Epidemiology

Definition:

Epi= what is upon

Demos= population

Logas= study

Mean is the study of patterns of disease that exit under field

condition, more specifically is the study of frequency,
distribution and determinants of health and disease of
populations.
Epidemiology: describe study of the disease in human
population.

Epizootiology: describe studies of disease in animal

populations.

Epiornithology: describe studies of disease in bird

populations.

Epiicthyology: describe studies of disease in fish

populations.

Epiphytology: describe studies of disease in plant

populations.
The uses of Epidemiology:
1- determination of the origin of a disease whose cause is
known.
Many disease with a known cause can be diagnosed by:
the signs exhibited by the affected
animals.
laboratory tests.

For example: salmonella disease the outbreak may have

been caused either by the purchase of infected animals
or by contaminated food.
2- investigation and control of a disease whose cause initially is
unknown:
There are many historical instances of disease control based on
epidemiological observations before a cause was identified.
For example: Edward classical observations on the protective
effects of cowpox virus against human smallpox infection in
18th century, before viruses were isolated laid the foundations
for global eradiation of smallpox.
The exact cause of Blood splash (ecchymoses in muscle) in
carcasses is still not known, observations have shown that
there is correlation between this defect and electrical stunning
by a head only method. The occurrence of this conditions can
be reduced by either stunning animals with a captive blot or
electrical stunning the cause concurrent cardiac dysfunction.
3- Acquisition of information on the ecology and natural
history of a disease:
A- host: an animal that can become infected with an infectious
agent.
B- Agent: is microorganis not affected any host but need specific
host.
C- Ecology: related communities and their environments.
For example: non infectious disease can be obtained by studying
the ecosystem and associated physical features. The mineral
content of plants can be important factor in the occurrence of
mineral deficiencies in animals, present of stagnant water with
have fasciola snails give indication the disease of fasciola due
to present of IH. present of arthropod and tick act as IH of
many disease.
4- planning and monitoring of disease control and
programmes:
The institution of programme to either control or eradicate a
disease in an animal population must be based on:
A- Knowledge of the amount of the disease in that population.
B- factors associated with the occurrence of the disease.
C- facilities required to control the disease.
D- the cost and benefits involved
For examples: as in case of mastitis appear of individual case
so in the control, but in case brucella make control
programme for flocks and environmental condition and in
case of Avian influenza make irradiation of flocks and
surrounding environment.
5- Assessment of the economic effects of disease and of
its control:
Mean evaluation of the economic effect of the disease and its
control program
For example: if 15% of the cows in a herd were affected by
mastitis , productivity would be severely affected and a
control programme would be likely to reap financial
benefit. On the other hand, if less than 1% of the herd
were affected, the cost further reduction of disease might
not result in a sufficient increase in productivity to pay for
the control programme.
Temporal pattern of disease occurrence or
distribution:
1- Endemic disease:
Habitual present of infectious disease or non-
infectious disease within a given geographic area.
Is used in two senses to describe:
A- the actual frequency of occurrence of a disease
in a population.
B- the constant presence of a disease in a
population.
Endemic disease may be:
 Hyperendemic: high amount of animal or
population are affected.
 Mesoendemic: moderate amount of animal or

population are affected.

 Hypoendimic: small amount of animal or

population are affected.

N.B: many disease present in all time or slightly
factuation.
2- Epidemic disease:
Occurrence of infectious disease or non-infectious
disease to a level in excess of the expected level,
mean unpredictable and suddenly.
Cause or source of infection:
A- contamination of water or food with infective
agent.
B- may animal exposed for any factor stress laed to
break the natural parier of animal so animal
become susceptible of disease.
Type of epidemic infection: 20

18

A- suddenly ( point 16

14

epidemic disease): large Cases 10

12

number of animal are

value

affected. 4

0
1 2 3 4 5
Times (weeks)

B- propagative epidemic
disease: gradually appear 5

4.5

mean appear a single case 4

3.5

and disease transmitted to 3

the susceptible animal.

Case 2.5
Value

1.5

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5
Time (weeks)
3- pandemic disease:
Refer to widespread of epidemic affecting large
number of population and usually involved
several time.
4- sporadic disease:
Is one that occurs irregularly and haphazardly. This
implies that appropriate circumstances have
occurred locally producing small localized
outbreaks.
Number of diseased animal is small in number and
characterized by situation with single cases.
Purpose of epidemiology:
The major purpose of epidemiology is to provide data on which a rational
decision for the prevention and\or control of disease in animal
populations can be based.
In the domestic animals this involves optimizing health (productivity) and
not necessary minimizing the occurrence of disease.
The special contribution of epidemiology is:
1- providing information describing the frequency and distribution of health
and disease.
2- identifying factors influence the occurrence and severity of disease in
population (in its natural setting)
3- Quantitating the interrelationships between health and disease.

To fulfill theses purpose an epidemiologic study might be carried out:

1- to estimate the frequency of disease (e.g: the rate of infertility in dairy
cows what is known as Descriptive epidemiology its primary purpose:
What the syndrome is?
Who is affected?
Where the disease occurred?
When it occur?
2- to identify factors that might cause the
disease of concern (analytic epidemiology) is
the collection and analysis of data to test a
hypothesis that is to provide answers to why
the disease occurred.
 Types or stages of
epidemiological investigations:
There are four approaches to epidemiological
investigations:
1- Descriptive epidemiology:
Involves observing, recording diseases, and possible
causal factors.
It is usually the first part of an investigation.
Making observations in the field in order to describe a
particular disease event or disease phenomenon as
fully as necessary.
It is observational epidemiologic methods for
description of disease by time, place and individual
(population).
Time:
- Association with year, season, month or even hour
for example: in case of food poisoning investigation should be
considered.
- Such details may provide information on climatic influence, incubation
period and source of infection.
For example: an outbreak of salmonellosis in a group of cattle may be
associated with introduction of infected cattle feed at given time.
place:
The geographical distribution of disease may indicate an association
with:
 Local geological
 Management
 Ecological factors.

For example: nutritional deficiency soil or arthropod transmitted

infection.
Population:
The type of animal that is affected is often of considerable
importance.
For example: herford cattle are more susceptible to
squamous cell carcinoma of the eye than other breeds,
suggesting that the cause may be partly genetic.
2- Analytical epidemiology:
Is the analysis of observations using suitable
diagnostic and statistical tests.
1- specific mathematical methods for determining the
stastical significance between possible determinants
of the disease and observed rates of disease
frequency (incidence and prevalence).
2- it begins with:
- Data collection based on a survey or a study.
- Data analysis
- interpretations
3- Experimental epidemiology: (non
observational)
Which involves designing specific population
experiment to test epidemiological hypothesis
or causal factor
(previously obtained from the later field
observations).
Commenly performed types of prospective
epidemiological experiments include vaccine
trails, drug trails and various clinical trails.
An important component of the experimental
approach is the control of the groups.
The experimental epidemiologist observes and
analyses data from groups of animals from
which he can select and in which he can alter
the factors associated with the groups. An
important component of the experimental
approach is the control of the groups.
4- Theoretical epidemiology:
Consisted of the representation of the disease
using mathematical models that attempt to
simulate natural pattern of disease
occurrence.
Describing disease occurrence:
A necessary part of the investigation of disease in a
population is the counting of disease animals
For example: the amount of disease (morbidity), the
number of deaths (the mortality). when and where
the disease must be described.
Temporal distribution: the times of occurrence of cases
of a disease.
Spatial distribution: the places of occurrence of the
disease.
Demography: the measurement and description of the
size of populations and their characteristic.
Structure of animal population:
In investigation the circumstances of any epidemic we must consider
the animal population as regard the size and organization which can
be either one of the following:

1- contagious population:
- There is much contact between individuals in the population and
member of other populations (most human population are
contagious because there is mixing of individuals by travel).
- Also population of small domestic animals (dog and cats) are
contagious for they move freely within cities coming in to contact
with other urban, suburban and rural animals.
- Many wild animals belong to this category.
- It is difficult to assess the size of contiguous animal populations.
- Contagious population predispose to transfer and persistence of
infectious disease over large areas because of the inherent mixing
and movement of animals.
1- separated population:
Occurs as separated, isolated units such as herds and flocks. They
are common in countries (development countries) that produce
intensive animal production with many animals on one farm,
separated population can be:
1- closed population with no movement of animals into or out of the
unit (expect to slaughter) e.g: a dairy herd that raises its own
replacements or is under statutory control of movement
2- open population: with limit movement of individuals in and out.
E.g: beef herds where animals are brought in from other herds
and markets for fattening and dairy herd that recive replacment
from other farms.
- It is easer to obtain information on the size of separated than a
contagious population.
- Separated population specially closed type are less likely to be
infected with agents from other areas than contagious
population. If infection enters, separated populations it may
spread ready because the animal density is high.
Spacial distribution of the disease:
Spacial patterns of disease distribution among
areas or places are:
1-Random distribution: if there is no special
pattern of distribution through out the area.
2- cluster distribution: if the affected
populations are clustered in one or more
regions of the area.
3- regular distribution: if the affected
populations are regularly distributed all over
the affected area.
Some interest terms in epidemiology
 Health:

 It means adjustment of the function of internal

organs against stressors
 Disease:

 It means any deviation of the normal state of

the animal.
 Stressors:

 It means any internal or external factor which

suppresses the normal function of internal organs.
 Affection:

 It means non-living stress, which suppresses

normal function of the tissue, organs or system.
 Parasitism:

 It means invasion of living organism (parasite) to

the body of other living organism (host), so any
invader whether parasite or microbes is roughly
called parasite.
 Tropism:

 It means the parasite lost various biological

characters and attained new form that can not live
in any tissue rather than its specific adopted one
(e.g. the ancestors of many parasitic spp were
living mainly in the soil or water, by the time, they
gradually adapt themselves to live inside the
animal or human, this process of adaptation at first
was temporal or accidental)
 Forms of complicated interaction between host
and pathogenic micro organisms:
 1- Infectious Disease:

Pathological manifestation and reaction of the higher

organism (host) against invasion by pathogenic
micro organism
 2-Microbial carrier:

Invasion without symptoms but no disease

(source of infection)
 3- Immunized sub-infection:

Certain quantity and quality of parasite enters

the body and cause immunity. Here the organism
does not act as a source of infection.
Before establishment of infection, there are two
subsequent phases must take place:
1. Penetration of pathogen.
2. Proliferation and multiplication of the pathogen.
If these two phases are followed by the escape of
the pathogen---- contiguous disease may take place.
Contagious Disease:
is infectious disease spontaneously transmitted
from one animal to another.
Communicable disease:
It means the disease transmitted by direct and
indirect contact.
 Infectious disease:

Is as disease caused by infectious agent, has the

character of rapid onset and wide distribution by
different means.
 Infection:

It means invasion of the body by any pathogenic

micro organism has the ability of establishment,
multiplication and producing effect.
 Typical infection:

Characterized by well clear specific

symptoms of the disease and has onset and end.
 Mixed infection:
It arise from invasion of more than one micro
organism at the same time (Influenza and fungal
infection of swine.
 Secondary infection:
A new pathogen connected to well developed
infection (at the 7-10th from infection by swine plague
(1), influenza (2) is developed.
 Re-infection:

It means second infection by the same agent after

non immunogenic first one (brucellosis)
 Local infection:
Most of them are inflammatory, localized in mouth
infection or deep inflammatory process.
 General infection:
Occur either as a result of acute infection
(anthrax plague) or chronic (brucellosis,
tuberculosis).
 Latent infection:
Occur when the virulence of the micro
organism is lowered or when the immunity of the
organism (host) is increased.
Components of Epidemiology:

Qualitative investigation Quantitative investigation

1- the Natural history of the 1- Surveys
disease. 2- surveillance and monitoring
2- causal hypothesis tests 3- studies
4- modeling
5- the biological and economic
evaluation of disease
control.
A- Qualitative investigation
1- the Natural history of the disease:
- The ecology of disease.
- The distribution of the disease.
- Maintenance of infectious disease.
- Mode of transmission.
- Field observation.
- Field observation may also reveal information
about factors that may directly or indirectly
cause disease.
2- causal hypothesis tests:

- If field observations suggest that certain

factors may be causally associated with a
disease then the association must be
assessed by formulation a causal hypothesis.
- Qualitative investigation is the identification of
unknown causes of infectious disease and
sources of infection.
b- Quantitative investigation
Involve measurement (e.g: the number of cases of disease), and
therefore expression and analysis of numerical values.
1- surveys:
- Is an examination of an aggregate of units.
- A group of animals is an example of an aggregate.
- The examination usually involves counting member of the
aggregate and characteristic of the members.
- In epidemiological surveys, characteristic might include the
presence of particular diseases, weight, and milk yield.
- Surveys can be undertaken on a sample of the population.
A cross-sectional surveys: records events occurring at a particular
point in time.
A longitudinal surveys: records events over a period of time.
These letter events may be recorded prospectively from the present
into the future, or may be a retrospective record of past events.
Screening: is a particular type of diagnostic surveys.
- This is the identification of undiagnostic cases of disease
using rapid tests or examination.
- The aim is to separate individuals that probably have a
disease from those that probably do not.
2- monitoring and surveillance:
Monitoring: is the making of routine observations on:
- Health - productivity -environmental
factors and the recording and transmission of these
observations.
Example: the regular recording of milk yields is monitoring,
the routine recording of meat inspection findings at
abattoirs.
Surveillance: is a more intensive from of data recording
than monitoring.
- Surveillance was used to describe the tracing and
observation of people who were in contact with cases of
infectious disease.
- Include all type of disease infectious and non-infectious
and involves the collation and interpretation of data
collected during monitoring programme, Usually with the
recording of the identity of diseased individuals, with a
view to detecting changes in a populations health.
- It is normally part of control programmes of specific
disease.
Example: the recording of tuberculosis lesion at an abattoir,
followed by tracing of infected animals from the abattoir
back to their farms of origin.
N.B; sentinel unit (keep watch).
3- studies:
Is general term that refer to any type of investigation but in
epidemiology the study usually involves a comparison of
groups of animals.
Example: a comparison of the weight of animals fed
different diet.
There are four types of epidemiological studies:
1- experimental studies
2- cross-sectional studies
3- case-control studies
4-cohort studies.
1- experimental studies:
The investigator has the ability to allocate animals to various
groups according to factors which the investigator can
randomly assign to animals. (e.g; treatment regimen and
prevention technique.
Example: clinical trails, the investigator assigns animals
either to a group that is treated with one or more drugs or
to an untreated control group. It is then possible to
evaluate the efficiency of treatment.
2- cross sectional studies:
N.B:The other type of the studies are observational. An
observational is similar to experimental study animals
are allocated to groups with respect to certain
characteristics that they possess (trait, disease,……ect).
In observational studies, it I not possible to assign
animals to groups randomly.
- Investigates the relationships between disease ( or other
health-related factors) and hypothesized causal factors
in a specific population.
Example: between heart valve incompetence (the disease)
and breed ( the hypothesis causal factor).
3- case-control studies:
- Compares a group of diseased animal with a group of
health animals with respect to exposure to hypothesized
causal factors.
Example: a group of cat with urolithiasis (the disease) can
be compare with a group of cat without with respect to
consumption of dry food (the factor) to determine
whether that type pf food has an effect on the
pathogenesis of the disease.
4- a cohort studies:
A group exposed to factors is compared with agroup not
exposed to the factors with respect to the development
of disease.
It is the possible to calculate a level of risk developing the
disease in relation to exposure to the hypothesized
causal factors.
4- modeling:
Disease dynamic and the effect of different control
strategic can be simulated using mathematical
equations.
5- disease control:
- The goal of epidemiology is to improve the
veterinarians knowledge so that diseases can be
controlled effectively.
- This can be fulfilled by treatment, prevention, or
eradication.
1- Epidemiological triangle
2- Etiology and classification of etiological agent
3- Factors influence of the cause of disease
4- Factors affecting pattern of infection
5- Reservoir of infection
6- Classification of carrier
7- Dead end host
8- Sources of infection
9- Mode of transmission
Epidemiological triangle
Infection

Host

Agent Environment
  Epidemiological triangle
(Agent- environment- host)
 These three links form the angle of epidemic
triangle, they are essential for raising up of
infection.
 Absence of any one lead to other terms rather

than infection.
 Absence of the agent leads to affection or

environmental stress but not infection

 Absence of susceptible host leads to
environmental pollution.
1- Agent:
It is essential factor for initiation of the disease. It
may be
1. Biological agent (virus, bacteria, parasite)
2. Physical as heat and radiation.
3. Chemical as gases and metals.
 Usually physical and chemical agents are considered
as predisposing factors for rising up disease, but
biological agent is essential one in the epidemic
process.
 The absence of some factors may cause a disease for
example vitamin and mineral deficiency.
2- Host

Is the animal or human including the

characteristics making the host susceptible

or resistant to the disease (sex, age, breed,

health state and management (density,

housing and nutrition)

 3- The environment
The environment is the factor which
directly or indirectly increases the
frequencies of disease occurrence.
It can be classified into:
Biological: such as poisons plants,
ectoparasite.
Physical: climate and soil.

Social: population distribution, animal

uses
Etiology
Means all the factors contribute the disease production.
The etiological agent of the disease may be primary or
secondary.
The disease may be
1. Monocausal disease due to cause is primary etiological agent
(most bacterial and viral infection)
2. Bi or dicausal disease: in this case the primary etiological
factor is equal in importance to secondary factors such as
metabolic disorders as acetonaemia or ketosis.
3. Multicausal disease: there are several factors cooperating
together for disease production for example pendulous crop in
bronze turkey.
 Classification of etiological agents
I- Primary factors:
1- Primary intrinsic factors
a- hereditary
 Bull dog in calves
 Umbilical hernia in calves
 Imperforated anus in dogs
b- Metabolic and hormonal
 Hypocalcaemia in cattle
 Ketosis
 Licking in cattle
C- Behavioral
 Feather picking and cannibalism in poultry
 Weaving in horses
 Suckling in cattle
2- Primary extrinsic factors
Living agent as bacteria, virus
and parasite.
Non living agent:

Physical: trauma, insect bite

Chemical: organic or
inorganic
 II- Secondary factors
1- Secondary intrinsic factors:
 Age
 Sex
 Species, breed and strains
 Body conformation
 Metabolic and hormonal balance
 State of host nutrition
 Degree of function and fatigue
 Physiological state.

2- Secondary extrinsic factors:

 Climatic factor
 Animal use and management
 All primary extrinsic factors.
II- Secondary factors
A- Secondary intrinsic factors:
1- Age
The age of the animal may have a great
effect on its susceptibility or resistance to
infection.
Generally, young animals are more
susceptible to some infection if they are
not protected and managed well
 Calf scour and respiratory affection are common
in young calves, while adult animals are less
susceptible.
 In other cases, the individual resistance

increased by advancing age. For example

coccidiosis in turkeys and virus hepatitis in
duckling (disease more common in young)
 In some animals, the resistance of some

individuals is high in young ages rather than in

advanced ones (disease more common in adult)
For example (disease in old animal)
Red water disease of bovine (babesia
bovis) is usually of high prevalence in
calves over 12 months of age.
John ,s disease and canine distemper are
common are common in older than in
young animals, in this case the young
animals may be considered as a carrier
 Age incidence pattern: it means the ability of certain
microbe to attack the animal at certain age and
manifesting symptoms.
 The age phenomenon is very important: in diagnosis
of some confusable diseases with nearly similar post
mortem lesions.
 For example: lymphoid leucosis and mark,s disease in
poultry, both disease have similar P.M. picture, but the
age incidence pattern is differentiable as lymphoid
leucosis mostly occur over 4 months of age, while
marks disease occur any age over 3 weeks.
2- Sex:
Each sex of animals have specific infection, This
variation in disease may attributed to:
The difference in anatomy of different sex
Susceptibilityof different sexual organs
and tissues for invasion by etiological
agent
The predilection seat of each pathogen.
Different habit of male and females
 Brucella abortus infect both male and female of
bovines; it invades the uterus and udder of the female
causing abortion or mastitis and invades the testicular
tissues of male causing orchitis.
 E.coliinvades both sexes but commonly cause mastitis
in females and nephrites in males.
 Differenthabit of male and females: eg. Leptospirosis in
dogs transmitted mainly by urine, the disease is more
common in males than females due to the it’s habit in
smiling and licking the urogenital organs of the bitch.
3- Species, breed and strains
 The role of these items in occurrence of disease is not so

clear
 It may discussed on the bases of cellular immunity, self

resistance or natural variation in the susceptibility of

animals to infection
a- Species variation:
 Rodents are known to carry pathogenic agents for other

animals, but not develop any symptoms of disease

manifestation within their breed or stain.
 Cattle and sheep are highly susceptible for FMD but

camels seem to be resistant.

b- Breed variation:
 Blue
tongue affect different breeds of sheep, but
Awassi sheep are more resistant to infection than
Marino sheep
 Jerseycattle seem to be highly susceptible to
hypocalcaemia than Friesian cattle
 Inpoultry, Leghorn breed has a solid resistance
against thiamin and vitamin deficiencies than
other breeds.
C- Strain:
 The manifestation of infection among the
susceptible hosts invaded by the same pathogen
is widely differed, in cattle goats and sheep,
 For example; Listeria monocytogens causes
disturbance in the nervous system in the form of
meningoencephalitis in sheep, while in birds, the
same agent causes sever lesion of the heart
muscles.
4- Body conformation
 The host conformation may act as predisposing
factors for disease manifestation.
 Oreven a favorable media for the establishment
and existence of the disease agent.
 eg.In Marino sheep, fissures and deep folds of
the skin, these folds can hold moisture and dirties
and so they are considered as a predilection site
for flies in summer season.
 In chest pad in camel is a favorite place for the

fistulae, as a result to its place in the lowest part

of the body during animal setting,

 so it is subjected to different trauma and injuries

which lead to formation of chest pad fistula.

5- Metabolic and hormonal balance:
 The metabolic and hormonal disorders usually decrease
the vital activity of different tissues and increase the
susceptibility of the organs to infection.
 During estrus cycle, the presence of estrogen stimulate
the process of phagocytosis and increase the interstitial
uterine fluids, so its increase in resistance explain the
rapid recovery of cows from vibrio fetus and
trichomoniasis infections as compared to bulls.
6- State of host nutrition:
 Well fed animals are usually more resistant to the
most pathogenic agent than those under fed.
 Most infestations either external or internal
(helminthes) are more sever and frequent in
low fed debilitated animals.
 Ring worm infection and mites’ infestation are
more common in the starved animals.
 On the other hand ring worm is more common in
summer where green food is less available.
 Sometimes, animals in good conditions are more
susceptible to infection than those in poor conditions,
for example enterotoxaemia and bulby kidney in
sheep are more frequent in well feed fatty individuals
rather than normal fed animals.
 Decrease or deficiency of some nutrients or essential
elements in the animal diet will increase the
susceptibility to many infections.
 7- Degree of function and fatigue:
 This factor is known as predisposing or stress
factors.
 The transportation of pigs acts as stress for
raising up of intestinal infection.
 Stress of long shipping is usually considered as
common cause for shipping fever in most
animals.
 Flaring up of histomoniasis in turkey by
histamonas meleagrides depends on pre-existing
enteric bacteria, which disturb the normal
physiology and decrease the resistance of the
intestinal tract to infection.
 Black disease (hepatic necrosis) in sheep caused
by clostridium infection is predisposed by
fasciola hepatica infestation.
8- Physiological state:
 During life span, the animal passes many different
normal events as growth, maturity, pregnancy,
parturition and lactation.
 All these events have an effect on the incidence of
certain disease, brucellosis and trichomoniasis are
known as disease of mature animals, and both are the
main cause of abortion in pregnant females.
 Brucellosiscause abortion at 6th month of pregnancy,
while in the trichomoniasis abortion usually happens
between 2nd and 4th month of pregnancy.
Hypocalcaemia in pregnant cattle, usually
take place 2 days before and 10 days after
calving, while hypomagnesaemia is
usually occurs within 2 months after
calving.
Mastitis caused by staphylococcus is
almost present in the lactating period,
while corynebacterium mastitis is usually
seen in the dry period.
B- Secondary extrinsic factors:
1- Animal management or care include:
 Type of food, manner of approach and handling of animal

 Disposal of manure

 General sanitation and house keeping

 Separation of susceptible animals from possible carrier

 Application of strict quarantine for newly introduced or replaced

animals
 Type and system of housing and stocking density play important

role in spreading of infectious disease agent among animal

population
2- Climatic factor
3- All primary extrinsic factors.
Factors influence of the cause of disease
I- Virulence
II- Infective stage
III- Number of organisms
IV- Portal of entry into the body
V-Establishment of pathogens in the host
VI- The production of the disease by more than one
species of organism
VII- Pathogenic role taken over by one organism
on removal of another
VIII- Variation in animal pathogens
Factors influence of the cause of
disease
I- Virulence:
Certain strain of causative agents
(bacteria and virus) are more
pathogenic than other strain, this is due
to presence of a special antigen or
associated with smooth or rough form
of organism.
II- Infective stage:
 Certain causative agent need certain time to reach
the infective stage which capable to cause disease
in the specific host such as
 Gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep, the eggs or
larvae passed in the faces to develop into the
infective stage → 3rd larval stage.
III- Number of organisms:
Its differ from type to type, for example:
M. tuberculosis, tubercle bacilli when
present in small number → produce
disease.
Salmonellae in large number needed to
produce disease.
IV- Portal of entry into the body:
Some pathogenic organism can enter the

host by several different routes Such as

Tubercle bacilli and brucella which enter

through digestive tract, respiratory tract,

skin and mucous membrane.
Cl. Tetani and rabies virus → though
wound
Trypanosome and Thileria → through bit

of arthropods.
V-Establishment of pathogens in the host
 This mean localization of pathogen in special sites or
generalization.
 Corynebacterium renale→ in bovine kidney,
Coccidia→ in intestine
 Strept. Agalactiae → in bovine udder,
 Trypanosome → in blood
 FMD and ND →cause generalization.
 Some organisms remain in certain area and produce
exotoxine which affect the CNS such as Cl. Tetani.
VI- The production of the disease by more
than one species of organism:
 The disease may cause by one organism which
cause destruction in the tissue after that another
organism invades the destructed tissue.
 Such as liver flukes → cause damage in liver
cell which invade by Cl. Novyi cause → black
disease.
VII- Pathogenic role taken over by one organism on
removal of another:
For example in man, fungi and moulds
tend to multiply and cause lesions in
tissues after the removal of bacteria from
the site by antibiotics.
Also in cows in some cases of yeast
mastitis.
VIII- Variation in animal pathogens:
 Occur under laboratory and field condition such as:
 Mutation of the pathogen → FMD
 Drug Resistant microbes' → Coliforms resistant to
tetracycline drug are found where these drugs have been
persistently used in pig and poultry ration.
 Insecticide – resistant tick
 Resistant trypanosome occurs when trypanocidal drugs
used as prophylaxis or treatment in an area.
Factors affecting pattern of infection:
I- Pathogencity and Virulence of the
microorganism
II- Antigenic power of the microorganisms
III- Duration of infectious state: (period of
communicability)
IV- Ease of communicability of the disease
I- Pathogencity and Virulence of the
microorganism
 Virulence:

It measure the severity of disease caused by a

specific agent and is usually quantified by LD50
which referred to the number of agents required
to kill 50% of exposed susceptible animals under
controlled environmental condition.
Pathogencity
 It the ability of an agent of known virulence to
produce disease in a range of hosts under a range
of environmental conditions.
 It is either specific for certain species (IB →
poultry).
 Or in a large variety of species such as
Salmonellae affect → rodent, domestic animal,
poultry and man.
Difference between virulence and
pathogenicity
Pathogenicity:

is the term used to describe a whole

species or group of microorganisms
Virulence:

to point out differences in

pathogenicity within a group.
Measurement of Pathogencity and Virulence by
a- Ratio between clinical and sub clinical cases:
High pathogencity accompanied with higher
proportion of clinical cases and lower proportion
of sub clinical cases.
b- Case mortality rate (fatality):
More virulent microorganism accompanied with
high mortality percentage.
II- Antigenic power of the microorganisms
 This mean the ability of microorganism to initiate
antibodies, in practice the antigenic power could be
measured by:
 A-Second attack rate:
The more frequent re-infection of certain
individual or herd with microorganism this means the
lower antigenic power of it.
 B- Age specific attack rate:
There is a drop in attack rate after the young age
with m. o. of higher antigenic power (measles).
III- Duration of infectious state: (period of
communicability)

This is defined as the time during which

the etiological agent can transmit directly
or indirectly from infected animal to
another.
Carriers and vectors prolonged the period
of communicability.
IV- Ease of communicability of the disease:
Measure of communicability of any
infection transmitted by direct contact
within a restricted population by SAR (2nd
attack rate)
 SAR= No. of Secondary cases / No of the
flock - No. of primary cases (Total
number of contacts).
Second attack rate (SAR)
Example:

In a flock of 100 animals, one gets

the infection of x disease and 2 week
later other 30 animals showed disease.
The veterinary record shows that 39
animals had the disease before.
SAR= 30 / 100 - (39 + 1) ×100 = 50

%
Reservoir, carrier and source of infection
Reservoir of infection

Include animal, plants, soil or

inanimate organic matter in which the
infective agent survives or multiplies in
such a way that it can be transmitted to a
susceptible host.
Reservoirs of infection are classified into
1- Cases (clinical or sub clinical):
Microorganisms leave typical cases through
secretions and excretion.
Unapparent cases are in which infection is so mild
that it is not recognized clinically, however evidence
of infection could be demonstrated by laboratory
methods.
2- Carrier:
Is an animal which harbors a specific infectious
agent without showing symptoms of clinical disease.
Carriers are dangerous source of infection because:

1-Carrier not show any clinical manifestation

2- Contact between carrier and other animals.
3- It is not easily to discover carriers except by lab.
Examination, which may not always be easily or
practical.
4- It is not always possible to deal with carrier
effectively
Classification of carrier

I- According to period during which

infection take place

II- According to duration of carriage

III- According to place of carriage

I- According to period during which infection take
place:
a- Incubating carriers:
 Animal discharge microorganism during the incubation
period such as Measles and infectious hepatitis in man.
 FMD present in pharynx and milk of infected cattle
for several days before the clinical lesions are evident.
b- Convalescent carriers:
Animal discharge the microbe during the convalescent
period such as laryngotrachitis in poultry, S. Dublin and
S. typhimurium in cattle.
c- Contact carriers:
 These are person who are in contact with infected cases
such as Veterinarians and lab. workers.
 The main character of this type is that the period of
carriage ends as soon as such contact ends.
II- According to duration of carriage
Temporary carrier:
In which, the carrier discharge
the microorganism for a short period.
Chronic or intermittent carrier:
In which, the carrier discharge
the microbe continuously for long
period.
III- According to place of carriage

1- Upper respiratory tract carrier

2- Urinary tract carrier

3- Fecal carrier

4- Skin carrier
 Dead end host
Mean the host (man, animal) which unable
to give the infection to another susceptible
animal of is own type or species.
None biting domesticated animals (even
man himself) in the case of rabies.
Sources of infection
 Sources of infection are the animal (case,
carrier), object, or substance from which an
infectious agent passes immediately to the host.
 Source of infection may be:
1- Vehicle
2- Vector
3- Contaminated articles or implements
1- Vehicle
Include non living substance (dust,
milk, food, water, pus, serum,
plasma) by which an infectious
agent passes from an infected
individual to susceptible one.
2- Vector

Is an invertebrate animal required for the transmission

of an infectious agent from an infected animal or its
excreta to susceptible one. (Or to some intermediate
source such as water, food).

3- Contaminated articles or implements:

On the farm such as ropes, grooming utensils,

blanket and dairy utensils.
Mode of transmission
Itis the mechanism by which an infectious
agent is transferred from the reservoir to
the susceptible host.
 The mode of transmission may classify into:
1- Contact transmission.
2- Vehicle transmission
3- Vector transmission
4-Air borne transmission
I- Contact transmission:
Transfer of an infectious agent from infected individual or its
excretion to the susceptible host either by
A- Actual direct physical contact:
Such as mange, herpes simplex, Syphilis and some
dermatophytosis.
B- Indirect contact:
Through contact with contaminated object such as brucellosis.
C- Transplacenal:
Such as Syphilis, T.B and meteritis
II- Vehicle transmission:
 The infective agents reach the
susceptible host through
intermediate substances during
ingestion of contaminated water or
food or
by inoculation of contaminated
plasma or blood, serum, vaccine.
Vehicle transmission may be classified
into

1-Mechanical vehicle transmission:

2- Propagative vehicle transmission

3- Developmental vehicle transmission

4- Cyclopropagative vehicle transmission

Vehicle transmission may be classified into
1- Mechanical vehicle transmission:
Involve survival of the infective agent without
development or propagation. Such as leptospirosis in
water.
2- Propagative vehicle transmission:
Involve propagation of the agent in or on the
vehicle, such as milk borne streptococcosis and
staphylococcosis, Histoplasmosis in soil.
3- Developmental vehicle transmission:

Involve development of the agent in or on the

vehicle, such as many nematode eggs and larvae
in soil.

4- Cyclopropagative vehicle transmission:

Involve both propagation and development,

such as parasitic diseases (strongyloidiasis).
III-Vector transmission
a- Mechanical vector transmission:
The vector is a living swab or a living
needle, such as Trypanosomes, anthrax spore &
fowl pox by flies.
b- Biological vector transmission:
1- Propagative transmission:
The infectious agent multiplies in the vector,
as dose the plague, yellow fever.
2- Developmental vector transmission:
The infectious agent undergoes essential phase of its
development in the vector, such as filariasis by
mosquitoes --- trypanosomes by tse tse fly.
3- Cyclopropagative vector transmission:
Both multiplication and development of parasite
occur as babesia in ticks.
4- Transovarian vector transmission:
In which the infectious agent multiplied and passed
transovarianlly to the vectors progeny, as tick borne
rickettsiosis, relapsing fever in tick.
IV- Air borne disease
 Airborne pathogens can arrive the susceptible host
through expiratory droplet, droplet nuclei, dust infection
 Transmission through inhalation of droplets directly
from infected animal through cough, sneezing or
residues which result from evaporation of droplets that
remain suspended in air e.g can.distemper, T.B.
Coarse contaminated particles
usually settle around cases or
carriers on their coats , soil and
other surfaces
then dried and pulverized and by

air movement return to air to cause

dust infection when reach
susceptible host
 Factors affecting the spread of infection
1- Portal of entry, exit and multiplication of the
pathogen
2- Availability of susceptible host
3- Movement of the host
4- Presence of pathogen in the host’s environment
5- Ability of the pathogen to survive outside the host
6- Existence and movement of the vectors intermediate
7- Movement of the pathogen
1- Portal of entry, exit and multiplication of the
pathogen:
 Pathogens, which can enter and leave the host by

different routs, have greater chance for spreading

and infecting large population of animals.
A-Portal of entry may be through:
Natural inlets: such as mouth, nose, eyes,
vagina and rectum.
Non natural inlets: such as injection,

wound and bite of blood sucking insects.

B- Portal of exit: may be through
 Alimentary tract: faces in the form of diarrhea
 Respiratory tract: coughing, sneezing, nasal
discharges.
 Urinary tract: urine
 Uterine transmission
 Discharge from mucous membrane and skin lesions.
 Insect bite: blood meal.
C- Multiplication:
The more rapid the multiplication of the
organism in the host, the greater numbers
of the agents available for transmission.
 Most of viral agents (FMD) have a rapid
multiplication, while bacterial agents have slow
multiplication rate as in case of indurating
tuberculus udder.
2- Availability of susceptible host:
 The greater population of susceptible
hosts in a given area, the greater chance for
the agent transfer from diseased or even
carriers animals to another
 For example as in open markets, closed
unhygienic houses.
3- Movement of the host:
 The larger movement of the affected animals at
certain stage of infection, the more dissemination
and spread of the disease.
 Thedegree of infection controls the state of
agent dissemination:
a- The acutely sick animals shed large number
of etiological agent
b- Chronically sick animals excrete the agent
for prolonged period.
4- Presence of pathogen in the host’s
environment:
 Infectious agent reaches the environment of the

susceptible host through secretion and excretion

of the infected animals.
 The infective agent enter susceptible animal

mainly through:
 Indirect method: by the ingestion of
contaminated food and water, meat and meat by
product, milk
 Direct method: through inspired air
5- Ability of the pathogen to survive outside the host:
The longer time that pathogen can survive
outside the host, the greater chance to
taken by the susceptible animal.
 The ability of the pathogen to live outside
the host for long time depends on:
a- The pathogen itself
b- The media where it presents.
 Some agents are disseminated from the host in
huge numbers, but they can not survive for long
time. Such agents are not significant as if the
susceptible animals are not present (cattle
plague, swine fever).
 While other agents are voided or released in
relatively little numbers, but they can survive for
weeks, months or even years (anthrax spores,
mycobacterium and 3rd larval stage of
helminthes).
6- Existence and movement of the vectors
intermediate host:
The wide existence of the infective agents
in the environment of the susceptible host
contributes to the large frequencies of
infection.
Transportation of hosts, carriers and
vectors increase the area of the infection
transmission.
7- Movement of the pathogen:
 This is attributed mainly to some flies, which
travel from host to another host such as warble
fly, sheep nostril fly, ticks, and fleas.
 Some of these mobile pathogen flies may act as
vector of other pathogens.
 Alsotransport of sick or carrier animal from one
place to another assist the movement of the
pathogen from infected area to free area.
 Essential points to produce
communicable disease
Presence of infective agent
Presence of reservoir host and source
A suitable mode for agent transmission
Presence of susceptible host
Portal of entry to the susceptible host.
 Epidemiological link
To discuss the epidemiology of any disease, its better
to come back to the formula of infection, paying
attention to the following points
1 - Factors affecting causative agent of disease.
(Virulence, infective stage, no of microorganism,
portal of entry…………..ect)
2- Epidemiological factors related to the host:
The main point here is the resistance or immunity
(active or passive) of the host against some diseases.
 Prevalence = Incidence × Duration of disease
 Incidence
Probability of developing disease
Numerator counts only new cases
Does not depend on duration of the
illness
Prevalence
Probability of already having
disease
Numerator counts both new and old
cases
depends on duration of the illness
 Factors influencing prevalence:
Age incidence pattern: it means the ability of certain microbe to
attack the animal at certain age and manifesting symptoms.
Example
Population 2000 cattle, there are 100 cases of
brucellosis in a given time, 50 of sick cattle die
Calculate morbidity rate, mortality rate and case
fatality rate.
 M. R = 100/2000×100 = 5%

 Mortality rate= 50/2000×100= 2.5 %

 Case fatality rate (CFR)

= 50/100×100= 50 %
The broad lines for controlling infectious

disease are based on

1- Prevent the contact between host and infective

agent

2- Increase resistance of the host.

3- Treatment of the infected animals.

1- Prevent the contact between host and infective agent
a- Restrict importation of sources of infection either
in the form of living animals or animal by-products.
b- Restrict movement of animals within the country.
c- Slaughtering of diseased animals and in contacts
with hygienic disposal of infected and contaminated
materials.
d- Control of carriers either in the form of vehicles and
vectors.
e- Reduce the possibilities of infection by good animal
management.
2- Increase resistance of the host.
a- Selection of highly resistant animal strains against
certain common infection.
b- Immunization of the animals either by
1- Natural means: controlled infective dose or
immunization of the pregnant dams to give birth of
immunized offspring.
2- Artificial means: by injecting of vaccines or toxoid or
hyper-immune sera. Each one of this bio-preparation
used in a certain age.
c- Maintain good animal health by applying good
animal management (housing, feeding)
3- Treatment of the infected animals

Infected animals with curable non-

zoonotic diseases should be treated.

If the cost of treated is suitable to the

animal benefits, otherwise slaughtering of

the animal is preferable.

 Preventive measures which are taken against
contagious disease
I- Notification
II- Isolation
III- Slaughter of infected animal
IV- General prophylactic measures (Immunization)
V- Interference with the life history of the causative agent
VI- Disinfection of animal house
VII- Disposal of carcasses
VIII- Quarantine
Notifiable diseases are those which cause:
1. Severe loss in animal life and production.
2. Special importance to public health.
Suspected contagious diseases for notification are:
 Viral disease such as Cattle plague, Foot and
mouth disease (FMD), Rabies, Rift valley
fever, sheep pox. blue tongue and (fowl
plague, IB in poultry)
 Bacterial disease: Anthrax, brucellosis,
pasteurellosis, tuberculosis, strangles,
glanders and fowl cholera.
 Parasitic infections: mange.
 The owner or person in the farm or the
veterinarians and meat inspector must notify
the local authorities or police immediately they
suspect a notifiable disease.
Importance of notification:
1. It informs the central authority about existence or
suspected existence of a contiguous disease and its
location.
2. It brings the experts be in contact with the disease,
either to confirm the existence of the disease or
refuse the suspicion of it.
3- Draws attention for General practitioners (GP) for the
presence of disease and suggesting definite diagnosis in
doubtful cases.
4- Put all precautions necessary to prevent the spreading of the
disease.
5- It informs the authority about the origin of the disease.
6- It clarify the situation of a particular disease in order to know
its incidence, is it in an increase or decrease, therefore the
veterinary authorities either relax or make more attention
for the regulations.
 II- Isolation
 Animals which are diseased, suspected to be affected with
contagious disease must be isolated from apparently health.
 Aim to prevent transmission of the disease from diseased to

susceptible animal.
The following caution should be carried out to avoid
transmission of disease:
1- A separate building for sick animal or special section at the end
of the building as far away from healthy stock.
2- A separate buckets, things, grooming articles must be provided
for the isolated animal.
3- A separate attendant for the sick animal and if it’s impossible he
will attend first the health ones then sick animal.
4- Isolated animal should be observed for the presence any
signs of disease.
5- The period of isolated should be extended beyond the
recovery of animals and not be ended until the
possibility of disease transmission has passed.
6- The remaining food, water and other things should be
disposed hygienically.
7- In highly contagious diseases, roads and fields through
which the infected animals have passed should be
prevented to be used by healthy animals.
8- Dead isolated animals should be hygienically disposed.
 III- Slaughtering
It's essentially recommended for:
1- Affected or immediate contact animals with highly
contagious disease with great rapidity of spread.
2- Affected animal with potential source of danger to the
human population (zoonotic disease) such as T.B. and
brucellosis.
3- Affected animal with incurable disease eg. Indurated
udder
4- Highly susceptible animals to re-infection such as
repeated mastitis.
 IV- General Prophylactic measures
(immunization)
Recommendations for herd or mass immunization:
 The reservoir of the infection is so extensive.
 When the control by slaughter or segregation is
impracticable.

Herd immunization are not effective in case

 With agent have not fixed form of life.
 After herd immunization, the level of herd acquired
immunity depends on:
1. The percentage of actually vaccinated animals
2. The potential efficiency of the used vaccine
3. The percentage of the vaccine dose administered.
4. Percentage of the immunologically developed animals.
 Change in the level of herd immunity may occur when
new susceptible individuals are introduced into a
population.
 If 80% of the population becomes resistant after herd
immunization, large scale outbreaks fail to occur.
Advantage of herd immunization:
1. Vaccination may be used to protect animal from
disease especially in presence good sanitation and
hygiene in the farm.
2. Vaccination is used to develop an immune zoon all
around an area of the actual infection. This prevents
the spread of disease.
3. Immune sera against certain bacterial and viral
diseases are used to protect animals in the face of
the actual infection.
4. The duration of immunity is varies from vaccine to
vaccine, certain disease a second booster dose is
required after the first vaccination for achieving
strong immunity.
Disadvantage of herd immunization:
1- Imperfect protection against capsulated or
sporulated agents
2- Missed vaccinated animals remain susceptible to
re-infection or act as reservoir.
3- Lack of lifetime protection in most animals.
4- Inefficient in absence of sanitary measures.
5- Post vaccination reaction.
V- Interference with the life history of the causative
agent
a) Treatment of curable diseased animals
b) Detection and eliminate of intermediate host and
reservoir (domestic or wild life) of infection
c) Interference includes cleaning and disinfection as well
as disinfestations for elimination of vectors
d) Elimination of carrier by using certain diagnostic
test such as tuberculin test (T.B.) and agglutination
test (Brucellosis)
a- Treatment of curable diseased animals:
Before treatment of infected animal by antibiotics, it is better to know:
1. The nature of the disease agent
2. Degree of sensitivity to different antibiotics.
3. Recommended dose and method of using.
4. Mode and period of excretion of the used antibiotics

All of the above mentioned points are essentials to

1. Minimize the chance for developing antibiotic resistant strains
2. Minimize the risk of consumption of animal byproducts containing antibiotic
residues.
b- Detection and eliminate of intermediate host and reservoir
(domestic or wild life) of infection:
1. Some diseases especially parasitic one require
intermediate host, so as the pathogenic agent reaches
the infective stage.
2. In other diseases, the agent requires certain reservoir
(domestic or wild life) to continue its cycle till
reaching the definite host.
3. So elimination of intermediate hosts and /or reservoir
will assist in cutting the cycle of infection
c- Interference includes cleaning and disinfection as well
as disinfestations for elimination of vectors

d- Elimination of carrier by using certain diagnostic test

such as tuberculin test (T.B.) and agglutination test
(Brucellosis)

E- Newly purchased animals should be kept under

observation for at least 2 weeks especially if they
come from suspicious districts.
 Animal /bird testing to eliminate latent infected ones or
carriers
Screening: means examination of a population of apparently
healthy animals by a single test for identifying unrecognized
diseased animal.
Screening test should be cheap, easily and quickly done and free
from hazards.
The results of screening test are detecting truly diseased, healthy
animals and carriers.
Sensitivity: is the probability of diagnostic test correctly identified
as positive those animals that truly are positive.
Specificity is the probability of diagnostic test correctly identified
as negative those individuals that truly negative.
a- True +ve: diseased animals detected by test
b- False +ve: healthy animals’ positive to the test
c- False negative: diseased animals not detected by test
d- True negative: healthy animals detected by test
Example:
Tuberculin test applied to cattle
population of 10000 with real incidence
rate 1%.
The results were:
Sensitivity= 95/ 95+ 5 = 95 %
Specificity = 9504 / 395+9504 (9900) = 96%
Dignosablity (sample ratio) SR= 95/ 491 = 0.19
Apparent prevalence= 491/10000= 0.0491
Real prevalence= 0.0491 + 0.96 -1 = 0.01
No of diseased = RP × No of population = 0.01 × 10000 =
100
VI- Disinfection of animal house
I- Procedure of disinfection with no disease
II- Procedures of disinfection after disease
III- Disinfection of pastures
IV- Disinfection of Implements
V- Soil disinfection
VI- Disinfection of Cars or vehicles

VII- Disinfection of air crafts

VII- Disposal of carcasses
Aim: To prevent spread of disease and
human infection.
Never dispose the carcasses in or near

stream of water.
Animal die from highly contiguous

should not allow to be remaining in

shed as biting insect, rodents can reach
it.
A- Transportation of carcasses
1- Before the carcass is removed for burial or destruction,
all the natural openings must be plugged with some
suitable material like cotton soaked in saturated
solution of crude carbolic acid.
2- Wagons used for transportation of carcass must be
perfectly closed to
a- Prevent access of insect
b- Prevent escape of fluid
c- Adequately disinfected.
3- The anterior of the wagon must be metal lined as to
make through cleaning and disinfection after
transportation of carcass.
4- They must be provided with the necessary equipment
for loading and unloading without contamination of the
environment with virulent substance.
5- Disinfection should be extended to all utensils, persons,
premises with which the carcass come in contact.
B- Burial
1- Select a dry place at a sufficient distance from human
houses, wells, and water streams.
2- The burial pit should be getting ready before the
carcass is taken there. The pit should be dug that the
highest part of the carcass must be at least 1.5 meter
below the level of surrounding area and its width and
length depend on the size of carcass.
3- Water level at site of burial must be at least 2.5 meter
below the ground.
4- Bedding material, excreta, feed residues, body
discharge of blood and 5cm of top of soil should be also
buried along the carcass.
5- Quick lime scattered over the carcass or crude carbolic
acid 5 %.
6- The carcass is then covered with thick layer of quick
lime and then filled with dirt and topped with some
rocks.
7- The burial place should be enclosed so as animals can
not get at them at least for a time after burial.
C- Incineration (Burning of carcass)
1- Site of burning is a trench should be dug at least 0.5
meter depth and has a width and length suitable to the
carcass size.
2- The direction of the trench should be like the direction
of prevailing winds.
3- The trench is the first filled with wood, some iron bars
placed across it and the carcass place there on.
4- By firing the wood, the carcass will be completely
consumed with it all infectious material.
 a- Crematory furnaces (Incinerator)
( for farms)
 The most satisfactory method today for destroying the
animal carcass is the use of crematory furnaces.
 For farm conditions the Portable incinerators which
can brought to the carcass that is to be consumed, thus
avoiding spreading of infectious substances by
transportation.
1- It consists of a horizontal cylinder 2.5 meter long and
1.25 meter diameter, which rest on 4 wheeled frame.
2- The fire box is at the rear and under the cylinder while
air-light door at the front of the cylinder through which
the carcass is introduced.
3- The front part of cylinder is provided with chimney
several meters in height.
4- The burning of the carcass is done over a wood fire.
b- Fixed incinerator (for quarantine and slaughter houses)
1- It consisted of a space walled by fire-resistant material such as
fire-bricks or iron.
2- The enclosure is divided in the three compartments as the
following: ash pit, fire box, incineration chamber
 Ash pit it is the lower part and into it the residues is collected
after incineration.
 Fire box lies between ash pit and incineration chamber and
separated from both by two gates, one from above and another
from underneath.
 Incineration chamber lies in the upper section
and constructed from heavy iron pipes, each pipe
being inserted through the side walls of the
structure.
4- The carcass to be destroyed is passed into the
incineration chamber through two iron doors,
smoke and gases are conveyed away through a
chimney.
5- The fire box is filled with wood or coal.
VIII- Quarantine
Quarantine it means segregation of
suspected to be diseased animal from
suspected to be susceptible.
 Or segregation of apparently healthy
animals subjected to risk of infection from
healthy animals not subjected to risk of
infection.
Aim of Quarantine
To the prevention of the spread of
infectious disease by animals which comes
from infected areas or countries.
Through give sufficient time for disease
in its incubation period to be acted and
become clear.
 Quarantine period
Varies according to the incubation period of each
contagious disease, but in practice quarantine
period 30 days covered almost all diseases. For
rabies the period should be 6 months.
 During Quarantine period
Make fecal examination to detect any parasitic
infestation and dipping with pesticide for control of
vectors
The Quarantine may be classified according to
a- Animal state:
1- Active Quarantine: it means isolation of truly infected
animals in the isolation box
2- Passive Quarantine: it means isolation of suspected to
be diseased animal in the isolation box.
b- Location:
1- International Quarantine: at the ports, between
borders of the country
2- Inter-provincial Quarantine: between states,
provinces or governorates
3- local: inside the province or governorate
 Quarantine law for imported animals:

1- The animal shipped from uncontaminated area and

accompanied with vet. Sanitary certificate are treated as
the following:

a- The large animal are only examined clinically.

b- The small animal are put under observation for 24 hours.

2- The animal shipped from uncontaminated area and not

accompanied with vet sanitary certificate are treated as the
following:
a- The solipeds are treated with mallein test (glander) and
kept under observation for 48 hours.

b- Other large animal kept under observation for 24 hours.

c- Small livestock kept under observation for 48 hours.

3- Animal shipped from uncontaminated area but

infectious disease occurs among them, treated as if it
shipped from contaminated area.
4- Animals shipped from contaminated area:
a- They should kept under observation for a period
varying from 8- 30 days according to type of animal,
type of disease and presence or absence of veterinary
certificate.
b- The animal usually dipped for external parasite, make
fecal examination for internal parasites.
c- Animal suffering from contagious disease disposed
hygienically.
 Quarantine deficiencies
1- Recently, due to great communications and rapid
transportation, there is a great chance for disease
transfer from one country to another. Any vector can be
transmitted from one place to another.
2- By usual quarantine laws, we can closed the front door
of disease transmission,
but the back door is always free and dangerous, such
vector and carrier or reservoir, migrating birds as well
as contaminated animal products.
3- Carrier and/or reservoir animals constitute
a large problem for quarantine e.g. cattle
can be a carrier for blue tongue without
showing any symptoms of the disease.
4- Modern technology gives a chance for
introduction of great problem to
quarantine
 For example:
 frozen meet and deep frozen semen give a great
suitable media for preservation rather than destruction
of the infective agent.
 FMD virus can be preserved in the frozen meat up to
100 days; ND virus can survive in the carcasses of birds
up to 10 months.
 Deep frozen semen represents a favorable media for
transmission of various disease agents as vibrio faetus,
FMD and many other venereal diseases.
 Importation of some standard culture and
biological products required for human and
veterinary researches all over the world may be
contaminated or miss-handled with subsequent
flaring up of infection.
 Using of attenuated living or modified virus
vaccines on a large scale may help of
introduction of infection through carrier or
reservoir vaccinated animals.
 Fish and fish products as fish meal can assist in
raising up of infection if they are not hygienically
treated Salmonellosis, botulism, and infectious hepatitis.
 Lastly, the veterinary certificate, some times is
inadequate due to either the animal is apparently health
(still in the incubation period of the disease) or the local
authority giving the certificate looks for the economic
base and not for the health state.
Special rules taken in the presence of infectious
disease
1- Inspecting and testing of infected and
suspected animals in the infected area and its
surrounding
2- Closure of markets in the infected area and its
surroundings.
3- Prevent animals, birds, meat transportation
from affected area to other area.
4- Isolation of sick animals.

5- Inoculation of animals with hyper immune

serum in the infected area and with vaccines in
the surrounding areas.
 The inoculated animals must be available for
veterinary inspection or request

6- Dead animals neither opened nor skinned.

7- Premises of animals suffering from contiguous
disease should be thoroughly disinfected and not
be used before accurate veterinary inspection.
8- Isolation and notification should be done
immediately without delay.
9- Owners of the dead animals should be
compensated.
Animal incinerator
Fixed incinerator
Methods to prevent spread and
eliminate pathogens:
1-Quarantine and movement controls:
Quarantine and movement controls should be
imposed at several levels as follows:
Infected premises (IP):
· A premises on which RVF is confirmed or presumed
to exist—total movement control is imposed.
Dangerous contact premises (DCP):
· A premises containing susceptible animals that have
been on an IP—total movement control is imposed.
Restricted area (RA):
· A RA will be drawn around all IPs and DCPs.
The distance in any one direction is determined by factors
such as:
1- livestock concentrations
2-the weather and prevailing winds
3-the distribution and movements of susceptible wild
animals
4- the presence of possible vectors, and should be at least
10 km from the location of any known infected animals.
It is important to prevent the spread of the disease by
animal movements although some local spread my still
occur due to aerosols.
A distance of 10 km should ensure that the disease will be
contained if there is no insect vector spreading the
disease and no illegal movement of animals.
A high level of movement control and surveillance will
apply.
 Control area (CA):
· A CA will be imposed around the RA.
The purpose of the CA is to control movement of
susceptible livestock for as long as is necessary to
complete trace-back and epidemiological studies.
Less stringent movement control and surveillance will
apply than for the RA.
Once the limits of the disease have been confidently
defined, the CA boundaries and movement restrictions
should be relaxed or removed. However, if the disease
becomes widespread in an insect vector population, the
CA may be expanded to include that vector's known
geographical range.
The CA must include all premises adjacent to known IPs.
(In settled areas adjacent premises are likely to be part
of the RA.)
Movement controls should be maintained to some degree
until the disease is either eradicated or declared
endemic.
If a vaccination campaign is carried out, the restrictions on
vaccinated animals (once their immunity is established)
will be far fewer than on non vaccinated animals.
Zoning:
The area at risk to RVF may be determined by the
geographical range of a particular species of insect.
Movements of animals outside that zone should have little
bearing on the spread of the disease and should be
relatively unimpeded. However, it will still be necessary to
perform serological and/or entomological surveillance
outside the zone to ensure the disease is indeed confined
to that zone.
This restriction may be relaxed for vaccinated animals.
Zoning may reduce the economic consequences of the
disease by freeing up export markets for products and
live animals from outside the disease zone.
2-Tracing:
Infected humans may play an important role in the transmission
of RVF. It will therefore be necessary to trace both animals
and people who have come into contact with RVF virus.
 Animals

Urgent and meticulous trace-back and trace-forward of all

contacts with infected animals and premises is vital if the
disease is to be effectively contained.
Tracing should include both livestock and animal products such
as blood, milk, semen and embryos (where virus is likely to
persist and be potentially infective).
 Humans

A human case of RVF should be notified to the appropriate State

or Territory health Authority. The State and Commonwealth
health authorities will also notify agricultural authorities
3- Surveillance:
 Livestock
Livestock in the RA should be observed daily for
clinical signs of disease and blood taken at weekly
intervals from a statistically valid sample of animals
and tested for antibodies to RVF virus.
This testing should commence following the index
case and continue for 30 days following the last
confirmed case.
Serological monitoring should then be continued at
monthly intervals for the next 12 months, and then
quarterly for a further two years.