

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Input: "Four Stages of Group Development"

Prepare a brief introduction (see below and also Background Material) to the 4
stages of group development, mentioning the name and a rough description of each phase. Allow
for questions on understanding, but do not go into great detail. Move directly on to the next
exercise.

The four stages of group development (Source: adapted from PL&A)

Stage 1 Forming

a. the group is not yet a group, but a set of individuals

b. individuals want to establish personal identity within the group and make an impression on
others

c. participation is limited as individuals become familiar with the setting, the facilitator and each
other

d. individuals begin to focus on the task at hand and discuss its purpose

e. the group is essentially evolving ground rules on which future decisions and actions will be
based

Stage 2 Storming

a. characterised by intra-group conflict and lack of unity

b. preliminary ground rules on purpose, leadership and behaviour are damaged

c. individuals may become hostile toward each other and express their individuality by pursuing or
revealing personal agendas

d. friction increases, rules are broken, arguments may occur

e. if successfully handled, this stage leads to new and more realistic setting of objectives,
procedures and norms

Stage 3 Norming

a. characterised by overcoming tension and by developing group cohesion in which norms and
practices are established

b. group members accept the group and each other’s individual strengths, weaknesses and
habits

c. sense of belonging to the group develops and the group strives to maintain it

d. development of group spirit, harmony becomes important

Stage 4 Performing

a. characterised by full maturity and maximum productivity

b. can only be reached by successfully completing previous 3 stages

c. members take on roles to fulfil the group activities since they have now learnt to relate to one
another

d. roles become flexible and functional

e. group energy channelled into identified tasks

f. new insights and solutions begin to emerge

B. Exercise: Characteristics of Group Development Stages

Prepare 20 sheets of paper, each showing one of the 20 characteristics named in

the list "4 Stages of Group Development" (see above). Additionally prepare 4 flipcharts, each showing the
heading of one Stage. Divide participants into four groups, each of them responsible for one stage. Then
mix up the papers with the characteristics and give five of them to each group (telling them that 5 of the
characteristics each fit in the "Forming" and "Storming" stages, while 4 of the characteristics fit into the
"Norming stage, and 6 into the "Performing" stage). Then invite each group to find out which of the papers
they have received names a characteristic that describes their "own" stage and then start searching for the
rest of "their" characteristics with the other groups.

Debriefing:

First look at the results of each group, and discuss whether all characteristics have been sorted correctly.
Then discuss the process of finding the "missing" characteristics for each group. Ask participants how they
started dealing with this task, whether there was a systematic approach or different proposals on how to find
the missing characteristics. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of different approaches.

For example:

"activism" (all members set out and try to contribute to solving of the task) can bring fast results for rather
simple tasks, but a lot of confusion, once a task is more complex.

"structured planning ", on the other hand can lead to an unnecessary loss of time when the group is dealing
with simple tasks, but may be the only way to proceed if the task is complex.

C. Energiser: The Postcard Puzzle

Explain the energiser "Postcard puzzle"(see Background Materials"), hand

out the the pieces and give participants about 10 minutes for the activity. This energiser is
mainly intended to give the participants a chance to relax and reorganise themselves into
new groups for the next exercise. You may, however, choose to have a short debriefing
and refer back to the last exercise.

D. Exercise: Types of behaviours within a group

Pin up the drawings of the "13 character animals" (see Background Materials")
together with a brief description on the walls of the training area. Ask participants to walk around, look at the
animals and consider the different characters from the perspective of how they might contribute to a group.
Hold a brief discussion about which characters are especially helpful and which ones are rather difficult
within groups (see below for an example from Palmyra). Emphasise those that are difficult. Ask participants
to think of the advantages which these difficult characters could bring into a group. Then let participants sit
together in groups, and distribute the 13 animal drawings among the groups, so that each group works on 3-
4 animals. Ask them to elaborate on:

a) what these characters could contribute to the group

b) in what way they could be disturbing

c) how to deal with them so as to bring out the best in each what they themselves can do in order to improve
their contribution to the group

Debriefing:

Discuss each group’s work in plenary and let the participants contribute more to the findings. Add your own
inputs if necessary. Arrange for the lists to be typed, copied and distributed. Encourage the participants to
use these lists as "resources" in their further work. Emphasise the fact that each person is able to enrich a
group, once they are themselves have a will to do so.

Example from Palmyra Workshop - Trainers' interpretation of the 13 character animals

The Animals Group (Roles in a group)

Which characters are useful in a group which are disturbing?

Which characters are needed in a group?

The Donkey

 is a true and reliable friend, who follows the group’s rules and contributes to achieving the
group’s tasks.
 (s)he can also be stubborn and unwilling to change his/her point of view.

The Lion

 is a strong and energetic leader, expecting others to bring their best to a group’s activities
 But (s)he also get into fights whenever others disagree with his/her plans or interfere with
his or her desires

The Rabbit

 is the one that always runs two steps ahead if the others, making them work a bit faster.
With him/her the group never stops to rest.
 But (s)he can also be the one who runs away as soon as (s)he senses tension, conflict or
an unpleasant job. This often means quickly switching to another topic

The Ostrich

 buries his/her head in the sand and refuses to face reality or admit there is any problem
at all

The Monkey

 is an entertaining friend, always ready for a joke and makes the whole group laugh.
 But (s)he can also fool around, chat and prevent others from concentrating on serious
business
The Elephant

 is the one who speaks with his/her loud and convincing voice especially when
representing the group. The others can hide behind his/her large back.
 But this behaviour can hinder the group members from becoming self-reliant after a
while.

The Giraffe

 is ambitious to attain the group’s and his/her personal aims; (s)he urges the group be
more effective and reach higher;
 But (s)he can also look down on the others, and on the programme in general, feeling "I
am above all this childish nonsense, I know much better".

The Tortoise

 Withdraws from the group, refusing to give his or her opinions; (s)he is quiet, waiting
anxiously to be called out of her house

The Cat

 is always looking for sympathy. "I can’t do this, it is too difficult for me" Or (s)he sticks to
her/his own lonesome ways, never getting too close to anyone.

The Snake

 hides in the grass and strikes unexpectedly

The Mouse

 is too timid to speak up on any subject but is probably capable of doing good work on
his/her own.

The Frog

 croaks on and on about the same subject in a monotonous voice or interrupts the group
with irrelevancies

The Hippo

 sleeps all the time, and never moves except for the purpose of yawing or criticising.

The Fish

 can only exist in a mass of people, where he/she can follow the others and is not forced
to think or act as an individual.

During the Palmyra Workshop many "disturbing characteristics" were defined during this
exercise. However, one can easily imagine many more characteristics of the above mentioned
animals that could be useful when working in a group.
E. Discussion & Conclusion: Self-characterisation of Participants

This discussion is critical but may hurt the sensitivities of others once
group members begin to express offer differing opinions in a harsh and straightforward fashion.
This exercise should only be conducted on a group basis where there is an atmosphere of trust
and good will. In such groups it can be a useful exercise both in terms of encouraging critical self-
awareness group support. It can also take on an amusing tone if participants willingly start to
characterise themselves as animals (Treat this exercise with caution if you have any doubts
about the the cohesion of the group).

In a plenary discussion ask participants to look back at the 13 animal-characters. Invite them, one
by one, to identify an animal, that most closely meets their own character and behaviour in
groups. Request of the other participants that they not embarrass the person speaking by
contradicting and comparing him/her with another animal.

Summarize at the end of discussion some of the most useful characteristics and a composition of
different characteristics and attitudes that appears promising for successful group work.

Experiences from Palmyra Workshop - Participants' view

When discussing about the different characters of the 13 animals and their contributions to a
group, participants at Palmyra chose the camel and the donkey as most important. Their special
value was seen in their persistence, hard-working, and load carrying, which were considered as
much needed by successful groups.

Background Materials

1. Background information on groups in participation

2. Energiser "Postcard Puzzle"
3. Drawings "13 Character Animals"
4. Trainers input form Palmyra Workshop - Different types of behaviour.
5. "The nine types of team members"

1. Background information on groups in participation (Source: PL&A)

One of the key components of participatory methods is the emphasis on multidisciplinary teams.
By working as a group, team members are able to approach a situation from different
perspectives, carefully monitor each other’s work, and carry out several tasks simultaneously.
The training required for good participation is based on a thorough understanding of the way in
which groups perform. Groups can be powerful and productive when they function well. The
performance and output of the team is normally greater than the sum of its individual
members.

The Life Cycle of Groups

When several people come together to work on a single initiative or project, they are not
necessarily a productive team. Before a group of people can function well together, they must
pass through a series of stages. These have been characterised by Charles Handy as: 1.
Forming, 2. Storming, 3. Norming, 4. Performing (see also above "The 4 stages of Group
Development"). The challenge of every good trainer is to help their trainees move through the
various phases of group formation smoothly. Initially various individuals come together,
sometimes as strangers, sometimes as colleagues, to create a new group for some stated
purpose. In this early forming stage they are still a collection of individuals, each with his/her own
agenda and expertise with little or no shared experience.

As these individuals get to know one another, they will almost certainly enter a storming phase
where personal values and principles are challenged, roles and responsibilities are taken on
and/or rejected, and the group’s objectives and way of working together are defined. If there is
too much conflict and discord within the group, it will collapse. If, however, some common ground
can be found, then the group will gain greater cohesion and a sense of purpose. As the group
members begin to understand their roles in relation to one another and establish a shared vision
or goal, they will develop a clear identity with group-specific norms of behaviour. At the norming
stage, the group has settled down. People know each other better, they have accepted the rules
and probably developed little sub-groups. Once these norms have been established, the group is
ready to focus on output and will enter the performing phase. It is in this phase that they will work
most effectively as a team. The confidence level of the team members will have reached the point
where they are willing to take significant risks and try out new ideas on their own.

Groups generally produce fewer ideas than individuals working separately. However, they do
produce better ideas as they are discussed more carefully and thought through more deeply.
Therefore, groups are also more likely to identify errors of judgement before action is taken.
Rather surprisingly, groups take riskier decisions than the individual members would have done if
acting independently. A group therefore also tends to act more adventurously as members take
courage from each other and individual responsibility is diffused.

But groups that are too cohesive also have drawbacks. Religious sects, military groups, sports
teams and political groups all show a tendency towards a dominant group identity. They tend to
believe in their own propaganda. This is commonly called ‘group think’. In extreme cases, the
individual’s principles are sacrificed for group loyalty, harmony and morale. Seeking a consensus
at all costs can make the group highly selective in the facts it sees, sorts and accepts.
Maintaining an open agenda, creating a sense of self-critical awareness and preventing secrecy
is essential if group ‘delusions’ are to be prevented. As a trainer, you will need to balance any
tensions between group and individual identity to encourage continued and shared learning.

2. Energiser "Postcard Puzzle" (Source: PL&A)

Objectives:

- to energise participants
- to form a number of cohesive sub-groups from a large group
- to analyse, how groups organise themselves

Procedure:

1. prepare some postcards - these are cut up in pieces, as many as the number of people per
group - for a group of 20 that needs to be broken up into 4 sub-groups, four pictures are
necessary and each picture should be cut into 5 pieces. If groups are large, then pieces will be
small, so make sure to use distinct pictures to make the task easier - if groups are small, then the
pieces will be large, so similar pictures will make the task more interesting.
2. the 20 pieces are shuffled up and one piece handed to each participant.

3. the group is then asked to find their sheet by joining the shapes together to form a picture,
without speaking to each other.

4. once the pictures are formed, you can continue with whatever sub-group activity you had
planned - you can collect the pieces for reuse but you might find that teams will want to keep
them as their team identity

3. Drawings of "13 Character Animals"

1. ask the participants with which of the "13 Character Animals" they can identify themselves
mostly. Explain that their choice should reflect the specific characteristics and behaviour with
regard to working in groups.

2. let everybody reflect why they had chosen their characteristic animal and invite participants to
present this to the group.

4. "Different Types of Behaviour" Trainers’ Input from Palmyra

Complement the participants’ characterisation of behaviours with this additional classification of

types of behaviour, differentiating between more self oriented, task-oriented and maintenance
oriented tasks.

Self-Oriented

 dominates discussions
 interrupts others
 does not listen to others
 over- reacts
 rejects responsibility

Task-Oriented

 initiating a task by offering new suggestions, topics for discussion

 asks for information
 gives information
 gives opinions
 explains by example
 clarifies by asking questions
 summarises main points

Maintenance-Oriented

 encourages others by being friendly

 gate-keeps by giving quiet members a chance to join in
 diagnoses difficulties
 expresses feelings
 harmonises by helping those in conflict
 relieves tension by putting problems in wider perspective

5. "The 9 types of team members"

Present and discuss below, more theoretical, types of team members.

The Coordinator the team’s natural chairperson; confident, talks easily, listens well, promotes
decision-making, able to encourage contributions from all team members, need
not be of high intellect
Allowable Weakness: slightly manipulative
The Energy Plant the team’s vital spark and chief source of ideas, creative, unorthodox, imaginative
Allowable Weakness: lacks practicality, a bit of a handful, up in the clouds
The Implementer the team’s workhorse; turns ideas into practical actions and gets on with them
logically and loyally; disciplined, reliable, conservative
Allowable Weakness: can only adapt if told why; lacks imagination
The Resources the fixer; extrovert, amiable, good at making and using contacts, an explorer of
Investigator opportunities
Allowable Weakness: undisciplined, short attention span
The Shaper usually, the self-elected leader, dynamic, positive, outgoing, argumentative, a
pressuriser; seeks ways round obstacles, flexible
Allowable Weakness: not always likeable; tendency to bully; provokes opposition
The Monitor/Evaluator the team’s rock, strategic, sober, analytical, introvert; capable of deep analysis of
large quantities of data; is rarely wrong
Allowable Weakness: unexciting and lacks imagination
The Teamworker a counsellor and conciliator; social, perceptive, accommodating, aware of
undercurrents and others’ problems; promotes harmony; most valuable in times of
crisis
Allowable Weakness: indecisive
The the team’s worrier and stickler for detail; deadlines and schedules, has relentless
Completer/Finisher follow-through; chief filter for errors and omissions
Allowable Weakness: reluctant to let go; worries about small things
The Specialist the team’s chief source of rare knowledge and skill, a single-minded loner; self-
starting, dedicated and makes the occasional dazzling breakthrough
Allowable Weakness: contributes on a narrow front

Session 5: Communication within groups and traditional forms of communication

Successful communication is a main feature in successful group functioning. This session

enhances participants' awareness of the importance of communication as well as of the
difficulties associated with it.

Key Issues:

 Importance of successful communication

 Difficulties with communication

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Eye-opener: Young Women - Old Women

 Ask two volunteers to sit at opposite sites of a table and put the
drawing "Young Women - Old Women" (see below) onto the table. Divide participants into two
groups and seat them apart from each other. Ask the volunteers what they see. Then show the
picture from one perspective to one group and from the other perspective to the other group.
They will obviously disagree about what they are seeing. Invite their ideas on why this is.

Debriefing:

Talk about the fact that different perspectives lead to different interpretations of reality. These
different interpretations result in different opinions, decisions and activities (see also session XY
on multiple perspective). Emphasise that different perspectives and the resulting opinions and
behaviours can be justified. People who work together should bear this in mind, in order to
respect the opinions and approaches of others. Remind the participants that the basic rule of
participatory processes is "Every idea counts!".

"The Drawing Young Woman - Old woman"

B. Exercise: Testing various ways of communication

 Divide participants into 3 groups, and invite each of the groups to test out a
different form of communication, while the other groups observe.

1. Communication down the line

Invite the first group to sit down in a line and pass information only to the person next to him/her.

2. Circle with key person

Ask the second group to sit down forming a circle, with one member of the group sitting in the centre. Ask
them to pass information only to the person in the centre who may then pass information to anyone sitting in
the circle.

3. Open circle

The third group should sit down in a circle and pass information openly to anyone in the circle.

Discuss advantages and disadvantages of these different forms of communication and try to think of
situations, where one or the other might be appropriate.

‘Different ways of Communication’ - Experience from Palmyra Workshop

In the debriefing to this exercise, the Palmyra Workshop participants' initial response was to
prefer the second form of communication through one person who sat in the middle of a circle.
This is a very common form of communication in most of the region. In such an approach,
discussion can be ordered and organised. After some further discussion, however, participants
decided that the third group, though more difficult to manage, was preferable. They felt that this
form of communication made it possible for all to benefit from the information without the need for
an intermediary. In addition they felt that all members’ opinions could be heard by everyone, thus
promoting openness and transparency.

C. Eye-opener: Chinese Whispers

Select a short article about natural resource management in the

Steppe and organise another eye-opener on communication (see below).

Chinese Whisper (Source: adapted from PL&A)

"Chinese Whisper" is an exercise which makes participants aware of the difficulties in
communication. It demonstrates how important it is to communicate clearly and openly.

To conduct the exercise, invite your participants to sit in a large circle. Then whisper a short
message, consisting of a few sentences into the ear of one participant who then has to whisper
the same message to the person sitting next to her/him. That person passes the message to the
next person and so on. In this way, the message goes around the circle until "the whisper"
reaches the last person, who has to say out loudly, what he/she has heard. During the exercise
no one is allowed to ask questions and none of the participants are allowed to repeat the
message even if the recipient did not hear.

Debriefing:

This exercise generally causes amazement when the group hears to what extend the message
has changed. The following questions can lead the discussion to highlight the aim of this
exercise:

 of the initial message, how much was lost? How much was added?
 What errors or differences occurred as the story passed among the group members?
 How could we have increased the comprehension of the story? How do we get feedback
in the real world?

Experience from Palmyra Workshop:

The following set of sentences was whispered to the first participant and from him around the
room until everyone had taken part. The original text was:

· "We have heard that the camels grazing near Resafe have become ill because of some
poisonous plants. We have heard also that the government is going to prevent any herders, even
sheep herders, from entering the region because there is no antidote for the poison".

The message to emerge at the end of the circle was:

· "There are some camels near Palmyra".

The special interest in this game is to demonstrate the difficulties of communications and to show
the way in which rumours often get started. We observed that among the participants, in addition,
there was the concern to discover ‘where the story got distorted’. Who was to blame for the
distortion

D. Exercise: Controlled Dialogue

Invite participants to sit together in groups of two. Ask each pair to choose a topic where both of the partners
are of opposite opinions. Then ask them to discuss this topic in a such way that each person has to repeat
the argument of the other, before answering to it. For example:

A: "I think that the sheep of settled farmers feed off the pasture land which is needed by which the Bedouins'
animals".

B: "Do I understand you correctly - you are of the opinion that Bedouins' animals don't have enough pasture
because the settled farmers' sheep graze outside the villages."

The second person is not allowed to present his/her own opinion as long as the first one has not accepted
the second one’s attempted repetition. Allow about 10-15 minutes for this exercise.

E. Discussion & Conclusion

Discuss how participants felt about the different kinds of communication. Ask whether the
pressure of trying to repeat the other's arguments helped them to listen more closely and to better
understand the other person’s opinion. Mention that studies have found, that in situations of lively
discussion, people tend to spend about 70-80 % of the time that the other person is speaking
mentally preparing their own answer. This means they give just 20% of their attention to what the
other person is actually saying.

Session 6: Encouraging group formation for natural resource management

In order to encourage and facilitate the establishment of a group, a basic knowledge of ideal
group composition and organisation is necessary. Participants should experience the difficulties
of establishing a well-balanced group.

Key Issues:

 Goup composition
 Group organisation

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Input: Group size and participation

Prepare a visual aid on group size and participation (see below). Ask
participants for their opinion about what is the ideal group size. Then make a brief presentation on
experiences in this field. Emphasise out that these estimates are only guidelines and that the
optimum size of a participatory group depends on the purpose for which it is being established.

Group size and participation

3-6 people everyone speaks

7-10 people almost everybody speaks
 quieter people say less

one or two may not speak at all

11-18 people 5 or 6 people speak a lot
3 or 4 others join in occasionally
19-30 people 3 or 4 people dominate
30 + people little participation is possible

B. Exercise: Criteria for a balanced group composition

This exercise introduces a way of determining neutral criteria (see below) for
establishing well-balanced groups. For the first part of the exercise, divide participants into 3 groups and ask
each of them to make a list on one of the following topics:

- personal characteristics
- acquired characteristics
- working context specific characteristics

These will be important considerations to compose a balanced group (for example, of facilitators for a PRA
workshop). Examine all 3 lists. Most probably there will be repetition. Make a summary of all factors. Then
invite the participants to do a ranking exercise. Ask the participants to place a mark by those factors which
they feel are very important. Each person has three votes (remind them to consider social skills as well as
professional skills and personal characteristics). At the close of the ranking exercise select the 7 factors
which receive the highest marks and use them as a basis for further work.

Example List on criteria for balanced group composition

The following criteria may be used to establish well-balanced groups:

 number of group members

 age
 sex
 professional skills
 soft skills
 social background
 interests
 needs
 education
 representing certain stakeholder groups
 insiders and outsiders

C. Application: Building groups on the basis of objective criteria

This activity is the practical application of creating well-balanced groups on the basis of objective
criteria. Hand out a sheet of paper to each participant and ask them to write their name in small
letters on one side of the paper. Then ask them turn the paper over and write their personal
characteristics following the sequence of the characteristics listed in the earlier exercise. If this list
was of ‘age, sex, professional skills, social group of origin’ then the participant would write, for
example, ‘54 years, female, agricultural extension work, farmers’. Once everybody has finished
writing, pin all papers up in such a way that no names can be seen, only the list of characteristics.
Prepare a flip chart for each group you want to form and write the aim of the respective group on
top of the chart.

Then start moving the papers to the appropriate flip charts on the basis of the most balanced
distribution on the basis of the highest ranked criteria. Then do the same with the papers on the
basis of the second ranked criteria. Continue in this fashion until you achieve group compositions
which are as balanced as possible in as many criteria as possible. Then turn the papers over to
see which persons will be working are together. Give participants the opportunity to comment and
change places with other persons who have similar characteristics. However make it clear that
people change places only for important reasons.

D. Discussion: "Group Roles" (Source: PL&A)

Introduce the "Group Roles" activity as a means of letting members of

each group discuss amongst themselves how the dynamics of their group may be affected by the
particular characteristics of individual group members (see below).

Objective:

- to generate group discussion on how group dynamics are affected by the characteristics of
individual group members

Procedure:

1. split participants into groups - this exercise works best in small groups, especially among those
who are about to engage in an activity together (e.g. groups prior to fieldwork)

2. show an overhead slide or flipchart with 5 different ‘character types’ identified by numbers (1-5)

The overhead/flipchart might look something like this:

(a) I like to lead a group from the start

(b) I like to sit back and wait for someone to take the lead; only when I know others’ positions will
I try to influence events

(c) I don’t like to make direct contributions to groups discussions, but prefer to do things quietly,
building alliances with others

(d) I am easy going and let others run the show - only when things go against my wishes will I
intervene
(e) I prefer not to take the lead, but rather to carry out practical tasks that the group decides upon

3. ask everyone to choose the characteristic that describes their behaviour in groups most of the
time (of course, different circumstances require different responses, so emphasise that this
relates to the most common behaviour)

E. Energiser: "Streets and Avenues" (Source: adapted from PL&A)

Give the participants an opportunity to relax by playing the "Streets and Avenues"
energiser (see below).

Procedure:

1. the group splits into 4 or 5 groups. Each group forms itself into rows in the form of streets by
grasping hands in one direction - the rows stand opposite to each other

2. when you say "avenues", the participants make a quarter turn to the left and grasp the hands
of the persons who are now beside them - an order for "streets" returns the group to their original
positions

3. ask for two volunteers to take the role of a cat and a mouse - the cat has to catch the mouse -
keep giving orders for the formation of "streets" and "avenues" to try and keep the cat away from
the mouse - neither is allowed to break through a row

F. Trainers Input: Tasks and roles in a group

Explain the tasks and roles of a group in general and in a PRA-team in particular
(see below). Discuss with your participants when a group approach would be most advantageous
and what tasks and roles would be necessary to be defined.

Description of Roles in a PRA/PLA-team (Source: adapted from Berg et al.)

The Team-Leader

The team leader is the person who is responsible for the team’s activities from the beginning of
the planning until the end of the evaluation process.

Tasks:
- acts as a team representative and as a moderator/facilitator

- prepares the planning of a PRA/PLA-activity together with the representatives of the organising
agency and makes sure that material needed for the planning process is provided to the team

- moderates the planning of all activities -she/he must be well prepared and experienced in terms
of elaboration of objectives, key questions and checklists

- co-operates closely with local leaders and the representative of the organising agency to ensure
that all the organisational and logistical matters are settled

- suggests the distribution of roles in the team according to professional background, skills and
gender

- introduces the team and the suggested working procedure to the local community

- keeps an overview and co-ordinates all ongoing activities

- ensure that all team members are able to fulfil their roles and assists, if they have problems

The Facilitator

The facilitator(s) supports the running of working sessions (e.g. application of tools) for
community members. She/he acts as a moderator between the individuals of the group and
encourages equal participation and smooth running of the working process. (see also Module I,
session 11)

Tasks:

- is responsible to the team leader - he/she receives advice from the team leader and acts on
behalf of the team leader during her/his absence

- introduces PRA/PLA-tools and facilitates the sessions

- acts as a moderator between individuals of the respective group

- finds ways for integrating quiet members and makes sure that all group members are able to
participate and express their opinions

- ensures that the group sticks to the topic, but is also flexible in handling additional information

- is able to change the focus of the discussion, if necessary

- has an overview of the whole process

- applies time management

The Note-Taker

The note-taker works closely with the facilitator. The note-taker is the person who collects and
documents all relevant information during working sessions with local groups.
Tasks:

- observes the session and records all relevant information (e.g. number of participants, the
communication process, the flow and outcomes of discussions etc. [see also Module I, session
11 "Guidelines for observation"])

- collects the materials necessary for all visual ids

- assists and supports the facilitator, e.g. helps to maintain an overview, communicating
observations concerning social processes

The Link Person

The link person is a representative of the local community with whom the PRA/PLA-team is going
to work with. Ideally, the link person has undergone training in participatory methods and tools
and is a member of the PRA/PLA-team him/herself.

Tasks:

- prepares the community members for the workshop by explaining to them basic approaches
and procedures in participatory processes

- helps to prevent misunderstandings and gives support for mutual understanding

- supports the PRA/PLA-team in planning activities by inputting her/his local knowledge

- supports the note-taker by supplying additional insider information

G. Exercise: Team contract

Ask the participants what they feel about rules and regulations within groups, e.g.
whether they feel they are necessary or limiting, helpful or disruptive. Encourage them think about the
aspects they find important in group collaboration. Discuss what difficulties/problems commonly occur and
what aspects could be enhanced/improved through certain rules and regulations.

Write up these points on a flip chart and invite participants to set out e their own team contract on the basis
of this collection of ideas. Encourage them to think of organisational aspects as well as of group dynamics,
when they introduce their rules and regulations.

If you feel you need further work on this topic, take a look other approaches for creating team contracts or
group constitutions. You could, for example, introduce "Group Problem Solving and Team Contract
Exercise" (see below) or your own version of that exercise with questions adapted to your participants
particular needs.

"Making a group constitution" (Source: adapted from FAO-GPRS)

By asking simple questions, a facilitator can stimulate discussion among group members and
offer them opportunities in problem solving and decision-making. You can start a discussion
about the writing of a team contract/group constitution by asking the following guiding questions
(the italic text shows example answers):

Why does a group need a constitution?

To guide and to discipline members.
Who is the constitution meant for?
For the group itself.
Who should write the constitution?
The group members should write it together.
How best can a constitution be made?
Through discussion about the group members’ needs and problems and by meeting and working
together.
When should the constitution be made?
It is good for groups to have some simple rules rather at the beginning of their collaboration.
Where should the constitution be kept?
In a common record book, or as copies handed out to all members.

After discussion on the group constitution/team contract, you as a facilitator may feel it necessary
to amplify if initially group members do not understand the importance of having a constitution.
You should point out that rules are needed to minimise conflict and improve efficiency of group
decision-making. Use experiences from previous meetings to show that rules are necessary to
guide and lead members.

Explain, what a group constitution is:

a written agreement made by the members of a group - the constitution sets our what is expected
from individuals and what they can expect from the group.

Explain, why a constitution is helpful:

as it provides a clear and consistent set of guidelines to define each member’s rights and
obligations within a group. In a participatory group, the constitution is meant only for the benefit
and use of the members. It is created by the members and can only be changed by the
members.

Explain, what makes up a constitution:

there is no blueprint for a group constitution. It should be made step by step, through discussion.
The first draft can be made when a group is initially formed. Rules can be added or changed as
new issues arise.

Discussion items for setting a group constitution (Source: adapted from FAO-GPRS)

Item Issues for discussion

1 Objectives of the
group
2 Membership names, qualities, duration, responsibilities
3 Committee types of posts, duties of the committee and the committee members, how long
elected for
4 Meeting place, time, day, numbers of members needed for decisions, unanimous or
Schedule majority decision making, reporting absence, representation for absentees
 allowed, can absentees vote?
5 Record Keeping What to be recorded, by whom

Hint for Trainers:

In the context of forming groups such as PRA-teams or a team of trainers for a certain workshop,
one could use the term "Team Contract". However, individuals coming together in order to work
for a longer period of time, might call their rules and regulations a "Group Constitution".

H. Concluding the session

Emphasise the fact, that the composition of a group has a strong impact on the quality of its
common work. The composition of a group also affects the general recognition its output will
achieve. A group which does not have a "group constitution" and/or does not liase with
representatives of major stakeholder (groups), is working without a mandate or the agreement of
those they are working for. Sooner or later, this will be realised and the groups’ proposals will not
be accepted by all stakeholders.

Session 7: Leadership and participatory management of groups

Most groups feel more comfortable and work more effectively if they have a person or number of
group of persons who takes on the leadership within the group. There should, however, be a
consensus on whether to have a leader at all. If there is agreement to have a leader, then the
style of leadership needs to match the expectations of the leader as well as the group otherwise
conflict will be inevitable

Key Issue:

 Leadership and participatory group management

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Brainstorming: Leadership and qualities of a leader

Prepare two flipcharts, one for inputs on leadership in general and one for
desirable qualities of a leader. Invite participants to brainstorm in a plenary session about
leadership in general and about what they feel are desirable qualities of a leader. Record their
input on the flip charts adding to them as necessary (see below).

Desirable qualities of leaders (Source: adapted from FAO-GPRS)

- active, energetic and good at motivating others
- respectful but not shy
- brave, honest and patient
- able to work with others
- able to communicate with others
- not a drunkard and not a gossip
- able to keep group secrets

B. Trainers Input: "Different Leadership styles"

Prepare a presentation and introduce different leadership styles (see below).

Allow time for questions but limit discussion so as to lead on to the next unit on ‘Positioning’.

Trainers’ input in Palmyra: Different Leadership Styles

Authoritarian

Order, directions and obedience

Controls, sets objectives and watches realization
Members have to follow and obey
Cooperation and creativity hindered
No possibility for members of group to develop

Laissez-faire Style

Minimized leadership
Group can act as it wants
Information or help is rarely given
No development of the group or of its members

Democratic Style

Gives group sufficient help and information to solve conflicts and conduct activities on their own
Group learns to accept each others different abilities
Group will cooperate independenlly of the leader’s presence
Leader will act as actively or as passively as necessary

C. Discussion and Positioning: "Preferences on leadership styles"

 Prepare drawings representing the different leadership styles and pin them
up. Ask participants to stand under the drawing which represent the leadership style they prefer.
Hold a plenary discussion about advantages and disadvantages of the respective leadership
styles in different situations. Ask them to come to a decision about which one would be most
favourable in their particular working context (see below).

Experience from Palmyra: Participants' opinions on leadership styles

In the Palmyra Workshop, trainers presented an overview of 3 types of leadership styles: the
authoritarian, the laissez-faire and the democratic. There was clear recognition of the first two
styles of leadership and some confusion as to how a democratic leader would actually function.
The sense was, this form of leadership was admirable but very difficult to attain.

D. Energiser: The Envelope Game

This energiser highlights the importance of group cooperation and shared

objectives. Start the game by handing out a set of envelopes, each holding different sizes and
shapes of paper to five groups. Give them about 15 minutes to exchange, give, and accept
pieces of paper from other groups in order to complete their own collection of 5 A4 size papers.
This exercise requires considerable patience, as no one is permitted to ask or take a piece of
paper from another group. They can only accept an offer (see below a description of the
experience from Palmyra Workshop).

Experience from Palmyra: The Envelope Game

During the Palmyra Workshop, the envelope game was successfully carried out in just under 15
minutes. In the discussion, participants expressed their initial difficulty with not being able to ask
for what they wanted. Slowly they began to appreciate that in order to complete their own group’s
tasks, they had to help other groups. Generally they felt as though they became one large group
with everyone trying to help everyone else in order to all "win" the game.

E. Exercise: Duties of leaders and group members

Prepare two flipcharts, one headed "duties of leaders", the other "duties of group
members". Divide participants into two groups and ask them to set out their ideas on these topic headings in
list form. Give them 15 minutes and then ask them to exchange their results and add to each others' ideas.

F. Final Discussion & Conclusion: "Duties of a leader" (Source: adapted from FAO-GPRS)

Add to the above lists with your own input if necessary; key issue may be for example:

- to monitor group progress and achievements of objectives

- to ensure that the group’s constitution is obeyed or amended as necessary
- to encourage participation by all members in discussion, decision-making and work
- to introduce new ideas into the group, and encourage members to do the same
- to report about the work of individual members and the group as a whole
- to represent the group on special occasions

Background Materials

FAQ about leadership (Source: adapted from FAO-GPRS)

1. What is leadership?

Leadership involves overseeing and monitoring the group’s activities. These tasks are carried out
by a few people who are recognised and accepted by all members. Usually, the term "leader"
refers to a group’s chairperson, but it may also refer to the whole committee, consisting of
chairperson, secretary and treasurer.

2. Why is leadership important?

Supervision and coordination help a group to run smoothly, to grow strong and to achieve its
goals.

3. What is participatory leadership?

Participatory leadership means, firsly, that all members have equal opportunity to participate and
that all members can become leaders. It also means that elections to change leaders should take
place regularly. Rotation of duties gives all members a chance to develop leadership skills. This,
in turn, makes the group more effective and helps promote further participation. Secondly,
participatory leaders encourage all members to be fully involved in group affairs by keeping them
informed, by delegating tasks and by having open discussions.

4. Who can become a leader?

Every member of the group with the necessary skills can become a leader. It is difficult to be a
treasurer if you can not add up, or a secretary if you can not write. The necessary skills for a
leader should be defined by the group itself and according to the respective circumstances and
needs of the group.

Session 8: Decision-making in groups

Decision-making in participatory groups can be a time-consuming process, as there are many

different opinions to be respected.
Key Issues:

 Awareness of problems in decision-making

 Techniques for coming to a decision

Proposed Training Strategy:

A. Eye-Opener: The Bus Game (Source: adapted from DSE)

The bus game is an exercise to put into practice and compare

decision-making processes as individuals and as groups (see below for a description). Introduce
the game, conduct the two rounds and compare the results of individuals and groups.

The facilitator tells the following story to the group: On a bus ride through a very remote area,
your bus has a break-down. The distance to the next place where you can get help is about a
two-day’s walk. You are the only one who can make it to the village. The others cannot walk so
far, but they have enough food and water to stay behind and wait for help. Your life and the lives
of your fellows are now dependent on what you choose to take with you for your walk. You can
only chose a total of 14 things to take.

The task of the players is now to make a list of the 14 things listed below, in terms of their
importance for a journey of two days through the desert. They should be put in order, the one that
they consider the most important is put as number 1, the second as number 2 and so on. The
object that seems of least importance to them in this situation is put as number 14.

The facilitator first asks the participants to solve this problem on their own (10 minutes). Then
he/she asks them to form teams of 4 to 6 people and to do the exercise again as a team. They
have to find the correct solution. Each team gets 30 minutes to find out the right order. The rule
is that each member’s former decision should be considered and discussed, however, but the
decisions should be made with the approval of the majority of the team.

my guess our team-guess my points points of the team

a radio
a book on edible plants of the desert
a 10 kg bag of bourgol
a camera
a blanket
ten packets of dried meat
Matches
ten litres of water
a torch
first-aid kit
a watch
a rope
instant milk
a map
points altogether

Solution:

a radio 12 tells you about rescue efforts from outside

a book on edible plants of the 6 food-supply
desert
a 10 kg bag of burgoul 9 not helpful as it needs further things (pot, hot water) to prepare a
meal
a camera 14 to document your trip
a blanket 13 protection from cold
ten packets of dried meat 5 light food
matches 3 to start a fire
ten litres of water 1 drinking water
a torch 11 to give light in the dark
first-aid kit 7 in case of an accident
a watch 8 can be used as a compass
a rope 10 can assist in difficult terrain
instant milk 4 a light food, if there is water
a map 2 for orientation

Firstly, each player compares her/his own list with the one given. The difference between their
guess and the right position is put in the column of the player. (For example: one team member
gave ‘blanket’ place number 6 and the ‘watch’ place number 10. The difference between her/his
guess and the solution is 7 for the ‘blanket’(13) and 2 for the ‘watch’(8), which together makes 9.)
The lower the sum of the differences, the better the result of the individual team member. Now
the same procedure is carried out with the results of each team member. The same procedure is
then also done with the results of each team.

Debriefing:

The group and facilitator compare the 2 results. Encourage discussion by asking questions such
as "Was our idea right that the team results would be better than those of the individual
members?" When the exercise has been completed, encourage participants to answer the
following questions in their teams: "How do I feel now?" "What most impressed me during the
exercise?", "What rules can we find for team-work?"
Discuss the fact that, often, results of group decisions are of better quality than those of
individuals. However, if there are individuals in the group who are experts in the respective matter
it will be advantageous to use these experts as resource persons and, assumed that the group
agrees, to adopt the experts' proposals. Discuss the group dynamic aspect of taking
decisions jointly. This is the aspect of taking common responsibility instead of blaming
each other. That means, even if a decision taken by a group proves to be wrong in the
end, all members of the group will recognise that they played a part in the group’s
decision. Thus the risk of conflict is low and the group can continue seeking a
constructive solution. On the other hand, if an individual took an incorrect decision
without the mandate of the group, the probability of conflicts rises and the risk of the
whole group breaking apart over such discussions is clearly evident. (see Background
Materials" for a discussion of the experiences from Palmyra Workshop).

B. Exercise: "Taking a decision"

This exercise explores further the experience of another decision making process
and analyses what was difficult and what was helpful about it (see below). Allow the group the experience of
making a real decision. This can be can be decided on during a free evening during the workshop or it can
be simply deciding on what the next step of the project/workshop should be. After the decision has been
made, ask the group to identify what major problems they had in reaching the decision. Ask participants to
discuss what kind of problems they experienced. Also ask them to come up with ideas about how they could
improve their decision-making. This way they will set their own norms and guidelines and be more likely to
abide them.

Debriefing:

Collect all observations and elaborate jointly a set of guidelines on how decision making processes could be
improved within the group.

C. Look-Back: Ranking Tools

Prepare an overview on the different ranking tools and their distinguishing characteristics (see
Module II on PRA/PLA-tools). Hold a plenary discussion about their differences and their potential
to support decision making. Also discuss their advantages, and their limits as well as their
applicability in different situations of decision-making.

D. Concluding the session

Emphasise the importance of participatory decision-making processes in order to

maintain the enthusiasm of all group members as well as to prevent conflicts.

Background Materials

Experiences from Palmyra Workshop with "The Bus Game"

The comparison of group and individuals' results of the "Bus Game" in the Palmyra Workshop
showed that about half of the individuals had higher scores than the group scores. These findings
were discussed in a plenary session and 3 findings emerged:

1. Individual versus group result

Sometimes, the individual can be more successful than the group. Groups need to delegate tasks
to those who are known to be experts. This is also relevant to the concept of "subsidiarity", which
means, giving tasks to the most able.

2. How groups work together

Within a group issue of dominance of one person over others, and that of compromise without
questioning needs to be addressed.

3. The importance of clear roles in groups

The clear definition of a group leader, a time keeper and a recorder is significant and clearly helps
in producing good outcomes.

During the following discussion on the topic "Were group results better than those of the
individual", participants answered the questions "How was your feeling about group work?" and
"What are the rules that you learned from group work" as follows:

- The majority's opinion is the best

- Respect of the individual point of view
- Without consultation, consensus is not possible
- Democracy is the basis of success

Participants' summary was, that sometimes individuals are more focused than groups; sometimes
the group works better than the individuals - this depends upon the goals and aims of the group;
group work is not always easy. The consensus was, that successful groups require flexibility,
cooperation, common goals, acceptance of others, compromise, information, and synthesis.

Trainers in Palmyra learned the following lessons that emerged from the game:

- this eye-opener was the first time that participants took seriously working together in groups
- participants started to understand how important and difficult it is to make a good decision
- comparison between group decision and individual decision was extremely helpful
- at some points it is helpful, if there is a leader who takes a decision

Johari Window Exercise:

The activity gives best results in groups. In this activity certain sub teams are formulated
and every member of the sub teams are asked to prepare 5 folds of a paper lengthwise or
vertically (fan shaped). In the first fold ask the participants to mention as many number of
attributes for describing a person’s both negative and positive qualities. Then after this in
the next column itself the participant himself needs to apply check marks against the
attributes, which describe him best, and a cross against the attributes, which are not
applicable in his personality. In the next column the next member of the team needs to
give his feedback about his friend and likewise the paper is circulated amongst all
members till all the requisite columns are filled up with the team members feedback. This
process gets repeated with every member in the form of giving and receiving feedback.
The attribute, which represents cross marks in all the columns, shows that it is the
unknown area for that participant. The attributes against which the participant applies a
tick (in the first column) and other members do not (in the rest other columns) shows that
those qualities are his hidden area. Likewise the attributes against which the subject
himself does not put a tick and the other members of the team do, then that formulates the
blind area for the subject. Finally, the attributes which contain tick marks in all the
columns shows that it is an open area as the subject himself knows it and the other
members of the team as well know about it.

In the end of the session ask the participants to keep those feedback sheets with them for
their personal reference.