FINAL EXAM REVISION

CHAPTER 1:
The stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

● Alarm stage: the fight-or-flight response, the sympathetic nervous system is mobilised.
● Resistance stage: the body continues to mobilise its resources to deal with stressors until its natural
resources begin to deplete.
● Exhaustion stage: the body’s systems break down and illness or premature death ensues (e.g., heart disease
leading to a fatal heart attack).
● Selye did not think that all stress was negative. He referred to two types of stress: distress (negative) and
eustress (positive) [e.g., getting married, partaking in a sports competition].
● Selye then defined stress as the non-specific responses the body makes to demands.

The primary physiological systems that are activated by the fight-or-flight

response.

● The primary physiological systems activated by the fight-or-flight response are:

● The Cardiovascular System
○ The heart rate increases and blood pressure spikes to circulate oxygen-rich blood and energy to the
brain and large muscles of the body in
preparation for action.
● The Muscular System
○ The large muscles in the body tense as they are ready for action.
● The Gastrointestinal (GI) System
○ The digestive process slows. Blood from the GI
the system is rooted in the brain and muscles.
● The Respiratory System
○ Breathing rate increases to oxygenate the large muscles of the body in preparation for
action.
● The Dermal System
○ The skin perspires to cool down the body and prevent overheating during action.
● The Hormonal System
● Hormones such as adrenalin, noradrenalin and cortisol are secreted to stimulate the release of
energy for action.
● The Sensory Systems
● The eyes’ pupils dilate as vision and hearing become more acute to perceive the threat more
acutely.
● Though this physiological response works well for us in the face of real danger, our modern
stressors are often intangible and complex.
● But they represent the same threat in our minds as the sabre-toothed tiger faced by the cavemen!
● Chronic stress can lead to chronic activation of the
body’s fight-or-flight systems.
 ● This may be harmful to our overall health and can eventually lead to hypertension, chronic headaches or
other chronic stress-related problems.

Lazarus’s Appraisal and Coping Model: Primary appraisal [Irrelevant,

Benign-positive, and Stressful as well as Harm-loss appraisals, Threat
appraisals and Challenge appraisals]

● It is a three-process cognitive model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984):
● Primary appraisal: The person evaluates present and potential harm or loss from the event.
● Secondary appraisal: The person evaluates coping resources; if not enough resources are available, a
threat is experienced.
● Reappraisal: a person may change the meaning of the event to minimize stress reactions.
● During Primary Appraisal events can be appraised in three possible ways:
● As Irrelevant, no response is required (e.g., seeing 2 people arguing on a TV show, has no relevance to our
lives).
● As Benign-positive, emotional valence would be neutral or positive (e.g., talking to a friend about the good
weather outside).
● Stressful, when the situation involves harm- loss, threat and/or challenge (e.g., loss of a girl or boyfriend).
● Harm-loss appraisals are past or present-oriented and result from appraisals of loss or damage that is
happening or have already happened.
● Losses can be tangible (loss of a loved one/job) or psychological (loss of self-esteem).
● Threat appraisals are future-oriented and evoke negative emotions such as anxiety, fear and anger.
● For example, seeing the end-of-year exam as a threat.
● Challenge appraisals see the potential for gain or growth and evoke feelings of excitement, eagerness and
exhilaration.
● For example, getting a promotion.
●
Lazarus’s Appraisal and Coping Model: Secondary appraisal

● Secondary appraisal
● Involves assessing how well we can deal or cope with a given situation.
● Coping refers to the effective use of resources and strategies to deal with internal or external demands.
● Part of the coping assessment process involves estimating the degree of control we have over the stressor.
CHAPTER 2:
Happiness set point and Hedonic adaptation

● Happiness researchers generally share a popular assumption that we each have a happiness set point.
● Happiness set point: when we are too happy or unhappy, our internal biological regulators try to bring
happiness levels back to a genetically determined set point.
● The following evidence exists for the happiness set point: There is a large heritability influence on
happiness.
● Well-being generally stays constant across one’s lifespan.
● Personality plays a greater role than circumstances.
● Hedonic adaptation: the concept that happiness due to circumstances tends to be temporary because we
generally adjust fairly soon to our new circumstances.
● The novelty of a new stimulus (e.g., buying a new car) wears off and happiness levels return to the
baseline.
● This relates to habituation where the novelty of a new stimulus eventually wears off after repeated
exposure.
● There are, however, individual differences in how people respond to extreme negative events such as severe
disability.
● Resilience: people not only cope with a negative event, they are transformed by the experience.
● Resilience is to recover and respond positively to a negative event (to bounce back).
● Some people show positive response patterns and thrive.
● To thrive is to flourish and show vigorous growth.

Traits of Happy People

● Extraversion gives people a slightly higher advantage toward feeling happy.

● Extraversion predisposes a person to experience positive affect, which induces quality relationships, which
can lead to more positive affect.
● Agreeableness leads to more harmony in relationships and higher levels of happiness.
● Agreeableness ranked second in happiness behind extraversion among the Big Five personality traits.
● Conscientious (self-disciplined, efficient) ranks number one as the Big Five trait with the strongest positive
relation to life satisfaction.
● Though the Big Five trait of openness to experience (adventurous, curious) sometimes positively correlates
with subjective well-being, its effects are usually minimal and non-significant.
● What are the trait characteristics that define the happiest of happy people?
● Diener and Seligman (2002, p. 81) looked at those who scored in the top 10% of happiness in their sample
of 222 undergraduates and found that they were “highly social,” had strong social and romantic
relationships, and “were more extraverted, more agreeable, and less neurotic.”
● Last, it should be noted that happy people are happy with themselves— they tend to have positive
self-esteem.
The characteristics of Realistic optimists

● Realistic optimism: optimism that does not involve deception, realistic optimism is the preferred
form
● Realistic optimists have the following characteristics:
● They give themselves and others the benefit of the doubt
● They appreciate the moment.
● They seek windows of opportunity.
● They engage in reality checks

The elements of the subjective state of flow

● There is an intense and focused concentration on the present moment

● There is a merging of action and awareness
● There is a loss of reflective self-consciousness (loss of awareness of oneself as a social actor)
● There is a sense that one can control one’s actions
● There is a distortion of temporal experience (time has passed faster than normal)
● The activity is experienced as intrinsically rewarding, such that often the end goal is just an
excuse for the process
● Most likely to occur in activities that challenge the upper range of our capabilities
● I the actions aren’t challenging enough we experience boredom
● If the challenges are overwhelming, anxiety is experienced
● Flow usually occurs when people are at work; happiness and flow do not always go together

CHAPTER 3:
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (the steps as well as the role of
cortisol)

● During the fight-or-flight response, the adrenal cortex is involved in a system referred to as the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
● In this system the hypothalamus influences the adrenal cortex by way of the pituitary gland, the pea-sized
master gland at the base of the brain.
● The Hypothalamus responds to stress by releasing peptide messengers called releasing factors.
● These stimulate the anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and
Beta-endorphin (which has strong analgesic (pain-relieving) properties). It can temporarily inhibit pain so
a person can escape danger.
● ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol.
● Cortisol increases overall
glucose concentration in the blood (it affects metabolism through the process of gluconeogenesis).
● The release of cortisol readies the stress responses.
 ● It can sharpen the memory functions of the hippocampus and increase the sensitivity of the thalamus to
sensory inputs.
● In addition, cortisol reduces inflammation.
● Along with psychological stressors, physical stressors such as intense heat and cold, surgical operations,
and the experience of disease states all increase cortisol levels.

What high levels of thyroxine can be produced in the body.

● High levels of thyroxine produce:

● Nervousness,
● Insomnia,
● Increased respiration leads to a sensation of shortness of breath,
● Sweating and Diarrhoea (due to increased gastric secretions and motility),
● Feelings of tiredness.
● It can stay in the body for a long time when stress is chronic.
● This may explain why some find it difficult to return to baseline levels once they leave a stressful
environment (e.g., having difficulty relaxing during a 1- or 2-week holiday).

Traumatic Stress and the Brain (the structures affected by PTSD and how
they play a role in the symptoms of PTSD).

● Some people develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - persistently re-experiencing the
traumatic
event, avoiding stimuli associated with the event and having persistent increased arousal.
● Evidence shows that the limbic system, especially the amygdala, is most affected by PTSD – it seems to
overreact.
● There seem to be abnormalities of limbic structures and functions, though it’s hard to tell whether this is
a result of or a predisposition to PTSD.
● The amygdala is involved in assessing threat stimuli and in conditioned fear responses.
● In people with PTSD, it is hyper-responsive.
● This could account for increased arousal symptoms.
● Arousal symptoms associated with PTSD are insomnia, irritability and angry outbursts, hypervigilance
(being on the alert for danger), exaggerated startle response (jumpy) and problems with memory.
● The Anterior cingulated cortex (ACC) is responsible for extinguishing conditioned fear and regulating
emotional responses.
CHAPTER 5:
Prevention strategies for cardiovascular disease.

● Do not smoke
● Eat fruits and vegetables
● Exercise more
● Lower cholesterol
● Control obesity
● Prevent diabetes
● Manage stress
● Prevent high blood pressure
● Use good judgment with alcohol use

The differences between Tension-type headaches and Migraine headaches

and the role of stress in each.

● tension of the skeletal muscles can be caused by stress

● Tension-type headache (TTH) is the most common type of headache
● It is associated with tension in the skeletal muscles
● Is characterised by head pain that often has corollary pain in the neck, back and other related areas
● TTH suffered report higher numbers of daily hassles (proximal stress, near term, or happened recently)
● TTH patients are more likely to be pain-sensitive
● Related to proximal stress (recently happened) instead of distal stress (happened long ago)
● Migraines are neuromuscular in origin
● Felt more on one side of the head
● Accompanied by feelings of nausea and auras such as unusual lights and odours
● Experiences more frequently by women than men
● The initial onset of migraine headache is related to distal rather than proximal stress
● Bruxism (teeth grinding) and temporomandibular pain and dysfunction syndrome (TMPDS) seem to
be stress-related
● TMPDS is characterised by myofascial pain, particularly in the temporomandibular (TM) joint (used to
open and close our jaw) and the muscle involved in mastication (chewing)
● Patients with these disorders have high muscle tension
Atopic disorders (only asthma – what it is, the role of stress and what they
should do to prevent it).

● Atopic disorders are mucosal inflammatory disorders caused by biological hypersensitivity and
inflammation
● The immune system over-responds to certain exogenous antigens
● Asthma can be caused by allergens, exertion, changes in air temperature or moisture
● Asthma attacks create stress, which in turn creates more asthma attacks
● Early stress exposure, psychological distress and low social support are related to future onset
● Asthma sufferers should avoid certain triggers
○ Exercise
○ Pollen
○ Bugs in the home
○ Chemical fumes
○ Cold air
○ Fungus spores
○ Dust
○ Smoke
○ Strong odours
○ Pollution
○ Anger
○ Stress
○ Pets
● These also include minimising exposure of at-risk children to inhalant allergies
● Breastfeeding exclusively until 4-6 months (contains protective factors)
● Writing about stressful experiences can also help

Prevention strategies for cancer.

● Cancer screening
● Avoiding tobacco
● Avoiding environmental carcinogens
● Protection from the sun
● Eating healthy foods
● Losing weight
● Psychological interventions can promote longevity in cancer patients
CHAPTER 6:
Gray’s two systems (the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) and the
Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and which personality types are
associated with each.

● Gray’s two systems are the behavioural approach system (BAS) which is sensitive to reward and fuelled
by the dopamine areas and circuits of the brain.
● The opposing behavioural inhibition system (BIS) is sensitive to punishment or non-reward and is driven
by the norepinephrine systems of the brain.
● The BAS motivates us to approach potentially rewarding situations or stimuli.
● Whereas the BIS inhibits action and is associated with avoidance behaviour.
● Thus, persons high in BAS sensitivity show exaggerated positive affect (e.g., happiness) to rewards.
● Persons high in BIS sensitivity show exaggerated negative affect (e.g., anxiety) to aversive stimuli.
● Recent versions of Gray’s theory link extroverts’ higher levels of positive affect to the BAS.
● Reviewers of the ties between the dopaminergic systems (associated with feeling good) and extraversion
conclude that there is a strong connection between the two.
● Some research findings show that those with low BAS sensitivity are more prone to depression.
● High BAS sensitivity equals more positive affect and low BAS sensitivity equals less positive affect.
● High levels of neuroticism are associated with greater BIS sensitivity, and this may account for the
predominant negative effect experienced by individuals with high neuroticism.
● The higher BIS sensitivity of individuals with neuroticism explains their greater negative response to
stressors or other stimuli they find threatening or punishing.
● According to Eysenck, those scoring high in neuroticism have over-reactive limbic systems.
● Gray (1987) proposed that the amygdala of the limbic system, the area of the brain associated with
assessing threat, plays an important role in the BIS.
● An overreactive amygdala prompts heightened vigilance and anxiety in response to perceived threats.
● Individuals with high neuroticism exhibit a lower tolerance for stress and, in particular, aversive stimuli.
● Thus, they are more likely to perceive threats and become emotionally aroused than those who score low on
neuroticism.
● There is “mounting evidence” that individuals with high neuroticism “respond with negative emotions
more frequently and intensely when they experience stressful life events.”
 ●
Neuroticism as a broad Big Five trait and its relationship with Well-Being,
Mental Health, and Relationship Satisfaction (all the negative correlations).

Neuroticism: Psychoneurosis, Stress, and Physical Symptoms

● Psychosomatic medicine broke new ground in linking psychological health to physical conditions.
● Inspired by Freud’s view that physical symptoms known as somatic conversions were a result of underlying
psychological dynamics such as repressed memories or intrapsychic conflict
● For example, a soldier who is terrified of combat may develop a hysterical blindness.
● Thus, with the development of a disabling condition (the symptom), the soldier can be excused from
combat while still preserving a sense of honour.
● Franz Alexander (1950), a psychoanalyst, proposed a view that psychosomatic illnesses develop from
emotional conflicts.
● Supportive evidence has not been found for Alexander’s theory that psychological conflicts are the root
causes of stress-related health conditions.
● Neuroticism is described with terms such as anxious and tense and contrasted with psychosis because there
is no impaired reality testing (e.g., delusions, hallucinations, etc.) in neurosis.
● Neuroticism as measured by the NEO-PI includes trait descriptors such as anxious, depressed, guilty
feelings, low self-esteem, tense, irrational, shy, moody, and emotional.
● Of all personality factors, neuroticism seems to carry the highest risk to health and well-being.
● Neuroticism predicts shorter, less happy, less healthy, and less successful lives.
 ● Neuroticism, Well-Being, Mental Health, and Relationship Satisfaction
● Neuroticism is consistently and robustly negatively associated with subjective well-being.
● Higher neuroticism was associated with greater unhappiness.
● Individuals with high neuroticism report that they have high levels of negative affect and low levels of
positive affect, happiness, and life satisfaction.
● People with high neuroticism also appear to be at greater risk for developing psychological disorders.
● Neuroticism is strongly associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms.
● People high in neuroticism are more likely to develop internalising disorders such as a mood disorder (e.g.,
major depression) or an anxiety disorder (e.g., generalised anxiety disorder).
● Internalising disorders are those characterised by an inward expression of pathology.
● Whereas externalising disorders (e.g., substance abuse or dependence, antisocial personality disorder) are
evidenced by an outward expression of pathology.
● Neuroticism is also negatively implicated in studies of intimate relationship satisfaction.
● High neuroticism probably leads to more partner criticisms and defensiveness that would then contribute to
relationship dissatisfaction.

The Type D (distressed) personality (characteristics) and what it is highly

correlated with.

● A recent personality construct has emerged as a possible replacement for Type A, called the Type D
(distressed) personality.
● Type D appears to be a predictor for a poor prognosis in patients with heart disease.
● Johan Denollet and his associates (1995) introduced Type D and defined it as a personality type that has
high negative affectivity (NA) and high social inhibition (SI).
● Between 26% and 53% of cardiac patients can be classified as Type D.
● They further determined that Type D is highly correlated with hostility, cynicism, inward and outward
expression of anger, physical aggression, anxiety, and depression.
● Overall, individuals with this personality type have a greater tendency to feel negative emotions and to
inhibit their expression in social interactions.

Locus of control: What it is, types (internal/external) and the impact on health
and well-being.

● Locus of control refers to expectancies about our actions and reinforcements that follow them.
● Internal locus of control: we believe our actions will lead to predictable outcomes and reinforcements.
● External locus of control: we expect that reinforcements will be influenced by external factors (fate, luck,
powerful others, etc.).
● Internal locus of control may
be related to more healthy behaviours and less psychological stress.
● Having a stronger sense of control over one’s life in childhood seems to be a protective factor for some
aspects of health in adult life.
● Locus of control also may play a role in determining the likelihood of starting and maintaining certain
health-harming behaviours such as cigarette smoking.
 ● Adolescents with internal locus of control were less likely to start smoking.
● Among adolescent smokers, those with external locus of control were the ones who stated they were most
likely to continue smoking.

CHAPTER 9:
The models of organisational stress [Job DemandsControl (Job Strain)
Model]

● Strain occurs when a worker experiences high psychological job demands and has little control.
● Low decision latitude refers to having insufficient skills or authority (control) over one’s job to
autonomously complete job tasks.
● The term job strain is used in this model and other organisational stress contexts to refer to harmful
consequences that result from exposure to job stressors.
● There may be:
● Emotion-related strains (e.g., frustration, anger, and anxiety).
● Physiological-related strains (e.g., cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, or musculoskeletal problems).
● Job-related strains (e.g., low motivation, low job satisfaction, and absenteeism).
● In this model, the less autonomy and control one has over job stressors, the more strain one experiences.

Adverse effects of shift work

● Working at night disturbs the Circadian rhythm which is the 24-hour biological cycle linked to the
light-dark cycle that regulates internal physiological processes (e.g., core body temperature, hormone
levels, blood pressure, heart rate, etc.).
● When this is disturbed, it disrupts our concentration and ability to perform work tasks well.
● It creates disturbances in sleep and wake cycles.
● Shift work is work outside the 7 a.m. – 6 p.m. frame; 20-25% of workers do shifts.
● Adverse effects are chronic fatigue, sleep loss, declines in memory and cognitive functioning, family and
social life disruptions, and detrimental health conditions.
● The most prevalent health problems found are those related to the Gastrointestinal (GI) system.
● Shift workers often complain about digestive disorders such as disturbances of appetite, and irregularity of
bowel movements with prevalent constipation, heartburn, abdominal pains, etc.
● More serious conditions such as chronic gastritis and peptic ulcers also are more prevalent.
● This is due to both low-quality food available at night and sleep deficits and disruptions.
 ● Shift work also seems to increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
● Shift workers have a 40% higher chance of cardiovascular disease than their day worker counterparts.
● Working long hours (more than 60 hours a week) and lack of sleep is associated with an increased risk of a
Myocardial infarction (MI).

Maslach’s three-dimensional model of burnout.

● Marie Shirom (2011, p. 223), defines burnout “as an affective reaction to ongoing stress whose core content
is the gradual depletion over time of individuals’ intrinsic energetic resources, including the components of
emotional exhaustion, physical fatigue, and cognitive weariness.”
● Burnout is a long-term process mediated by our emotional reactions to stress that saps our emotional,
physical, and mental energy reserves.
● A worker with opposite characteristics will have vigour, a positive psychological state characterised by
emotional energy, physical strength, and cognitive liveliness.
● Workplace meaningful interactions, challenges, and success are the top three activities positively related to
vigour.
● Maslach’s Burnout Inventory (MBI) originally focused on people-oriented occupations.
● She presents a three-dimensional model of burnout.
● 1) Emotional exhaustion: the person feels emotionally depleted, drained, and lacking in emotional
resources.
○ Two of the major reasons for this exhaustion are work overload or work-related interpersonal
conflicts.
○ The specific dimension of emotional exhaustion is related to declines in work performance.
○ This dimension represents the individual stress component of burnout.
● 2) Cynicism: refers to disillusionment, a loss of idealism, negativity, detachment,
hostility, and lack of concern.
○ Cynicism represents a way to protect oneself against the overload of emotional exhaustion and to
create a buffer of detachment.
○ This dimension represents the interpersonal component of burnout.
● 3) Reduced efficacy: refers to feelings of diminished
○ self-efficacy, personal competency, and productivity.
○ These feelings arise from a self-assessment of one’s inadequacy to help others or to be an effective
worker.
○ This dimension embodies the self-evaluation component of burnout.
○ Maslach (1998) regards burnout as residing on one end of a continuum with engagement
anchoring the other end.
● Engagement: represents the positive polarity of her three dimensions and consists of:
● High energy state (rather than exhaustion).
● Strong involvement (rather than cynicism).
● A sense of efficacy (rather than a reduced sense of accomplishment).
● Burnout has some qualities such as fatigue and loss of energy similar to that of depression but is different
because it is only associated with work environments.
● Advanced burnout does not necessarily lead to depression, it could just be cynicism with one’s job and
client interactions (development of a dehumanising outlook toward them).
Organisational strategies for reducing burnout as well as Self-care strategies
to reduce burnout.

● Organisational strategies for reducing burnout:

● Hiring additional employees to reduce work overload.
● Instituting job orientations and preview programs to prevent burnout in new employees.
● Give employees realistic and timely job performance feedback.
● Worker social support groups.
● Use cognitive restructuring intervention programs.
● There is some empirical support for the use of cognitive restructuring interventions.
● Researchers found that cognitive restructuring training that focused on workers looking at their situation
differently; examining their expectations, goals and plans well and learning relaxation skills reduced
emotional exhaustion, but not the other two components of burnout (i.e., cynicism and reduced efficacy).

CHAPTER 10:

The “goodness-of-fit” hypothesis of coping

● The goodness of fit hypothesis:

● Coping is most effective when there is a good fit between the coping strategy and the amount of control
you have over the stressor
● In situations where you have a high level of control over the stressor, problem-focused strategies are the
best fit
● In situations where you have little or no control over the stressor, emotion-focused strategies are the best fit

●
Support seeking as a coping strategy.

● Support-seeking is a beneficial coping strategy

● Social support is linked to health and well-being
● Examples of support seeking include:
● “Confined your fears and worries to a friend”
● “Sought reassurance from those who know you best”
● “Seek counsel from friends”

COPE Scale’s 14 coping styles

● The COPE Scale measures 14 coping styles:

● Active coping — Taking measures to remove or lessen the problem
● Planning — Deciding on future actions for dealing with the problem
● Suppression of competing activities — Intentionally setting aside other projects to focus on the
problem
● Restraint coping — Waiting until the time is right to act
● Seeking social support for instrumental reasons — Seeking advice, information or assistance
from others
● Seeking social support for emotional reasons — Seeking sympathy and understanding
● Positive reinterpretation and growth — Reframing and reappraising the stressor in a more
positive light
● Acceptance — Acknowledge the reality of the stressor
● Turning to religion — Finding comfort in religion
● Focus on and venting emotions — Expressing feelings
● Denial — Refusing to believe the stressor is real
● Behavioural disengagement — Reducing efforts to act on the stressor
● Mental disengagement — Using distractions to take one’s mind off the stressor
● Alcohol-drug disengagement — Using substances to avoid thinking about the stressor
●
Burns’ distorted thinking categories

● Burns (1993) developed a list of distorted thinking categories:

● All or nothing thinking — Dichotomous black and white thinking (I am a winner or a loser)
● Overgeneralisation — Taking a specific example and seeing it as a global (I got bad news, but that’s
not new, my life sucks and never ends)
● Mental filter — Focusing only on bad qualities or events (I don’t fly planes because they crash too
often)
● Discounting the positives — Overlooking one’s positive qualities (I have done well in school but I’m
not that smart)
● Magnification or minimisation — exaggerating or downplaying the importance of something (My
stomach aches, it must be appendicitis. Yes I smoke, but I’ll outlive all non-smokers)
 ● Jumping to conclusions — mind reading: assuming others think badly of you or fortune
telling - predicting negative outcomes (I know she thinks I’m not in her league and will laugh at me when
I ask her out on a date)
● Emotional reasoning — confusing feeling for facts (How do I know that I’m incompetent? Because I
feel incompetent, that’s how)
● “Should” statements — absolutistic statements (I should be more outgoing. I'm too shy)
● Labelling — using negative labels about oneself or others rather than describing the event (If I wasn’t
such a weak person I would have stood up to her)
● Blame — Internalising or externalising responsibility inappropriately (If I scored more runs, we would
have won the game. If you scored more runs, we would have won the game)

CHAPTER 11:
Benefits of Aerobic Activity and Exercise

● If there ever was a lifestyle panacea for health and well-being, physical activity and exercise probably come
the closest.
● The benefits of initiating and maintaining ongoing aerobic fitness include the following:
● Strengthens the heart and cardiovascular system
● Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease
● Reduces body fat and risk of Type 2 diabetes
● Reduces risk of cancer
● Boosts immune system
● Combats bone mass loss
● Increases life expectancy
● Buffers stress
● Reduces anxiety
● Reduces depression
● Enhances psychological well-being
● Improves sleep
● Improves cognitive performance
● Builds self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-efficacy

The physiological hypothesis for Well-Being Benefits of Physical Activity

like reduced anxiety, and depression and boosting well-being.

● The Physiological hypotheses mainly centre on:

● (1) facilitating synaptic transmission of brain monoamines or
● (2) boosting brain endorphin levels.
● The monoamines are the “feel good” neurotransmitters present in the brain such as serotonin,
norepinephrine, and dopamine.
● If exercise facilitates monoamine action in the brain, then it should produce antidepressant effects.
● Endorphins: the body’s natural opiates that are elevated in the bloodstream during intense exercise; they
reduce pain sensations and produce feelings of euphoria.
 ● Although endorphins are usually elevated in the bloodstream during intense exercise (up to a fivefold
increase), there is continued controversy as to whether they are responsible for exercise-related mood
enhancement.
● Studies show that blocking the action of endogenous opioids (i.e., endorphins) with the drug naloxone does
not always block the “runner’s high” that is sometimes associated with intense exercise.
● A runner’s high is a phenomenon in which a runner experiences euphoria precipitated by the act of running.
● The mechanism generally hypothesised to account for the phenomenon is that running increases brain
endorphin activity, which produces the “high.”
● A recent study using brain imaging is the first to present direct evidence that brain opioid changes after
exercise are linked to mood elevation.
● It was determined that the amount of endogenous opioids released in the front-limbic areas of the brain was
linked to the degree of euphoria reported.
● This study is an important first step toward establishing a direct causal mechanism for exercise-boosting
mood states.

The Mechanisms of how Exercise can Reduce the Risk of Cardiovascular

Disease

● Mechanisms for reducing CHD through exercise include:

● Reduction of body fat (especially in the mid-region where it is most dangerous)
● Reduction of blood pressure
● Reduction of inflammation
● Along with the control of insulin sensitivity
● The control of blood sugar levels
● The control of blood lipid levels
● A single 30-minute bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise can reduce blood pressure.
● Exercise raises HDL (good cholesterol). As a result, the ratio of good cholesterol to total cholesterol
becomes more favourable.
● The ratio of HDL to total cholesterol is a far more important health risk indicator than total cholesterol by
itself.

Keys to maintaining a successful exercise program.

● Avoid overdoing exercise

○ We are more likely to suffer an injury if we unnecessarily push ourselves too hard and too fast into
high-intensity exercise.
○ Once we have an injury, it can prevent or discourage us from continued participation in later
physical activity. Think of physical activity as an ongoing healthy lifestyle endeavour.
● Challenge negative thinking
○ Challenge your negative thinking with positive self-talk using cognitive restructuring techniques.
○ “I’m fatter than everyone in the class” challenged with “Everyone has to start somewhere. Other
people have worked long and hard to get where they are”
● Look for intrinsic rewards
○ Select a type of exercise that is the most fun for you so that intrinsic rewards are built into the
activity.
 ○ An emotion such as enthusiasm is great to get you going, but it tends to wear off as the novelty of
the new endeavour fades.
○ In addition, there will be other competing interests for your time and energy as well as periods of
discouragement or boredom.
○ Therefore, look for the other immediate benefits to sustain your motivation, such as increased
self-esteem or self-efficacy, and reduced stress, anxiety or depression.
○ Remind yourself of how good you feel after a bout of exercise compared to how you felt before
exercise.
○ If you are motivated by extrinsic rewards, then give yourself a tangible reward each time you pass
particular exercise milestones (a new article of clothing to fit your more toned body).
○ Use your pedometer to log your activity levels. Checking the steps walked or miles travelled after
exercise on your pedometer is a rewarding experience.
● Maintain a regular schedule
○ It is best if physical activity is built into your schedule, so you do not even have to think
consciously about it.
○ If you have a morning exercise routine, then follow the same schedule each morning.
○ Do not skip exercise just because you do not feel like it.
○ Find a workout partner
○ Evidence indicates that we are more likely to maintain an exercise program if we have someone
else to work out with.
○ Workout partners can encourage and give each other social support during times when motivation
wanes.
○ Interesting conversations between partners during exercise routines also can make time seem to
pass more rapidly.
● Avoid the abstinence violation effect
○ Recognise that it is normal to have lapses. For example, if you are ill, you should not be
exercising.
○ Any lapse is just a temporary condition that can be followed by resuming exercise as soon as
feasible.
○ In addition, practice relapse prevention by identifying high-risk situations such as travel, extra
work, events that involve drinking or eating too much, and
○ upcoming inclement weather.
○ Avoid these risk situations when feasible or make alternative plans to maintain exercise when
confronted with a high-risk situation.