Solid State Materials Engineering

Conductors and resistors

Classical electrical conductivity in metals

Cu Wire Resistors Insulator

Picture: Wikipedia
Ohm’s Law

• Electrical conductivity and resistivity

--material parameters
--geometry independent

What about ?
--increasing temperature
--addition of imperfections
--plastic deformation

Ref: Intro. Mat. Sci and eng, W. Callister

 Resistivity and
Conductivity

James D. Livingston, Electronic Properties of Engineering Materials, Wiley (1999).

 Ohm’s Law
Tensor resistivity anisotropic material

J=σE or E=ρJ

• conductivity σ and resistivity ρ are rank-2 tensors

• electric field E and current density J are vectors
COPPER: Most widely used electrical conductor
High electrical conductivity
σ = 5.95×107 Ω−1 m−1 or ρ = 16.8 nΩ m
High thermal conductivity κ = 385 W m−1 K−1

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 SILVER vs COPPER vs ALUMINUM
Metal Electrical Thermal Comment
conductivity conductivity
(Ω−1 m−1) (W m−1 K−1)
Al 3.50×107 237 Good
Cu Can we7 explain conduction
5.95×10 401 classically?
Better
Ag 6.30×107 429 Best

Silver Copper Aluminum (98.5%)

© McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker © McGraw-Hill Education/Stephen Frisch © McGraw-Hill Education/Ken Cavanagh
(mhhe022468.jpg) (MHHE005312.JPG) (MHED9000878.JPG)
 SILVER vs COPPER vs ALUMINUM

Metal Electrical Thermal Ratio κ/σ

conductivity conductivity
(Ω−1 m−1) (W m−1 K−1)
Ag 6.30×107 429 6.8×10-6
Cu Can we7 explain conduction
5.95×10 401 classically?
6.7×10-6
Al 3.50×107 237 6.8×10-6

Why is σ higher for Ag than Cu?

Why is κ higher for Ag than Cu?

Why is the ratio κ/σ the same for all three?

 The Drude Model
Paul Drude (1863–1906)
Courtesy of AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Physics Today Collection.

Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field.

Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the x-direction. (Ex is the
electric field.)
Fig 2.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 The Drude Model

Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field.

Electrons drift with an average velocity vdx in the x-direction.
(Ex is the electric field.)

Fig 2.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of Drift Velocity

1
v dx = [v x1 + v x 2 + v x 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + v xN ]
N
vdx = drift velocity in x direction, N = number of conduction electrons,
vxi = x direction velocity of ith electron

Current Density and Drift Velocity

Jx (t) = envdx(t)
Jx = current density in the x direction, e = electronic charge, n =
conduction electron concentration, vdx = drift velocity

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Under an applied field, the electron drifts while still being scattered

(a) A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with
a mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by thermal vibrations of
the atoms. In the absence of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction.
This net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of
the electron. After many scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net
distance, x, from its initial position toward the positive terminal
Fig 2.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Mean Free Time
eE x
v xi = u xi + (t − ti )
me
Free time for electron i

Velocity gained in the x direction

at time t from the electric field (Ex)
for three electrons. There will be N
electrons to consider in the metal.

Fig 2.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of Drift Mobility

vdx = µdEx
vdx = drift velocity, µd = drift mobility, Ex = applied field

Drift Mobility and Mean Free Time

eτ
µd =
me
µd = drift mobility, e = electronic charge, τ = mean scattering time
(mean time between collisions) = relaxation time, me = mass of an
electron in free space.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Unipolar Conductivity
2
e nτ
σ = enµd =
me
σ = conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = number of electrons per
unit volume, µd = drift velocity, τ = mean scattering (collision) time =
relaxation time, me = mass of an electron in free space.

Drift Velocity
∆x
= v dx
∆t
∆x = net displacement parallel to the field, ∆t = time interval,
vdx = drift velocity
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Drift of one electron in a field

The motion of a single electron in the presence of an electric field E. During a time
Interval ti, the electron traverses a distance si along x. After p collisions, it has drifted a
Distance s = x.
Fig 2.4

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Scattering of Electrons

A vibrating metal atom

Scattering of an electron from the thermal vibrations of the atoms. The electron
travels a mean distance  = u between collisions. Since the scattering cross-sectional
area is S, in the volume s there must be at least one scatterer, Ns (Su ) = 1.

Fig 2.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Mean Free Time Between Collisions
1
τ=
SuNs

τ = mean free time, u = mean speed of the electron, Ns =

concentration of scatterers, S = cross-sectional area of the scatterer

Resistivity Due to Thermal Vibrations of the

Crystal

ρT = AT
ρT = resistivity of the metal, A = temperature independent constant, T
= temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Different Scattering Processes

Two different types of scattering processes involving scattering from impurities alone
and from thermal vibrations alone.

Fig 2.6

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Table 2.1

NOTE: ρ ∝ Tn fitted to data mainly

from the Ed. Haynes, W.M., CRC
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,
96th Edition, 2015-2016, Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press and Kaye and Laby Tables
of Physical and Chemical Tables at the
National Physical Laboratory Website.
The temperature range for the ρ ∝ Tn
fit is also given. Ideally, at T0, TCR, α0 =
n/T0.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Matthiessen’s Rule

ρ = ρT + ρI
ρ = effective resistivity, ρT = resistivity due to scattering by thermal
vibrations only, ρI = resistivity due to scattering of electrons from
impurities only.

ρ = ρT + ρR

ρ = overall resistivity, ρT = resistivity due to scattering from thermal

vibrations, ρR = residual resistivity

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity

1  δρ 
α0 =  
ρ 0  δT  T =T0

αo = TCR (temperature coefficient of resistivity), δρ = change in the

resistivity, ρ0 = resistivity at reference temperature T0 , δT = small
increase in temperature, To = reference temperature
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

ρ = ρ0 [1 + α0(T−T0)]
ρ = resistivity, ρ0 = resistivity at reference temperature, α0 = TCR
(temperature coefficient of resistivity), T = new temperature, T0 =
reference temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity Depends on the Reference Temperature

1  δρ 
α0 =  
ρ 0  δT  T =T0
ρ at T = T0 Gradient at T = T0

Use ρ at 293 K in Use ρ at 273 K in CRC

CRC Handbook Handbook

1  δρ  1  ρ (T1 ) − ρ 0 
α0 =   ≈  
ρ 0  δT  T =T0 ρ 0  (T1 − T0 ) 
Use 293 K Use 273 K

1 16.78 nΩ m − 15.43 nΩ m 
α 273 ≈
(15.43 nΩ m)  (293 K − 273 K ) 

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Definition of Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
1  ρ (T1 ) − ρ 0  1 16.78 nΩ m − 15.43 nΩ m 
α 273 ≈ =
ρ 0  (T1 − T0 )  (15.43 nΩ m)  (293 K − 273 K ) 

α273 ≈ 0.00441 Κ−1
Estimate Estimate Nordling & Goodfellowc US Bureau The
from CRC from Kaye & Osterman, of Standards Engineering
Handbook Laby NPLa Physics (1910)d Toolboxe
values values Handbook.
8Edb

∆T used in estimating α 20 K 100 K

α0 (K-1) at 273 K (0 °C) 0.00441 0.00442 0.00433 0.0043

α0 (K-1) at 293 K (20 °C) 0.00394

α0 (K-1) at undefined To 0.00429

ahttp://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/general_physics/2_6/2_6_1.html
bPages 43-45, Table 2.1, C. Nordling & J. Osterman, Physics Handbook. 8Ed
chttp://www.goodfellow.com Good agreement
dhttp://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/bulletin/07/nbsbulletinv7n1p71_A2b.pdf
ehttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/resistivity-conductivity-d_418.html

α 273 0.0043
α 293 = = = 0.00396 K −1
1 + α 273 (T293 − T273 ) 1 + 0.0043(293 − 273)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity vs Temperature

The resistivity of various metals as a function of temperature above 0 °C. Tin melts at 505 K whereas
nickel and iron go through a magnetic to non-magnetic (Curie) transformations at about 627 K and
1043 K respectively. The theoretical behavior ( ∝ T) is shown for reference.
Fig 2.7

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity vs Temperature

The resistivity of copper from lowest to highest temperatures (near melting temperature, 1358 K) on
a log-log plot. Above about 100 K,   T, whereas at low temperatures,  T 5 and at the lowest
temperatures  approaches the residual resistivity R. The inset shows the  vs. T behavior below
100 K on a linear plot (R is too small on this scale).
Fig 2.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity vs Temperature

Typical temperature dependence of the resistivity of annealed and cold-worked (deformed) copper
containing various amounts of Ni in atomic percentage. SOURCE: Data adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann
Physik, 5, 219 (Germany, 1932)
Fig 2.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity vs Alloy Composition

(a) Phase diagram of the Cu-Ni alloy system.

Above the liquidus line only the liquid phase
exists. In the L + S region, the liquid (L) and
solid (S) phases coexist whereas below the
solidus line, only the solid phase (a solid
solution) exists.

(b) The resistivity of the Cu-Ni alloy as a

Function of Ni content (at.%) at room
temperature

The Cu-Ni alloy system.

SOURCE: Data extracted from Metals Handbook, 10th ed., 2 and 3 Metals Park, Ohio:
ASM, 1991, and M. Hansen and K. Anderko, Constitution of Binary Alloys, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1958. Fig 2.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Nordheim’s Rule
for
Solid Solutions
Lothar Nordheim

ρI = CX(1 − X)
(1923–1985)
Courtesy of Duke
University

ρI = resisitivity due to scattering of electrons from

impurities
C = Nordheim coefficient
X = atomic fraction of solute atoms in a solid solution

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Electrical resistivity vs. composition at room temperature in Cu-Au alloys.
The quenched sample (dashed curve) is obtained by quenching the liquid, and the Cu and
Au atoms are randomly mixed. The resistivity obeys the Nordheim rule. When the
quenched sample is annealed or the liquid is slowly cooled (solid curve), certain
compositions (Cu3Au and CuAu) result in an ordered crystalline structure in which the Cu
and Au atoms are positioned in an ordered fashion in the crystal and the scattering
effect is reduced.
Fig 2.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Combined
Matthiessen and Nordheim Rules

ρ = ρmatrix + CX(1 − X)
ρ = resistivity of the alloy (solid solution)
ρmatrix = resistivity of the matrix due to scattering from
thermal vibrations and other defects
C = Nordheim coefficient
X = atomic fraction of solute atoms in a solid solution

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Heterogeneous Mixtures

The effective resistivity of a material with a layered structure.

(a) Along a direction perpendicular to the layers.
(b) Along a direction parallel to the plane of the layers.
(c) Materials with a dispersed phase in a continuous matrix.
Fig 2.13

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Effective Resistance of Mixtures
Lα ρα Lβ ρ β
Reff = +
A A

Reff = effective resistance

Lα = total length (thickness) of the α-phase layers
ρα = resistivity of the α-phase layers
A = cross-sectional area
Lβ = total length (thickness) of the β-phase layers
ρβ = resistivity of the β-phase layers

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity-Mixture Rule

ρeff = χαρα + χβρβ

ρeff = effective resistivity of mixture, χα = volume fraction of the α-

phase, ρα = resistivity of the α-phase, χβ = volume fraction of the β-
phase, ρβ = resistivity of the β-phase

Conductivity-Mixture Rule

σeff = χασα + χβσβ

σeff = effective conductivity of mixture, χα = volume fraction of the
α-phase, σα = conductivity of the α-phase, χβ = volume fraction of
the β-phase, σβ = conductivity of the β-phase

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Mixture Rule (ρd > 10ρc )
1
(1 + χ d )
ρeff = ρc 2
(1− χ d )

ρeff = effective resistivity, ρc = resistivity of continuous phase, χd =

volume fraction of dispersed phase, ρd = resistivity of dispersed
phase
Mixture Rule (ρd < 0.1ρc )
(1 − χ d )
ρeff = ρc
(1 + 2 χ d )
ρeff = effective resistivity, ρc = resistivity of the continuous phase, χd
= volume fraction of the dispersed phase, ρd = resistivity of the
dispersed phase
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Reynolds and Hough Rule for Mixtures

σ eff − σ c σ d −σc
=χ
σ eff + 2σ c σ d + 2σ c

σeff = effective conductivity

σc = conductivity of continuous phase
χ = volume fraction of dispersed phase
σd = conductivity of dispersed phase

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity-Mixture Rule

(a) A two-phase solid.

(b) A thin fiber cut out from the solid. ρeff = χαρα + χβρβ
Fig 2.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Two-Phase Alloys

Eutectic-forming alloys, e.g., Cu-Ag.

(a) The phase diagram for a binary, eutectic-forming alloy.
(b) The resistivity versus composition for the binary alloy.
Fig 2.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect

Edwin Hall (1855–1938)

© Science & Society Picture Library/Getty Images

(Photo by SK)

Honeywell's SS94 Hall-Effect Linear

Position Sensor. Noise Shielded
Ratiometric Linear Sensor
Sensitivity = (5.0 mV ± 0.1) mV / G
Sensitivity = (50 mV ± 0.01) mV / mT
Magnetic field range = −50 to +50 mT
 Hall Effect

Illustration of the Hall effect.

The z direction is out of the plane of the paper. The externally applied magnetic field is
along the z direction.
Fig 2.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Lorentz Force
Light is emitted from gas atoms when Lorentz force due to
electrons collide with them. The column the magnetic field
is generated by accelerating electrons bends the electron
in the field that collide with the gas trajectories up and
atoms, which them emit light hence the column in
which gas atoms
are excited and emit
light

Lorentz force due to

the magnetic field
bends the electron
trajectories down
and hence the
column in which gas
© McGraw-Hill Education atoms are excited
and emit light
 Lorentz Force

(a) (b)

A moving charge experiences a Lorentz force in a magnetic field.

(a) A positive charge moving in the x direction experiences a force downwards.
(b) A negative charge moving in the -x direction also experiences a force downwards.
Fig 2.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Lorentz Force

F = qv × B
F = force, q = charge, v = velocity of charged particle, B = magnetic
field

Definition of Hall Coefficient

Ey
RH =
J x Bz
RH = Hall coefficient, Ey = electric field in the y-direction, Jx =
current density in the x-direction, Bz = magnetic field in the z-
direction
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Coefficient
Ey
RH =
J x Bz

1
RH = −
en
e = electronic charge
n = concentration of conduction electrons
Assumes conduction by electrons e.g. metals

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Coefficient

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect
Honeywell's SS94 Hall-Effect Linear
Position Sensor. Noise Shielded
Ratiometric Linear Sensor
The whole device is on a ceramic
substrate. There are laser-trimmed
resistors on the ceramic substrate and thin
film resistors on the integrated circuit that
result in a more stable Hall effect device
and consistent sensitivity from one device
(Photo by SK)
to another

Sensitivity = (5.0 mV ± 0.1) mV / G

Sensitivity = (50 mV ± 0.01) mV / mT
Magnetic field range = −50 to +50 mT

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Thermal Conduction

Thermal conduction in a metal involves transferring energy from the hot region to the cold
region by conduction electrons. More energetic electrons (shown with longer velocity
vectors) from the hotter regions arrive at cooler regions and collide there with lattice
vibrations and transfer their energy. Lengths of arrowed lines on atoms represent the
magnitudes of atomic vibrations.
Fig 2.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Thermal Conduction

Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end.

Consider the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, across a thin section δx of the rod. The rate of
Heat flow is proportional to the temperature gradient δT/δx and the cross-sectional
area A.

Fig 2.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction
dQ δT
Q′ = =− κA
dt δx

Q′ = rate of heat flow, Q = heat, t = time, κ = thermal conductivity, A

= area through which heat flows, δT/δx = temperature gradient

Ohm’s Law of Electrical Conduction

δV
I = − Aσ
δx
I = electric current, A = cross-sectional area, σ = electrical
conductivity, dV/dx = potential gradient (represents an electric field),
δV = change in voltage across δx, δx = thickness of a thin layer at x
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Thermal conductivity vs Electrical Conductivity

Thermal conductivity  versus electrical conductivity  for various metals (elements

and alloys) at 20 ˚C.
The solid line represents the WFL law with CWFL ≈ 2.44  108 W  K-2.
Fig 2.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law

κ −8 −2
= CWFL = 2.45×10 W Ω K
σT
κ = thermal conductivity
σ = electrical conductivity
T = temperature in Kelvins
CWFL = Lorenz number

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Thermal conductivity vs Temperature

Thermal conductivity versus temperature for two pure metals (Cu and Al) and two
Alloys (brass and Al-14% Mg).
SOURCE: Data extracted form I.S. Touloukian, et al., Thermophysical Properties
of Matter, vol. 1: “Thermal Conductivity, Metallic Elements and Alloys, “ New York: Plenum, 1970.

Fig 2.22
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Conduction of Heat in Nonmetals

Conduction of heat in electrical insulators involves

the generation and propagation of atomic
vibrations through the bonds that couple the
atoms
(An intuitive figure)
Fig 2.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Fourier’s Law
∆T ∆T
Q′ = A κ =
L (L / κ A)
Q′ = rate of heat flow or the heat current, A = cross-sectional area, κ
= thermal conductivity (material-dependent constant), ∆T =
temperature difference between ends of component, L = length of
component

Ohm’s Law
∆V ∆V
I= =
R ( L / σA)
I = electric current, ∆V = voltage difference across the conductor, R =
resistance, L = length, σ = conductivity, A = cross-sectional area

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of Thermal Resistance
∆T
Q′ =
θ
Q′ = rate of heat flow, ∆T = temperature difference, θ = thermal
resistance

Thermal Resistance
L
θ=
Aκ

θ = thermal resistance, L = length, A = cross-sectional area, κ =

thermal conductivity

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Conduction of heat through a component in (a) can be modeled as a thermal resistance
 shown in (b) where

∆T
Q′ =
θ
Fig 2.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors

Range of conductivites exhibited by various materials

Fig 2.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Semiconductors
Hole = Missing electron in a Si-Si bond
A hole behaves like a independent positive entity

(a) Thermal vibrations of the atoms rupture a bond and release a free electron into the
crystal. A hole is left in the broken bond which has an effective positive charge.
(b) An electron in a neighboring bond can jump and repair this bond and thereby create a
hole in its original site; the hole has been displaced.
(c) When a field is applied both holes and electrons contribute to electrical conduction.
Fig 2.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 A hole "moves" when an electron in a neighboring bond "jumps" into it

A pictorial illustration of a hole wandering around inside the crystal due to the "jumping" of electrons
from neighboring bonds. (From Figure 5.15 in Chapter 5)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Conductivity of a Semiconductor

σ = enµe + epµh
σ = conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = electron concentration, µe
= electron drift mobility, p = hole concentration, µh = hole drift
mobility

Drift Velocity and Net Force

µe
ve = Fnet
e
ve = drift velocity of the electrons, µe = drift mobility of the electrons,
e = electronic charge, Fnet = net force

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect in Semiconductors

Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a semiconductor where there

are both electrons and holes. The magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both
electrons and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor and
consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities and concentrations of
electrons and holes.
Fig 2.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect in Semiconductors

Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a semiconductor where there

are both electrons and holes. The magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both
electrons and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor and
consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities and concentrations of
electrons and holes.
Fig 2.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect in Semiconductors
Current along y

Holes Electrons

Eliminate vey and vhy

Drift current along x

Substitute in Hall coefficient

Fig 2.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hall Effect for Ambipolar Conduction
p µ h − nµ e 2 2
RH =
e( pµh + nµe ) 2

RH = Hall coefficient, p = concentration of the holes, µh = hole drift

mobility, n = concentration of the electrons, µe = electron drift
mobility, e = electronic charge
OR 1
RH = + p >> nb 2
2 ep
p − nb
RH = 1
e( p + nb)2 RH = − nb 2 >> p
en
b = µe/µh
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Conduction in Ionic Crystals (Ceramics) and Glasses

Possible contribution to the conductivity of ceramic and glass insulators.

(a) Possible mobile charges in a ceramic.
(b) An Na+ ion in the glass structure diffuses and therefore drifts in the direction of the field.
Fig 2.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Glasses and ceramics can conduct when heated to sufficiently high
temperatures

This soda glass rod when heated under a torch becomes electrically conducting. It passes 4
mA when the voltage is 50 V (2 × 25 V); a resistance of 12.5 kΩ! Ordinary soda glass at room
temperature is an insulator but can be quite conducting at sufficiently high temperatures.
(Photo by S. Kasap and R Johanson)

Fig 2.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 General Conductivity

σ = Σqi ni µi
σ = conductivity
σ qi = charge carried by the charge carrier species i
(for electrons and holes qi = e)
ni = concentration of the charge carrier
µi = drift mobility of the charge carrier of species i

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Low-conductivity Solids

Conductivity versus reciprocal temperature for various low-conductivity solids

SOURCE: Data selectively combined from numerous sources.
Fig 2.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Temperature Dependence of Conductivity
 Eσ 
σ = σ o exp  − 
 kT 
A
σo =
T
σ = Conductivity
σο = "Constant" = A/T
A = Constant
Εσ = Activation energy for conductivity
k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Temperature Dependence from Drift Mobility?
Consider mobile Na+ ions in a glass
σ = e × nion × µion
Constant
nion = Concentration Na+
Arrhenius
µion = Drift mobility of Na+
Mobility of Na+ ion depends on its ability to diffuse
1 e 
µion =   Dion
f  kT 
Haven ratio Diffusion coefficient
(f ≤ 1)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Thin Films

TEM (transmission electron

microscope) image of an annealed
polycrystalline Cu thin film of
thickness 41.7 nm, encapsulated in
SiO2. The films structure is
composed of grains with an
average size 87.7 nm. The
resistivity of this film is 30 nΩ m,
higher than the bulk resistivity of
Cu (17 nΩ m). Courtesy of Tik Sun
and Bo Yao.

(a) Grain boundaries cause scattering of the electron and therefore add to the
Resistivity by the Matthiessen’s rule.
(b) For a very grainy solid, the electron is scattered from grain boundary to grain boundary
and the mean free path is approximately equal to the mean grain diameter.

Fig 2.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Polycrystalline Thin Films
d = Average grain size (diameter)
λ

Grain (single crystal)

λ = Mean free path of the conduction

electrons in the single crystal (no grain
boundaries)

Matthiessen's Rule suggests that

1 1 1
≈ +
Overall electron mean
free path
 λ d
Roughly electron mean free
Electron mean free path path if scattering only from
in a single crystal grain boundaries
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Polycrystalline Thin Films
1
ρcrystal ∝
λ

1 1 1 λ λ
≈ + ≈ 1+
 λ d  d
1
ρ∝

ρ λ
≈ 1+ Too simple
ρcrystal d
More advanced
ρ 3λ
≈ 1+   theory
ρcrystal 2d
For large grains with d > λ
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Polycrystalline Thin Films
d = Average grain size (diameter)

λ = Mean free path of the conduction electrons in the

single crystal (no grain boundaries)

R = Probability of reflection at a grain boundary

Mayadas-Shatzkes formula

Fig 2.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Scattering from the surfaces of a thin film

Conduction in thin films may be controlled by scattering from the surfaces

D = Film thickness

Fig 2.34
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Scattering from the surfaces of a thin film

The mean free path of the

electron depends on the
angle  after scattering

D
 surf =
cos θ
To be averaged
1 1 1 1 D for all 
=+ =+
 λ  surf λ cos θ

Too simple ρ 1λ 

Assumes total nonspecular ≈ 1+  
reflection ρ bulk π D
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Scattering from the surfaces of a thin film
Scattering from top film surface

Top film surface

Scattering from bottom film surface

p = Specularity parameter
p = 0, the scattering at the surface is called diffusive
All the momentum gained from the field is fully lost upon scattering;
and the contribution of surface scattering is maximum
p = 1, specular or elastic scattering (or reflection). No momentum lost

Simplified Fuchs-Sondheimer surface scattering

resistivity
ρ 3λ D
≈ 1+ (1 − p ) > 0.3
ρ bulk 8D λ
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Thin Films

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Resistivity of Thin Films

(a) ρfilm of Cu polycrystalline films versus reciprocal mean grain size (diameter) 1∕d. Film thickness D = 250–900
nm does not affect the resistivity. The best straight line is ρfilm = 17.8 nΩ m + (600 nΩ m nm)(1∕d)

(b) ρfilm of single crystal thin films of Cu versus reciprocal film thickness 1∕D at 25 °C. The films are grown on the
surface of a single crystal of MgO and the best straight line is ρfilm = 17.0 nΩ m + (200 nΩ m nm)(1∕D)

SOURCES: (a) Riedel, S., et al., Microelectronic Engineering, 33, 165, 1997. (b) Chawla, J.S., Applied Physics Letters, 94, 252101, 2009.

Fig 2.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
CRC
CRC Handbook [1] TCR from
Hand TCR Pages 43-45, Table Goodfellow
book estimated Kaye & Laby (NPL) [3] 2.1, C. Nordling & J. (http://www.g
ρο (273 over 273-293 TCR = Range of ρ ∝ Melting Melting ρο (273 ρο (273 K) TCR over 100 K from Osterman,Physics oodfellow.co
Metal K) K n 1/α n/To Tn To Tm Tm K) [2] TCR [2] [3] 273 to 373 Handbook. 8Ed [4] m)
TCR (1/K) at TCR at 273 K (273- TCR (1/K), 0 -
nΩ m 273 K K 1/K K At °C K nΩ m 1/K nΩ m 373 K) TCR (1/K) at 273 K 100 C
Aluminum 24.17 0.0048 1.2 227.5 0.0044 273 - 800 273 K 660 933 24.2 0.004752066 0.00429 0.0045
Antimony 390 0.0051 1.27 215.0 0.0047 80 - 400 273 K 630 903 390 0.005128205 0.0051 0.0051
Barium 302 0.005 1.61 169.6 0.0059 273 - 900 273 K 725 998 302 0.005397351 0.0061
Beryllium 30.2 0.009 1.73 157.8 0.0063 273 - 900 273 K 1278 1551 30.2 0.009602649 0.0075 0.009
Bismuth 271 544 1070 0.004579439 0.0045 0.0046
Cadmium 321 594 68 0.0043 68 0.004411765 0.00426 0.0043
Calcium 31.1 0.004 1.09 250.5 0.0040 273 - 900 273 K 842 1115 31.1 0.005273312 0.004 0.00457
Cerium 798 1071 730 0.000958904 0.00087 0.00087
Cesium 187 0.0048 1.23 222.0 0.0045 273 - 300 273 K 28.4 301.4 188 0.013670213 0.005 0.0044
Chromium 118 0.0029 1.01 270.3 0.0037 273 - 900 273 K 1907 2180 127 0.002677165 0.003 0.00214
Cobalt 1495 1768 56 0.0066 56 0.006964286 0.00658 0.0066
Copper 15.43 0.0044 1.16 235.3 0.0042 273 - 1100 273 K 1084 1357 15.4 0.004415584 0.00433 0.0043
Gold 20.51 0.004 1.13 241.6 0.0041 273 - 1100 273 K 1064 1337 20.6 0.0045 20.5 0.00404878 0.00398 0.004
Hafnium 304 0.0044 1.21 225.6 0.0044 273 - 600 273 K 2230 2503 304 0.004572368 0.0038 0.0044
Indium 80 0.0048 1.31 208.4 0.0048 200 - 400 273 K 157 430 80 0.0051 80 0.005125 0.0051 0.0052
Iridium 2447 2720 47 0.0049 47 0.004468085 0.00433 0.0045
Iron 85.7 0.0061 1.73 157.8 0.0063 200 - 800 273 K 1535 1808 85.7 0.0068028 0.00657 0.0065
Lead 192 0.0042 1.14 239.5 0.0042 273 - 500 273 K 327 600 192 0.0040625 0.00422 0.0042
Lithium 85.3 0.0044 1.18 231.4 0.0043 273 - 400 273 K 181 454 85.3 0.004536928 0.00437 0.00435
Magnesium 40.5 0.0042 1.07 255.1 0.0039 273 - 900 273 K 650 923 40.5 0.00417284 0.0042 0.00425
Manganese 1430 0.00035 0.065 4200.0 0.0002 273 - 900 273 K 1250 1523 1430 0.00027972 0.00017
Mercury -39 234 941 0.0009 941 0.000998937 0.00099
Molybdenum 48.5 0.05 1.21 225.6 0.0044 200 - 2400 273 K 2623 2896 48.5 0.005134021 0.0047 0.00435
Neodymium 1016 1289 610 0.002131148 0.0016 0.00164
Nickel 61.6 0.0625 1.76 155.1 0.0064 200 - 700 273 K 1455 1728 61.6 0.007045455 0.00675 0.0068
Niobium 2477 2750 152 0.0023 152 0.002631579 0.00228 0.0026
Palladium 97.8 0.0039 0.94 290.4 0.0034 273 - 900 273 K 1555 1828 98 0.00377551 0.0038 0.0042
Platinum 98.47 0.0039 1.01 270.3 0.0037 200- 1000 273 K 1768 2041 981 0.0039 98.1 0.003863405 0.00392 0.00392
Potassium, K 64.9 0.0055 1.43 190.9 0.0052 273 - 300 273 K 63 336 64.9 0.014345146 0.0054 0.0057
Rhenium 3186 3459 172 0.0031 172 0.004476744 0.0031 0.0045
Rhodium 1963 2236 43 0.0046 43 0.004418605 0.00457 0.0044
Rubidium, Rb 115 0.0057 1.51 180.8 0.0055 273 - 300 273 K 39 312 115 0.0053 0.0048
Ruthenium 2330 2603 71 0.0036 71 0.004084507 0.0045 0.0041
Scandium 1540 1813 505 0.004851485 0.0028 0.00282
Silver 14.67 0.0041 1.13 241.6 0.0041 273 - 1100 273 K 962 1235 14.7 0.004081633 0.0041 0.0041
Sodium 98 371 43.3 0.011963048 0.0055 0.0055
Strontium, Sr 123 0.0036 0.99 275.8 0.0036 273 - 800 273 K 777 1050 123 0.003577236 0.005
Tantalum 122 0.0039 0.93 293.5 0.0034 250 - 2900 273 K 3020 3293 122 0.003852459 0.0036 0.0035
Thallium 304 577 150 0.0052 150 0.0052 0.0052 0.0052
Thorium 1750 2023 147 0.0033 147 0.00415 0.0033 0.004
Tin 115 0.0037 1.1 248.2 0.0040 200 - 490 273 K 232 505 115 0.0046 115 0.00373913 0.00463 0.0046
Titanium 390 0.0049 1.01 270.3 0.0037 273 - 900 273 K 1668 1941 390 0.0055 390 0.004871795 0.0055 0.0038
Tungsten 48.2 0.00477 1.24 220.2 0.0045 200 - 3000 273 K 3422 3695 48.2 0.004917012 0.00483 0.0048
Vanadium 181.4 0.0042 1.02 267.6 0.0037 200 - 2000 273 K 1920 2193 181 0.004309392 0.0039
Zinc 54.6 0.004 1.14 239.5 0.0042 273 - 600 273 K 420 693 54.8 0.004525547 0.0042 0.0042
Zirconium 388 0.0042 1 273.0 0.0037 273 - 900 273 K 1850 2123 388 0.004407216 0.004 0.0044
[1] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2013, pp12-41-12-42. TCR estimated from the change from 273 to 293 over 20 K.
n from a log-log plot of data from T = 273 K upwards but below the melting temperature,
[2] Handbook of Physics, Walter Beneson et al, Editors (Springer-Verlag, New York, 2002), Table 18.1/1, pp595-596
[3] Kaye & Laby, NPL, http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/general_physics/2_6/2_6_1.html
[4] C. Nordling & J. Osterman,Physics Handbook. 8Ed, Studentlitteratur,Lund, Sweden, 2006, Pages 43-45, Table 2.1
Questions ?