MODULE 3: Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers (8 Lectures)

(i) Introduction (ii) Mechanical Devices as Primary Detectors (iii) Mechanical Spring Devices:
Cantilever, Helical Spring, Spiral Spring, Proving Rings, Load cells, Spring Flexure Pivot (iv)
Pressure sensitive primary devices: Bourdon Tubes, Diaphragms, Bellows (v) Classifications of
transducers: Primary and Secondary transducers, Passive and Active Transducers, Analog and
Digital transducers, Transducers and Inverse transducers (vi) Transducers for linear displacement
measurement: Resistive transducers, Potentiometers, Variable inductance transducers, Linear
variable differential transducers (LVDT), Capacitive transducers, Piezo electric transducers,
Rosettes

A primary element is a sensor or detector that responds quantitatively to the measured variable
and performs the initial measurement operation. A primary element performs the initial
conversion of measurement energy. The final control device is the element that directly controls
the value of the manipulated variable of a control loop. Often the final control element is a
control valve. It is an instrument that takes action to adjust the manipulated variable in a process.
Final control elements can also be solenoids and servomotors.

Before understanding what a transducer is or diving into the different types of transducers,
considers the following setup of a measuring system. In this block diagram of a simple
measuring system, there are three basic elements:
 Sensor
 Signal Conditioning Unit
 Data Representing Device

Sensor
A Sensor is a device that is used to detect changes in any physical quantity like temperature,
speed, flow, level, pressure, etc. Any changes in the input quantity will be detected by a sensor
and reflected as changes in output quantity.

Both the input and output quantities of a sensor are physical i.e., non-electrical in nature.

Signal Conditioning Unit

The non-electrical output quantity of the sensor makes it inconvenient to further process it.
Hence, the signal conditioning unit is used to convert the physical output (or non-electrical
output) of the sensor to an electrical quantity.

Some of the well known Signal conditioning units are:

 Analog to digital converters
 Amplifiers
 Filters
 Rectifiers
 Modulators
Data Representation Device:
A Data representation device is used to present the measured output to the observer. This can
be anything like
 A scale
 An LCD display
 A signal recorder

Transducer:
For a strain gauge, any changes in the strain will reflect as changes in its resistance. Now, in
order to convert this change in resistance into equivalent voltages, can use a simple Wheatstone
bridge circuit, which acts as the signal conditioning unit.

The combination of Strain gauge (Sensor) and Wheatstone bridge (Signal Conditioning Unit)
is known as a transducer.

Generally speaking, a transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another by
the principle of transduction. Usually, a signal in one form of energy is converted to a signal in
another form by a transducer.

From the above example, a transducer is a device that converts a physical quantity into an
electrical quantity.

Types of Transducers:
There are various types of transducers depending upon the change in property or the
energy they bring about to measure specified physical quantities. The transducers used
for the measurement systems are broadly classified into following categories: mechanical
and electrical. Let us see these in details.

I) Mechanical Transducers:
The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements that are used for converting one
form of energy into other form that can be measured easily. There are number of mechanical
transducers, some of the commonly used ones are described below:

1) Bellows: These are the elastic elements that convert the air pressure into displacement,
and it is commonly used for the measurement of pressure.
2) Bourdon tube: This elastic tube converts air pressure to the rotary motion of the pointer
used to indicate the pressure.

3) Spring: The spring tend to expand when force is applied to them, thus they are used for
the measurement of force.
4) Proving rings: Like the springs the proving rings also convert applied force to the
displacement.
5) Diaphragm: It converts applied pressure to the displacement.
6) Manometer: The manometer converts the applied pressure into variable displacement of
the liquid within it enabling to measure the pressure.
7) Thermocouple: Thermocouple is the devise that produces electric current when one of
its ends is heated. The current produce by the devise can be measured, which can be
calibrated against the temperature enabling us to measure the temperature of the body.
8) Bimetals: These are the bimetallic strips comprising of two different metals having
different coefficient of thermal expansion, joint together. When the strip is heated one
metal expands lesser while the other metal expands more leading to the deflection of the
bimetallic strip, which is converted into the rotary motion of the pointer that indicates the
temperature.
9) Hydro-pneumatic transducers: These include devices like orifice, venturi, pitot tube,
vanes and turbines that are used for measurement of pressure, velocity, flow rate and
force of water.

Apart from the mechanical transducers mentioned above there are many others like
seismic mass, pendulum scale, float etc. Most of the mechanical transducers are used as
the primary transducers, meaning the initial input is applied to them, while the output
obtained from them can be used directly to measure the quantity or it can be given as
input to the secondary transducer, which are mostly of electrical type.
Cantilever Springs:
—Cantilever springs are simple flat springs in which one end is fixed and the other end is loaded.
There are various applications for cantilever springs that include automobiles, medical devices
and consumer products. Cantilever springs commonly have straight, slender and uniform beam
configurations and are designed for small deflections that are perpendicular to the beam axis.
Because of the small transverse deflection, the longitudinal deflection is usually ignored, the
spring stiffness is regarded as constant and the maximum stress is considered to be proportional
to the deflection. With the increase of the transverse deflection of a cantilever spring, the
longitudinal deflection gradually becomes large that cannot be ignored, the spring stiffness can
no longer be regarded as constant, the maximum stress does not have linear relationship with the
transverse deflection. It is not trivial to design nonlinear cantilever beam springs.

Helical Springs:
—Helical springs are those familiar elastic coiled mechanical devices that are used to store and
release energy. As a mechanical device, they are integral components for applications in nearly
every industrial sector. The sheer amount of applications of helical spring in all areas of modern
life is staggering. Helical springs are found in consumer goods, medical devices, in the
manufacture of parts for the automotive, aerospace and transportation industries, for the
construction industry, and in the making of tools, machinery and equipment, and so forth. They
vary in size and shape, from micro designs for use in electronic applications and medical devices
to large industrial-sized foundational dampeners for buildings and bridges.

Benefits of Helical Springs

Of their many benefits, helical springs are valued most for their functionality and the simplicity
in which they can store mechanical energy. Helical springs also referred to as coiled springs, are,
essentially, no more than tightly wound cylindrical mechanisms that are designed to support
different types of loads. These cylindrical mechanisms then, serve as a simple, mechanical
component that enables devices, tools, structures, and machines, or various kinds of equipment
and products, to function. It is no less than an engineering marvel. Helical springs can be
manufactured to absorb, eject, twist, or maintain a compressive, tensile, or torque force or energy
between surfaces. Once the potential energy from the spring is released, the elastic coil returns to
its original helical-shaped form.

Proving Rings:
—The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring of known
diameter with a measuring device located in the center of the ring. Proving rings come in a
variety of sizes. They are made of a steel alloy.

The proving ring is a metal ring which flexes under an applied load. If fabricated properly, the
ring's diameter will change with a consistent, reliable, linear relationship of load versus
deflection. The ring's deflection spans bidirectional use, stretching for tension loading and
shrinking for compression loading.
Load Cells:
A load cell is a transducer that converts the mechanical force into readable electrical units,
similar to our regular weighing scales. Their main purpose is to weigh or check the amount of
load transferred.

The load cell sensors are always bonded along with elastic material, known as strain gauges.

Load cells can be used at the initial stage i.e. during the research and development or even at a
later stage while monitoring a structure.

Load cell principle involves the use of many specific geotechnical instruments. It can’t work
without being paired up with sensors, one of them being Strain Gauges.

Strain Gauges are thin elastic materials made up of stainless steel and are fixed inside the load
cells using proprietary adhesives. The strain gauge has a specific resistance that is directly
proportional to its length and width.

When a force is applied on the load cell, it bends or stretches causing the strain gauge to move
with it. And, when the length and cross-section of the strain gauge changes, its electrical
resistivity also gets altered, thereby changing the output voltage.

Load Cell Circuit

Load cell circuit is also known as a Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
Let us assume that a load cell sensor has four internal strain gauges i.e. A, B, C, and D as shown
in the image above.

The input voltage supplied by a signal conditioner or digital display is attached to the two
opposite corners of the bridge i.e. C and D whereas, the output voltage is measured by joining
the A and B resistors to the signal side of the digital display.

When no load is applied to the load cell (𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0), the circuit is said to be balanced. As soon
as the load is applied to it, the strain gauge resistors will witness a change in its resistance,
thereby altering the voltage flowing through the circuit.

Hence, the voltage across A and B will change which will be displayed as the weight on the
readout unit or the digital display.

Spring Flexure Pivot:

Pressure sensitive primary devices:

Bourdon Tubes:
A bourdon tube pressure gauge is a mechanical pressure measuring instrument that reads the
pressure without requiring any electrical power. It is generally used for the measurement of
pressure from 0.6 to 7000 bar (8 to 10000 psi). It is the most common type of pressure gauge
and is used by industries for its high accuracy and precision, especially for high-pressure
applications. Bourdon tube pressure gauges are suitable for liquid or gaseous media for vacuum,
low and high-pressure applications. Compared to other types of pressure gauge, the bourdon tube
pressure gauge advantages are:

 Relatively low cost

 Compact design
 Safety in the measurement of high-pressure ranges
 Measurement accuracy
  Use with heavy vibration application and dynamic pressure load

A: inlet pipe, B: Socket block, C: stationary end of the Bourdon tube, D: moving end of the
Bourdon tube, E: pivot and pivot pin, F: sector gear, G: indicator needle

This pressure gauge is attached to a pipeline at the inlet pipe (A). The inlet pipe is held in place
by the socket block (B), which also holds the device to the process line. Pressure flows into the
stationary end of the Bourdon tube (C). The pressure is distributed through the C-shaped
Bourdon tube (D). As a result of this pressure, the C-shape straightens. A pivot and pivot pin (E)
connect the straightening movement with the sector gear (F) at the moving end of the Bourdon
tube. Due to the gearing system, the movement at the moving end of the Bourdon tube is
amplified so that a very slight pressure change results in a considerable motion of the indicator
needle (G). Generally, the indicator moves from left to right in a circular path over a calibrated
scale. A decrease in pressure will result in the Bourdon tube returning to its original position.

The bourdon tube pressure gauge exhibits high sensitivity to pressure changes, thus, ensures
higher accuracy and precision in the reading. Furthermore, the vibration and corrosion resistance
offered by the pressure gauge makes it the preferred choice of many industries for their pressure
measurement applications.

Diaphragms:
The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge uses the elastic deformation of a diaphragm (i.e. membrane)
instead of a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown pressure and a reference
pressure.

A typical Diaphragm pressure gauge contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm, as shown in the
schematic below. One side of the diaphragm is open to the external targeted pressure, 𝑃𝐸𝑥𝑡 , and
the other side is connected to a known pressure, 𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓 . The pressure difference, 𝑃𝐸𝑥𝑡 − 𝑃𝑅𝑒𝑓 ,
mechanically deflects the diaphragm.
The membrane deflection can be measured in any number of ways. For example, it can be
detected via a mechanically-coupled indicating needle, an attached strain gage, a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT; see the schematic below), or with many other
displacement/velocity sensors. Once known, the deflection can be converted to a pressure
loading using plate theory.

Many pressure sensors depend on the deflection of a diaphragm for measurement. The
diaphragm is a flexible disc, which can be either flat or with concentric corrugations and is made
from sheet metal with high tolerance dimensions.

The diaphragm can be used as a means of isolating the process fluids, or for high- pressure
applications. It is also useful in providing pressure measurement with electrical transducers.
Bellows Pressure Sensor:

The bellows pressure sensor is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds
formed from very thin-walled tubing. It looks like a stake of capsules. It is more sensitive than
the diaphragm and capsule pressure sensors.

The diameter of the bellows ranges from 1.2 to 30 cm and may have as many as 24 folds.
System pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure varies, the
bellows will expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical
linkage assembly. The deflection can be measured in any number of ways. For example, it can be
detected via a mechanically- coupled indicating needle [refer fig (a)], a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) as described in the diaphragm pressure gauge [refer fig (b)], a
potentiometer [refer fig (b)], or with many other displacement sensors. As the bellows and
linkage assembly moves, either an electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure indication is
provided. Figure shows a bellows pressure sensing element along with the potentiometer.

The potentiometric bellows pressure sensor provides a simple method for obtaining an electronic
output from a mechanical pressure gauge. The device consists of a precision potentiometer,
whose wiper arm is mechanically linked to a bellows or Bourdon element. The movement of the
wiper arm across the potentiometer converts the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a
resistance measurement, using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a helical, coiled compression
spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows, the relation between increments of load and
deflection is linear. In practice, the bellows must always be opposed by a spring, and the
deflection characteristics will be the resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Primary and Secondary Transducers:
Consider the Bourdon’s Tube shown in the figure below. The tube act as a primary transducer. It
detects the pressure and converts it into a displacement from its free end. The displacement of
the free ends moves the core of the linear variable displacement transformer. The movement of
the core induces the output voltage which is directly proportional to the displacement of the tube
free end.

Thus, the two type of transduction occurs in the Bourdon’s tube. First, the pressure is converted
into a displacement and then it is converted into the voltage by the help of the L.V.D.T.

The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary transducer, and the L.V.D.T is called the secondary
transducer.

Passive and Active Transducer:

The transducer is classified as the active and passive transducer.

Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply source
is known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power transducer. The
capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive transducer.

Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is known
as the active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current, hence
known as a self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the physical input
quantity.
The physical quantity like velocity, temperature, force and the intensity of light is induced with
the help of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal, photo-voltaic cell, tacho generator,
thermocouples, photovoltaic cell are the examples of the active transducers.

Examples – Consider the examples of a piezoelectric crystal. The crystal is sandwiched between
the two metallic electrodes, and the entire sandwiched is fastened to the base. The mass is placed
on the top of the sandwiched.

The piezo crystal has the special property because of which when the force is applied to the
crystal, they induce the voltage. The base provides the acceleration due to which the voltage is
generated. The mass applies on the crystals induces an output voltage. The output voltage is
proportional to the acceleration.

The above mention transducer is known as the accelerometer which converts the acceleration
into an electric voltage. This transducer does not require any auxiliary power source for the
conversion of physical quantity into an electrical signal.

Analog and Digital Transducer:

The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the transducer
may be continuous or discrete.

Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue
transducer.

Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in the
form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
Transducer and Inverse Transducer:
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity is
known as the transducer.

Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high
electrical input and low non-electrical output.

Resistive transducers for linear displacement:

The resistive transducers are also known as resistive sensors or variable resistance transducers.
These transducers are most frequently used for calculating different physical quantities like
pressure, vibration, temperature, force, and displacement. These transducers work in both
primary as well as secondary. But generally, these are used as secondary because the primary
transducer’s output can work as an input to the resistive transducer. The output which is attained
from it is adjusted against the amount of input & it provides the input value directly. This article
discusses an overview of this transducer.

The resistance of a transducer can be changed due to the effects of the environment. Here, the
resistance change can be calculated with the help of measuring devices like AC or DC. The main
purpose of this transducer is to measure physical quantities such as vibration, displacement,
temperature, etc.

The physical quantities can be changed by using this transducer into variable resistance. By
using the meters, it can be measured easily.

Resistive-transducer
This transducer works on both the primary & the secondary. The primary transducer converts the
physical quantities to a mechanical signal whereas the secondary transducer converts to an
electrical signal directly.

The major types of resistive transducer include potentiometers, resistive position transducers,
resistive pressure transducers, thermistors, strain gauges, and LDR.

Working of Resistive Transducer

To understand the working of a resistive transducer, the conductor rod is considered as an
example of this transducer.
These transducers work on the principle of the length of a conductor which is directly
proportional to the conductor’s resistance & it is inversely proportional to the conductor’s area.
So, the denominated length of the conductor is ‘𝐿’, the area is ‘𝐴’ and resistance is ‘𝑅’ and the
resistivity is ‘𝜌’. It is stable for every material which is used in conductor construction.
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿⁄𝐴

From the above equation,

‘𝑅’ is the resistance of the conductor.
‘𝐴’ is the side view part of the conductor.
‘𝐿’ is the conductor’s length.
‘𝜌’ – the resistivity of the conductor.

The transducer’s resistance can be changed because of the exterior environmental factors as well
as the conductor’s physical properties. The change in resistance can be measured using AC
devices or DC devices. This transducer acts like a primary as well as the secondary transducer. A
primary transducer is used to change the physical quantity to the mechanical signal whereas a
secondary transducer is used to convert a mechanical signal to an electrical signal.

Resistive Transducer Circuit

The best example of this circuit is the sliding contact device. The circuit diagram of this is shown
below. The sliding contact of this transducer mainly includes a long conductor whose length can
be changed. One side of the conductor is connected whereas another side of the conductor can be
connected to a brush/slider which moves through the conductor’s full-length.

Resistive-transducer-circuit
The displacement of the object can be calculated by connecting it to the slider. Whenever energy
is given to the object for moving them from its first position, then the slider moves with the
conductor’s length. So the length of the conductor will change to reflect on modify within the
resistance of the conductor. A transducer like a potentiometer works on the sliding contact type
principle which is used to calculate linear & angular displacement.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The applications of resistive transducer include potentiometer, resistance thermometer, strain
gauges, thermistor, etc.

 These transducers are mainly used to calculate the temperature in several applications.
 The applications of resistive transducer include potentiometer, resistance thermometer,
strain gauges, thermistor, etc.
 These transducers are used to measure displacement.
 The best examples of this transducer are potentiometers like rotator & translation. The
resistance of these can be changed with the deviation within their lengths to measure the
displacement.
 The semiconductor material’s resistance can be changed when the strain happens on it.
This property can be used to measure force, displacement, and pressure, etc.
 The metal’s resistance can be changed due to temperature change. So this property can be
used to calculate the temperature.
 The working principle of this is the thermistor materials temperature coefficient can be
changed by the temperature. The temperature coefficient of the thermistor is negative
which means this is inversely proportional to resistance.

Linear potentiometer for displacement measurement:

The potentiometer is also called as pots and it one of the most commonly used devise for
measuring the displacement of the body. The potentiometer is the electrical type of transducer or
sensor and it is of resistive type because it works on the principle of change of resistance of the
wire with its length. The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire,
thus as the length of the wire changes the resistance of the wire also changes.

The potentiometer is an electric circuit in which the resistance can be changed manually by the
sliding contacts. The typical potentiometer is shown in the figure below. Here the voltage 𝑉𝑠 is
applied across the two points of the wire A and B. C is the variable contact point between A and
B and its position can be changed by the sliding contact. The voltage 𝑉0 is measured between the
points A and C.

As per the resistance law of the conductor, the resistance of the conductor AC changes as the
length of the wire AC changes. Accordingly the output voltage 𝑉0 between A and C also
changes. The point C is the slider whose position is changed by the operator or by the motion of
the body whose displacement is to be measured. The relationship between the length of the
conductors and the voltage across them can be expressed as:
𝑉𝑜
⁄𝑉 = 𝐴𝐶⁄𝐴𝐵
𝑠

Variable Inductance Transducers:

Inductive transducer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction or transduction
mechanism is called an inductive transducer. A self-inductance or mutual inductance is varied to
measure required physical quantities like displacement (rotary or linear), force, pressure,
velocity, torque, acceleration, etc. These physical quantities are noted as measurands. Linear
variable differential transducer (LVDT) is an example of an inductive transducer. Using LVDT,
displacement is measured in terms of the voltage induced in the winding by moving the core in
one direction.

The working principle of an inductive transducer is the magnetic material’s induction. Just like
the electrical conductor’s resistance, it depends on various factors. The magnetic material’s
induction can depend on different variables like the twists of the coil over the material, the
magnetic material’s size, & the flux’s permeability.

The magnetic materials are used in the transducers in the path of flux. There is some air gap
between them. The change in the circuit inductance can be occurred due to the air gap change. In
most of these transducers, it is mainly used to work the instrument properly. The inductive
transducer uses three working principles which include the following.

 Self Inductance Change

 Mutual Inductance Change
 Eddy Current Production

Self Inductance Change

We know that the coil’s self-inductance can be derived by
𝐿 = 𝑁2/𝑅
Where ‘𝑁’ is the number of twists of coil

‘𝑅’ is the magnetic circuit’s reluctance

The reluctance ‘𝑅’ can be derived by the following equation

𝑅 = 1⁄𝜇𝐴

Thus, inductance equation can become like the following

𝐿 = 𝑁2𝜇𝐴/𝑙

Where
𝐴 = It is the Coil’s cross-sectional area
𝑙 = Coil’s length
µ = Permeability

We know that geometric form factor 𝐺 = 𝐴/𝑙, then the inductance equation will become like
the following.
𝐿 = 𝑁2𝜇𝐺

The self-inductance is changed by a change in the number of twists, geometric form factor ‘𝐺’
and permeability ‘µ’. For instance, if some displacement is capable to alter the above factors,
then it can be calculated directly in terms of inductance.

Mutual Inductance Change

Here transducers work on the principle of change in mutual inductance. It uses several coils for
the purpose of knowing. These coils include their self-inductance which are indicated by 𝐿1 &
𝐿2 . The common inductance among these two twists can be derived by the following equation.
𝑀 = √𝐿1 𝐿2

Therefore common inductance is altered by unstable self-inductance otherwise through the

unstable coupling of coefficient ‘𝐾’. Here, the coupling coefficient mainly depends on the
direction & distance among the two coils. As a result, the displacement can be measured by
fixing one coil & make secondary coil movable. This coil can move by the power source whose
displacement is to be calculated. The change in mutual inductance can be caused by the change
in displacement coefficient coupling distance. This mutual inductance change is adjusted by
measurement and displacement.

Eddy Current Production

Whenever a conducting shield is located close to a coil carrying AC (alternating current), then
the current flow can be induced within the shield which is known as “EDDY CURRENT”. This
kind of principle is used in inductive transducers. When a conducting plate is arranged near to a
coil carrying AC then eddy currents will be generated within the plate. The plate which carries
eddy current will generates their own magnetic field which works against plate magnetic field.
So the magnetic flux will be reduced.

As a coil is located near to coil carrying AC, a flowing current can be induced within it which in
turn generates its own flux to decrease the flux of the current-carrying coil & therefore coil’s
inductance will be changed. Here, the coil is arranged nearer to the plate then high eddy current
will be generated as well as a high drop within coil inductance. Thus, by changing the distance
among the coil and plate, the inductance of the coil will change. The principle like changing the
distance of coil or plate with the help of measure and can be used within measurements of
displacement.

Capacitive Transducers:
Capacitive Transducers have come under passive transducers (passive transducer requires
external power for their operation in the energy conversion process). These transducers are used
to measure the displacement (how much distance it covers), pressure and other several physical
quantities. In these transducers, the capacitance between the plates is varied because of the
distance between the plates, overlapping of plates, due to dielectric medium change, etc.

The working principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance. As per its structure,
these are having two parallel metal pates which are maintaining the distance between them. In
between them, dielectric medium (such as air) can be filled. So, the distance between these two
metal plates and positions of the plates can change the capacitance. So, variable capacitance is
the principle of these transducers. The basic difference between the normal capacitors and
capacitive transducers is, the capacitor plates are constant in normal capacitors wherein these
transducers, capacitor plates are the movable condition.
The capacitance of the variable capacitor can be measured by this formula.
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Where, 𝐶 indicates the capacitance of the variable capacitance
𝜀0 indicates the permittivity of free space
𝜀𝑟 indicates the relative permittivity
𝐴 indicates the area of the plates
𝐷 indicates the distance between the plates

So according to the formula, the variable capacitance value is dependent on four important
parameters. They are the distance between the plates of the variable capacitor, occupying area of
the plates, permittivity of the free space, relative permittivity and dielectric material. These
parameters can be varying the capacitance value of the variable capacitor.
 Change in dielectric constant can vary the capacitance of this transducer.
 The area of the plates of these transducers can vary its capacitance value.
 Distance between the plates can vary the transducers’ capacitance value. This method is
mostly used. In this method, the dielectric medium and area of the plates are kept constant.
When the plates are moving then the distance is varied and this results in the changing of
the capacitance of the capacitive transducer.

These above three methods are used to change the capacitance value of this transducer.

Capacitive transducer circuit diagram

Piezo-Electric Transducers:
Piezoelectric transducer is an electrical transducer which can convert any form of physical
quantity into an electrical signal, which can be used for measurement. An electrical transducer
which uses properties of piezoelectric materials for conversion of physical quantities into
electrical signals is known as a piezoelectric transducer.

Piezoelectric materials exhibit the property of piezoelectricity, according to which on the

application of any type of mechanical stress or strain leads to the generation of an electric
voltage proportional to the applied stress. This produced electric voltage can be measured using
voltage measuring instruments to calculate the value of stress or strain applied to the material.
Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity. The faces of piezoelectric
material, usual quartz, are coated with a thin layer of conducting material such as silver. When
stress has applied the ions in the material move towards one of the conducting surface while
moving away from the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge is used for
calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the direction of the
applied stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as Compressive stress and Tensile stress as
shown below.

Working of a Piezoelectric Transducer

The orientation of the crystal also affects the amount of voltage generated. Crystal in a
transducer can be arranged in longitudinal position or transverse position.
In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by
𝑄 =𝐹×𝑑
Where F is the applied force, d is the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal.

Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 × 10−12 𝐶/𝑁.

In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by

𝑄 = 𝐹 × 𝑑 × (𝑏⁄𝑎)

When the ratio 𝑏/𝑎 is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse arrangement will be
greater than the amount generated by longitudinal arrangement.

Rosettes:
A rosette is the name given to a configuration of multiple strain gauges positioned in such a way
that they can measure strains from one component in different directions.

Single strain gauges, due to their directional constitution, can only measure a strain in one
direction. Using multiple gauges in unison allows for different directional strain measurements to
be taken which gives a more accurate evaluation of the surface strain to be measured.

Historically, stress has always been considered as one single unidirectional force, which made
stress measurement simple. However, it has since been found that some forces apply stresses that
act in planes at a right angle to one another, meaning measurement of biaxial stresses is
important.

Biaxial stress refers to an analysis of the stress in two dimensions (the X, Y planes) with the
stress normal to this plane assumed as zero. The biaxial stress is given by the sum of the two
‘normal’ stresses. Biaxial stress occurs in most structures meaning strain gauge rosettes are
commonly used for stress analysis.

Strain gauge rosettes are frequently found in one of two configurations – delta and rectangular:
 Delta strain gauges use three strain gauges in the configuration of an equilateral triangle
(at 60° to one another)
 Rectangular strain gauge rosettes have three different strain gauges (A, B and C). A and
C are on the X, Y axis, at 90° to one another, and B sits in the middle at a 45° angle to
both
There are various other configurations of strain gauge rosettes in addition to the above.