NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management

Definition of Leadership her time and energy in the work of the group, thinks
Ø Leadership occurs whenever one person attempts to
influence the behavior of an individual or group—up,
down, or sideways in the organization—regardless of
the reason.
Ø It may be for personal goals or for the goals of others,
and these goals may or may not be congruent with
organizational goals.
Ø Leadership is influence (Hersey & Campbell, 2004, p.
12)
Ø Leadership is a much broader concept than is
management.
Ø Although managers should also be leaders,
management is focused on the achievement of
organizational goals.
Ø Traditional Leadership - Leadership is an
interpersonal influence directed toward the
achievement of a goal or goals.
Ø Contemporary Leadership - Leadership is a dynamic
relationship that is based on mutual influence and
common purpose between leaders and collaborators
which leads both parties to achieve the goal or goals.
How to influence people….
“Lead by example and others will follow”????
Influencing, inspiring, motivating, and getting results
Build Trust, Gain confidence, Earn Respect, Establish credibility
and gain buy on.
Build Leadership skills
Leadership
Ø is a dynamic, interactive process that involves three
dimensions
a) The Leader
b) The Follower
c) The Situation
critically, and advocates for new ideas (Grossman &
Valiga, 2000).
Ø Imagine working on a client care unit where all staff
members, from the unit secretary to the assistant
nurse manager, willingly take on extra tasks without
being asked (Spreitzer & Quinn, 2001), come back
early from coffee breaks, complete their charting on
time, suggest ways to improve client care, and are
proud of the high quality care they provide.
Ø Wouldn’t it be wonderful to be a part of that team?
Becoming a Better Follower
ü If you discover a problem, inform your team leader
or manager right away.
ü Even better, include a suggestion in your report for
solving the problem.
ü Freely invest your interest and energy in your work.
ü Be supportive of new ideas and new directions
suggested by others.
ü When you disagree, explain why you do not support
an idea or suggestion.
ü Listen carefully, and reflect on what your leader or
manager says.
ü Continue to learn as much as you can about your
specialty area.
ü Share what you learn.
How to handle poor leaders and managers:
Ø Avoid adopting the ineffective behaviors of this
individual.
Ø Continue to do your best work and to provide
leadership for the rest of the group.
Ø If the situation worsens, enlist the support of others
on your team to seek a remedy; do not try to do this
alone as a new graduate.
Ø If the situation becomes intolerable, consider the
option of transferring to another unit or seeking
another position (Deutschman, 2005; Korn, 2004).

Followership Leader’s role

Ø Followership and leadership are separate but 1. Decision maker
2. Communicator
reciprocal roles.
3. Evaluator
Ø Without followers, one cannot be a leader;
conversely, one cannot be a follower without a 4. Facilitator
leader (Lyons, 2002). 5. Risk taker
Ø Being an effective follower is as important to the 6. Mentor
new nurse as is being an effective leader. 7. Energizer
Ø In fact, most of the time most of us are followers: 8. Coach
members of a team, attendees at a meeting, staff of 9. Counselor
a nursing care unit, and so forth. 10. Teacher
Ø Followership is not a passive role. 11. Critical thinker
Ø On the contrary, the most valuable follower is a 12. Buffer
skilled, self-directed employee, one who participates 13. Advocate
actively in setting the group’s direction, invests his or 14. Visionary
15. Forecaster
 NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
16. Influencer Ø Great leaders come forward when they're most
17. Creative problem solver needed, in order to become the foundation upon
18. Change agent which history is built.
19. Diplomat Ø Leader Qualities:
20. Role model a) Such characteristics are fixed in the
family’s genes and are passed on from
generation to generation.
Leadership Theories b) Charm, intelligence, intuition, judgement,
courage, aggressiveness, persuasion,
Ø Leadership theories are the explanations of how and why commanding personality, action
certain people become leaders. orientation
Ø They focus on the traits and behaviors that people can
adopt to increase their leadership capabilities. Example of Both Leaders:
Ø What Makes a Person a Leader? 1. Mahatma Gandhi
a) Strong ethics and high moral standards 2. Mao Tse Tung
b) Great self-organizational skills 3. Adolf Hitler
c) Efficient learner 4. Abraham Lincoln
d) Nurtures growth in employees 5. Charles de Gaulle
e) Fosters connection and belonging
Charismatic Leadership
Classification of Leadership Theories Ø Charisma is a divinely conferred power or talent.
1. Traditional Leadership Ø Charismatic leadership is a trait-based leadership
Ø Great Man Theory theory where the leaders act as visionary driven by
Ø Charismatic Theory their convictions and motivate their followers to
Ø Trait Theory work towards common vision using their charm and
Ø Behavior Theory persuasiveness.
2. Contemporary Leadership Ø Characteristics:
a) Charismatic leaders have a special charm and
Ø Situational Theory
glow
Ø Contingency Theory
b) They have a natural charisma that draws people
Ø Path-Goal Theory
Ø Situational Leadership Theory to them
Ø Transactional Leadership c) A charismatic leader is good at recognizing the
Ø Transformational Leadership emotions and moods of others
Ø Integrative Leadership Model d) They effortlessly work with people and make
everyone feel important and valued
e) Charismatic leaders consistently possess traits
Evolution of Leadership Theory -- aim to understand, explain,
of self-monitoring
and predict why some leaders are more effective than others
1. Great Man Theory f) They constantly engage in impression and
2. Trait Theory perception management
3. Behavior Theory g) They are motivated individuals who pursue
4. Contingency Theory attaining social power
5. The Path-Goal Theory h) They have strong motivation to attain self
actualization.
6. The Managerial Grid
i) They are good at motivating others and use the
Great Man Theory right word or action to uplift the team’s spirit.
Ø The great man theory, from aristotelian philosophy Trait Theory -- Assume that some people have certain
asserts that some people are born to lead, whereas characteristics or personality traits that make them better
others or born to be led. leaders than others
Ø Great leaders will arise when the situation demands Ø Personal qualities of an individual
it. Ø This theory states that if someone had “true
Ø According to the Great Man Theory, great leaders leadership traits” they could lead regardless of the
are born, not made nor trained. situation.
Ø According to Thomas Carlyle, leadership traits are Ø It focused on “what a person is” and not on what
inherent and cannot be learned. They are not found they could accomplish
in all people. Ø Emphasizes that leaders are born not made - People
are born with inherited traits.

Ø Proposes that leadership is a function of these inborn
traits. e.g. intelligence, perception - There are people
who become good leaders because they have the
right combination of traits.
Ø Hold that possession of certain traits permit certain
individuals to gain position of leadership - Some
traits are particularly suited to leadership
Four Common Traits:
1. Management of attention - These leaders were able to
communicate a sense of goal or direction to attract followers.
2. Management of meaning - These leaders created and
communicated meaning with clarity and purpose.
3. Management of trust - These leaders demonstrated
reliability and consistency.
4. Management of self - These leaders were able to know self
and work within their strengths and weaknesses (Bennis, 1984)
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Common Leadership Traits
ü Leaders need to be more intelligent than the group
they lead
ü Leaders must possess initiative, the ability to
perceive and start courses of action not considered
by others
ü Creativity is an asset
ü Emotional stability and maturity with integrity
ü Admitting Error
ü Communication skills are important
ü Persuasion is used by leaders
ü Leaders need to be perceptive enough
ü Leaders participate in social activities
Behavior Theory
Ø This theory is concerned with what the leader does
rather than what the leader is.
Ø It is not the characteristics of the leader but rather
the way the leader behaves towards followers that
determine his effectiveness.
Ø An effective leader is judged in terms of individual
subordinate outcome.
Basic Assumptions:
1. Task Oriented Leader
a) Task focus
b) Concern for the task to be accomplished
c) Initiating structure, job centeredness, task
orientation
d) Emphasizes behaviors, set clear standards, high
regard with production, set rules and
regulations for doing the job.
2. People Oriented Leader
a) Relationship focus
b) Concern for the people doing the work
c) Consideration, employee centeredness and
relationship orientation
d) Has social rapport to his subordinates, attention
is focused to the individuals
Behavior of a leader who has a high regard for accomplishment
of task:
Ø Plan and define work to be done
Ø Assign talk responsibilities
Ø Set clear standards
Ø Job routines are established and deadlines are set
Ø Urge task completion and monitor results
Ø The task-oriented leader perceives his role as
accomplishing the operations of the unit
Behavior of a leader who has a high regard for people convey:
Ø Warmth and social rapport with subordinates
Ø Respect for the feelings of others
Ø Sensitivity to other’s needs
Ø Leader’s role is to help operate as a unit by fostering
social ties

Ø Attention is on individual
Ø Suggestions are encouraged, freedom is permitted in
how work is done and subordinates’ personal
problems receive attention
Ø Characterized by trust, mutual respect and emphasis
on interpersonal relations
Example:
ü Some nurses emphasize the tasks (e.g., reducing
medication errors, completing patient records) and
fail to realize that interpersonal relationships (e.g.,
attitude of physicians toward nursing staff,
treatment of housekeeping staff by nurses) affect the
morale and productivity of employees.
ü Other nurses focus on the interpersonal aspects and
ignore the quality of the job being done as long as
people get along with each other.
ü The most effective leader is able to balance the two,
attending to both the task and the relationship
aspects of working together.
Contemporary Theories of Leadership
1. Situational Leadership Theory
2. Contingency Theory
3. Path-Goal Theory
4. Transactional Leadership
5. Transformational Leadership
6. Integrative Leadership Model
Situational Theory
Ø Became popular during the 1950’s.
Ø States that an analysis of leadership involves not only
the individual traits and behavior but also a focus on
the situation.
Ø Different situations calls for different behavior and
approaches.
Ø Is suggests that the traits required of a leader differ
according to varying situations. If the situation
changes, the style changes.
Ø A person may be a leader in one situation and a
follower in another, or a leader at one time and a
follower at other times because the type of
leadership needed depends on the situation.
Situational Factors
ü Needs and characteristics of followers
ü The nature of the task
ü Environmental pressures and demands
ü How much information is available to the leader
3 Theories on Situational Leadership
1. Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Model
2. Fiedler's Contingency Model
3. House's Path-Goal Theory
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Situational Leadership Theory
Ø Situational Leadership Theory, or the Situational
Leadership Model, is a model created by Paul Hersey
and Ken Blanchard.
Ø The theory was first introduced in 1969 as "life cycle
theory of leadership".
Ø The effectiveness of the leader behavior is
contingent upon the demands imposed by the
situation.
Ø Emphasizes follower readiness as a factor in
determining leadership style
Ø Focus is on the situation in which the leadership is
exercised and not upon the leader.
Ø This model predicts from the level of maturity of the
followers the suitable leadership style to tasks and
relationships in the workplace that managers can
adapt.
Ø It looks at the different variables surrounding the
situation to make the best choice in terms of
leadership style.
Situational Leadership Variables
Ø Emphasizes follower performance readiness to the
task
Ø Performance readiness depends on the level of
maturity of the followers:
a) Physiological maturity is associated with an
individual’s orientation towards achievement as
well as the ability and willingness to assume
responsibility.
b) Psychological maturity is an important aspect of
job maturity and it reflects a person’s state of
motivation, that is, their confidence and self-
esteem levels.
c) Chris Argyris’ immaturity-maturity continuum
indicates that as people mature, they progress
from a passive to an active state and from
dependence to independence.
Situational Leadership - That means managers who live by the
model must choose a leadership style related to followers'
maturity. For example, if an employee's maturity is high, the
model suggests the leader provide minimal guidance. By
contrast, if their maturity is low, the manager may need to
provide explicit directions and supervise work closely to ensure
the group has clarity on their goals and how they are expected
to achieve them.
Four categories of Maturity:
1. High maturity: Highly capable and confident
individuals who are experienced and work well
independently.
2. Moderate high maturity: Employees who are
capable but lack enough confidence to take on the
responsibility of the work.

3. Moderate low maturity: Employees with the
confidence to complete the task but not the
willingness.
4. Low-maturity: Employees who are not skilled
enough to do the task but are very enthusiastic.
STYLE 1: TELLING, DIRECTING or GUIDING
Ø The followers are also known as the dependent
follower.
Ø The followers demonstrate high commitment, but
low competence.
Ø They are unable to complete a task, but they are
willing and motivated to attempt the task.
Ø They need a lot of support and reassurance from the
leader through close supervision
STYLE 2: SELLING, COACHING or EXPLAINING
Ø Unable and Unwilling Followers
Ø The follower demonstrates a lack of commitment
and competence.
Ø These followers are unable to complete the required
task because they lack the skills necessary for success.
Ø They tend to be more passive and content with the
status quo, not actively seeking more autonomy or
opportunities to advance.
Ø Leaders should do coaching so that followers are
developing the necessary skills.
STYLE 3: PARTICIPATING, FACILITATING or COLLABORATING
Ø Able and Unwilling Followers
Ø The followers demonstrate high competence and low
commitment, also known as the hesitant follower.
Ø The followers are likely to perform their tasks well,
since they have developed the necessary skill set.
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
However, they may lack motivation or confidence
resulting in a lack of commitment to the task at hand.
Ø The leader should focus on providing feedback and
support to motivate the employee and encourage
greater development.
STYLE 4: DELEGATING, EMPOWERING or MONITORING
Ø The self-reliant follower because they are highly
competent.
Ø These followers are independent, self-motivated,
and take initiative.
Ø They have a high level of commitment to their tasks
and are willing to put in the extra effort to achieve
their goals.
Situational Leadership
FIEDLER’S Contingency Theory
Ø Fred Edward Fiedler (1922-2017 was one of the
leading researchers of industrial and organizational
psychology in the 20th century.
Ø He asserts that, for a leader to be effective, their
leadership style must fit the situation.
Ø Fiedler’s theory of leadership is based on two
factors: leadership style and situational
favorableness.
Ø No leadership style is ideal for every situation.
Ø Leadership style will be effective or ineffective
depending on the situation
Ø Three aspects of a situation that structure the
leaders role:
a) Leader – member relations
b) Task structure
c) Position power
A. Leader – member relations:
Ø This refers to the degree of mutual trust,
respect and confidence between the leader and
the subordinates.

Ø When the leader-member relations are good,
the leader has a high degree of control of the
situation which makes the situation more
favorable for the leader.
Ø When leader-member relations in the group are
poor, the leader has to shift focus away from
the group task in order to regulate behavior and
conflict within the group.
B. Task Structure:
Ø The Task Structure factor refers to the extent to
which group tasks are clear and structured.
Ø When task structure is low (unstructured),
group tasks are ambiguous, with no clear
solution or correct approach to complete the
goal.
Ø Conversely, when task structure is high
(structured), the group goal is clear and
straightforward and members have a clear idea
about how to approach and reach the goal.
C. Position Power:
Ø The Leader Position Power factor refers to the
amount of power the leader has over the group,
i.e. to which extent the leader can reward or
punish the group’s members.
Ø The stronger the power, the higher the degree
to which the leader can control the situation.
Ø When the position power is weak, leaders
cannot control the resources so they lack the
same degree of situational control as leaders
high in power.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership
Ø Fiedler's Contingency Model states that there's no
one best style of leadership.
Ø Leader’s behavior is dependent upon the interaction
of the leader’s personality and the needs of the
situation.
Ø This model helps anyone to identify his own
leadership style, assess the situation that requires
leadership, and determine whether he/she is the
right leader.
Ø The Fiedler model measures leadership using the
Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) scale.
Ø The LPC scale asks you to rate your feelings about
someone you least enjoyed working with.
Ø The LPC looks at 16 factors. Rate those feelings on a
scale of one to eight, then add up your score.
Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale
Ø The LPC scale is a questionnaire that helps the leader
to understand their specific leadership style. The
leader is asked to think of all the people with whom
they have ever worked and then describe the person
with whom they have worked least well, using a
series of scales of 1 to 8.
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Ø Leaders who score 64 and above have a relationship-
oriented leadership style. These leaders derive
satisfaction out of interpersonal relationships and
tend to rate their least preferred coworkers in a
more positive manner.
Ø Leaders who score 57 or below have a task-oriented
leadership style. These leaders tend to rate their
least preferred coworkers in a more negative manner
and get satisfaction out of successful task
performance.
House's Path-Goal Theory
Path-Goal Theory(Robert J. House)
Ø The theory was developed by Robert House and has
its roots in the expectancy theory of motivation.
Ø Path-Goal theory states that a good leader provides
clear direction, sets high goals, gets involved in goal
achievement and supports his employees.
Ø Leaders set up clear path and clear guidelines
through which the subordinates can achieve both
personal and work-related goals and assist them in
achieving these goals.
Ø Leaders would:
a) Clarify the path so that subordinates may know
their direction.
b) Remove obstructions that may hinder them to
achieve their goal or goals.
c) Increasing the rewards along the process.
House's Path-Goal Theory
Ø It is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining
goals and to provide the direction and support
needed to ensure that their goals are compatible
with the organization’s goals.
Ø Path–goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible
and that they can change their style, as situations
require.
Ø House’s theory advocates servant leadership.
Ø As per servant leadership theory, leadership is not
viewed as a position of power. Rather, leaders act as
coaches and facilitators to their subordinates.

A. Leaders Behavior/ Leadership Styles
Ø Directive: Here the leader provides guidelines, lets
subordinates know what is expected of them, sets
performance standards for them, and controls
behavior when performance standards are not met.
He makes judicious use of rewards and disciplinary
action. The style is the same as task-oriented one.
Ø Supportive: The leader is friendly towards
subordinates and displays personal concern for their
needs, welfare, and well-being. This style is the same
as people-oriented leadership.
Ø Participative: The leader believes in group decision-
making and shares information with subordinates.
He consults his subordinates on important decisions
related to work, task goals, and paths to resolve
goals.
Ø Achievement-oriented: The leader sets challenging
goals and encourages employees to reach their peak
performance. The leader believes that employees are
responsible enough to accomplish challenging goals.
This is the same as goal-setting theory.
B. Contingency Factors:
Ø The theory states that each of these styles will be
effective in some situations but not in others. It
further states that the relationship between a
leader’s style and effectiveness is dependent on the
following variables:
a) Employee characteristics: These include factors
such as employees’ needs, locus of control,
experience, perceived ability, satisfaction,
willingness to leave the organization, and
anxiety. For example, if followers are high
inability, a directive style of leadership may be
unnecessary; instead a supportive approach
may be preferable.
b) Characteristics of work environment: These
include factors such as task structure and team
dynamics that are outside the control of the
employee.
Ø For example, for employees performing simple and
routine tasks, a supportive style is much effective
than a directive one. Similarly, the participative style
works much better for non-routine tasks than
routine ones.
Ø When team cohesiveness is low, a supportive
leadership style must be used whereas in a situation
where performance-oriented team norms exist, a
directive style or possibly an achievement-oriented
style works better. Leaders should apply directive
style to counteract team norms that oppose the
team’s formal objectives.
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Transactional Leadership Theory
Ø This theory of leadership was first described by
sociologist Max Weber and further explored by
Bernard M. Bass in the early 1980s.
Ø Transactional leadership, also known as managerial
leadership, is a leadership style where leaders rely on
rewards and punishments to achieve optimal job
performance from their subordinates.
Basic Assumptions of Transactional Leadership:
Ø People perform their best when the chain of
command is definite and clear.
Ø Rewards and punishments motivate workers.
Ø Obeying the instructions and commands of the
leader is the primary goal of the followers.
Ø Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to
ensure that expectations are met.
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
Ø This style can work well in crisis situations where the
focus needs to be on accomplishing certain tasks.
Ø The leader or manager as a caretaker, sets goals for
employees, focuses on the day to day operations,
and uses management by exception.
Ø This style of leadership ensures that every employee
understands their job and has no questions about
their work or role.
Ø The leader uses his or her position in in order to
encourage desired behaviors and tends to gain
compliance by offering rewards for performance and
compliance or threatening punishment for non-
performance and non-compliance.
Ø All employees understand the organization's
definition of success and the expectations of each
employee.

Transformational Leadersip
Ø James MacGregor Burns (1978) introduced the
concept of transforming leadership.
Ø In his research he views that transforming leadership
is a process in which "leaders and followers help
each other to advance to a higher level of morale
and motivation".
Ø Another researcher, Bernard M. Bass (1985),
extended the work of Burns (1978) by explaining the
psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming
and transactional leadership.
Ø Bass identified the need for charisma, inspirational
leadership, individualized consideration and
intellectual simulation to have transformational
leadership instead of just transactional or contingent
reinforcement leadership.
Transformational Leadership Theory
Ø It is based on the idea of empowering others to
engage in pursuing a collective purpose by working
together to achieve a vision for the greater good.
Ø Places strong emphasis on one individual engaging
others and creating a connection that elevates the
level of motivation and morality in both the leader
and the follower.
Ø The key to this kind of leadership is to actively listen
and come up with pertinent suggestions that not
only promote patient outcomes, but also help build a
base of leadership with the new nurse.
Ø Transformational leadership enhances the
motivation, morale and performance of followers
through a variety of mechanisms.
Ø These include:
ü connecting the follower's sense of identity and
self to the mission and the collective identity of
the organization.
ü being a role model for followers that inspires
them
ü challenging followers to take greater ownership
for their work, and understanding the strengths
and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can
align followers with tasks that optimize their
performance.
Transformational leadership focuses on empowering others and
inspiring change.
To achieve these ends, the four “I’s” of transformational
leadership:
Ø Intellectual stimulation encourages innovative
thinking by emphasizing new experiences and
growth opportunities.
Ø Individual consideration builds positive relationships
by mentoring employees and helping each person
understand their value and potential.
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Ø Inspirational motivation models a vision for the
organization, the team and for employees to emulate
and make their own.
Ø Idealized influence models expectations and actions
for employees, earning their trust and respect.
Examples of transformational leaders:
We can look to key figures from history such as
Mahatma Gandhi and Nelson Mandela. We can look at current
figures like New Zealand’s Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, who
exemplifies her transformational leadership with strong focus
on empathy.
Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership
1. Transactional
ü Focuses on management tasks
ü Is a caretaker
ü Uses trade-offs to meet goals
ü Shared values not identified
ü Examines causes
ü Uses contingency reward
2. Transformational
ü Identifies common values
ü Is committed
ü Inspires others with vision
ü Has long term vision
ü Looks at effects
ü Empowers others
Leadership Skills
Ø Leadership skills are the strengths and abilities
individuals demonstrate that help to oversee
processes, guide initiatives and steer their employees
toward the achievement of goals.
Ø Leadership skills are an essential component in
positioning executives to make thoughtful decisions
about their organization's mission and goals, and
properly allocate resources to achieve those
directives.
Ø Valuable leadership skills include the ability to
delegate, inspire and communicate effectively.
Ø The ability to maintain honesty, confidence,
commitment and creativity.
Important Leadership Skills for Managers
Ø Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand
and control one’s own emotions, read and react
appropriately to others’ emotions, and manage
relationships—may sound simple.
Ø Communication Skills – the ability to effectively
communicate their vision to both their team and
those above them. But more than that, they must be
able to adjust and tailor their communications
appropriately for a wide array of situations and
people, often across cultural and generational lines.

Ø Delegation – the ability of the managers to identify
the right team member to handle the specific task
and ensure they have the knowledge and tools need
to get the job done.
Ø Motivating Others - Capable managers are able to
identify what motivates each member of their
team—whether that’s opportunities for growth or
simple recognition—and use that knowledgeto keep
them enthusiastic about that work. They also
understand that treating employees with respect and
fairness is a powerful motivator in and of itself.
Ø Strategic Thinking includes the ability to assess a
situation, set realistic goals, and develop a plan to
reach them. Strategic thinkers can adapt to changing
circumstances and communicate their importance to
their team and their own leadership.
Ø Integrity skills is the ability to prioritize fairness and
honesty, creating an environment of trust within
their team.
Ø Flexibility - Strong leaders can quickly assess new
challenges and pivot as needed, even when it’s
uncomfortable.
Ø Flexible managers understand that work and
processes can always be improved, and don’t hang
onto certain ways of doing things just for the sake of
it.
Note: Leadership can be learned.
Ø Henry Mintzberg described essential skill which can
be learned:
a) Skills of Introspection – the ability to
understand the position of a leader and his
impact of an organization.
b) Entrepreneurial Skills – the ability to take
sensible risks and implement innovations.
c) Conflict-resolution Skills – the ability to
meditate conflict, to handle disturbances under
psychological stress.
d) Peer Skills – the ability to establish and
maintain a network of contact.
e) Information-Processing Skills – the ability to
build networks, extract and validate
information and disseminate information
effectively.
f) Skills in Unstructured decision- decision-
makers use not only the explicit knowledge but
also aspects such as intuition, experience and
other forms of tacit knowledge
Kinds of Power
Ø Power-and-Influence leadership focuses on how
leaders can motivate their team by using their power
and/or influence.
Ø According to Max Weber, power is the possibility of
imposing one’s will upon the behavior of other
persons
NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Ø Forms of Power:
a) Coercive power
b) Reward power
c) Legitimate power
d) Referent power
e) Expert power
Coercive Power
Ø Coercive power is conveyed through fear of losing
one's job, being demoted, receiving a poor
performance review, having prime projects taken
away, etc.
Ø It usually takes the form of threats from the leader to
coerce the employee into doing something that they
don’t want to do.
Ø Coercive power is one of the least effective and most
commonly abused kinds of power.
Reward Power
Ø Reward power is the formal power given to a work
leader to give out rewards to other employees.
Ø It is a position power, which means the source of
power is based on a leader's position with a company.
Ø An example of reward power is a manager or
supervisor who incentivizes higher performance from
employees.
Legitimate Power
Ø Legitimate power is the formal authority given to a
person within an organization.
Ø It also a form of positional power because it comes
from a position or job title.
Ø It is delegated from higher authority in formal
organizations.
Ø The incumbent have this power or authority because
of the position they hold and not because of
personal characteristics or specialized training or
experience.
Referent Power
Ø Referent power is also called charismatic or personal
power because it comes from the personal qualities
of a leader.
Ø Referent power is a form of reverence gained by a
leader who has strong interpersonal relationship
skills.
Ø This power is important as organizational leadership
has increasingly about collaboration and influence
and less about command and control.
Ø Example of referent power in the workplace is a
manager who is admired and respected by his
subordinates and seen as a role model.
 NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Expert Power Social, Intelligence and work-related characteristics of a leader:
Ø Expert Power is also called “knowledge power” arises Ø Murray’s effective leaders attributes as follows:
from a person’s specialized knowledge and ü Identify with the goals and values of the groups
information about certain situations. they lead
Ø Expert power is the ability an employee has, ü Want to take leadership responsibility and are
regardless of seniority, to show expertise in a subject competent in handling new situations
or situation. ü Can be relied to perform leadership functions
Ø For example, a trained nurse would exert expert consistently
power to a sick client because of her training, ü In elected or public positions, usually possess
education and experience. The sick client would more enthusiasm and capacity for expression
most likely follow the nurse’ advice because of her than other types of leaders.
expertise in the field of nursing.
Key Points on Traits:
TRAITS Ø These traits are not universal in nature.
Traits are distinctive internal qualities or Ø Not all of these traits work all the time.
characteristics, personal factors that distinguish the leaders. Ø “A person does not become a leader by virtue of
ü Physical characteristics these possession of traits, but the pattern of
ü Social characteristics personal characteristics of the leader must bear
ü Personality some relevant relationship to the characteristics,
ü Intelligence characteristics activities and goals of the followers.” (Ralph Stogdill)
ü Work related characteristics
Types of Leaders:
Leadership Traits - Physical 1. Formal
Physical Characteristics of a Leader: ü One who is appointed
ü Heroes were all great leaders of their times. ü Chosen by administration
ü Looking at the social and political milieu of their ü Given official or legitimate authority to act
times, they sought to change it. 2. Informal
ü In the pursuit of their purpose, they displayed the ü Do not have official sanction to direct activities of
kind of courage, determination, and tenacity that others
overcome obstacles. ü Chosen by the group
ü Become leaders because of:
Leadership Traits - Personality a) Age
Personality Characteristics of a Leader: b) Seniority
Ø Sun Wu Tzu was the first to recognize the importance of c) Special competencies
personality traits in leadership d) Inviting personality
Ø He wrote The Art of War 2,300 years ago. In this classis e) Ability to communicate and counsel other
Chinese literature, he identified five qualities that a
military leader should possess: LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR (STYLES)
ü Wisdom ways a leader behaves toward his followers influencing them to
ü Sincerity accomplish goals
ü Benevolence 1. Autocratic Leaders
ü Courage 2. Democratic Leaders
ü Strictness 3. Laissez-faire Leaders
Ø Sun Wu Tzu also identified five weaknesses that should
afflict the general: Leadership Style
ü If reckless, he can be killed Qualities
ü If cowardly, he can be captured ü Integrity
ü If quick-tempered, he can easily be provoked ü Courage
ü If sensitive to honor, he can be easily insulted ü Initiative
ü If over-compassionate to the people, he can be ü Energy
easily harassed ü Optimism
ü Perseverance
ü Balance
ü Ability to handle stress
ü Self-awareness
 NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Behaviors Disadvantages:
ü Think critically ü Results in low morale
ü Solve problems ü Not as much opportunity for people to develop their
ü Communicate skillfully potential
ü Set goals, share vision ü One-way communication does not lead to
ü Develop self and other understanding
ü Results in hostility, alienation and inflexibility
Behavior a leader must have: ü Little autonomy creativity and self motivation
ü Think critically ü Have little trust and confidence with subordinates
ü Solve problems ü Subordinates fear the manager
ü Communicate skillfully
ü Set goals, share vision Democratic or Participative or Consultative Leadership
ü Develop self and other - stable
Ø Involve the group in decision making
What is Critical Thinking? Ø Let group determine work methods
Ø Critical thinking is the careful, deliberate use of Ø Make overall goals known
reasoned analysis to reach a decision about what to Ø Use feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching
believe or what to do (Feldman, 2002). Ø They welcome suggestion and feedback and are open to
Ø The essence of critical thinking is a willingness to ask new ideas
questions and to be open to new ideas, new ways to Behaviors:
do things. ü Less control is maintained
Ø To avoid falling prey to assumptions and biases of ü Economic and ego awards are used to motivate
your own and those of others, ask yourself ü Others are directed through suggestions and
frequently, “Do I have the information I need? Is it guidance
accurate? ü Communications flows up and down
Ø Am I prejudging a situation?” ( Jackson, Ignatavicius, ü Decision making involves others
& Case, 2004). ü Emphasis is on “we” rather than “I” and “you”
ü Criticism is constructive
Autocratic Leadership Results:
- crisis, emergencies, start up of business ü Appropriate for groups who work together for
Ø Unilateral Decisions extended periods
Ø Dictate work method ü Promotes autonomy and growth
Ø Limit worker knowledge about goals to justify the next ü Effective when cooperation and coordination
step to be performed between groups
Ø Give punitive feedback ü Less efficient quantitatively than authoritative
Behaviors: leadership
ü Strong control is maintain over the work group Advantages:
ü Other are motivated by coercion ü Extremely motivational
ü Others are directed with commands ü Makes better use of the skill and knowledge of the
ü Communication flows downward group
ü Decision making does not involve others ü Builds effective work groups
ü Emphasis is on difference in status (“I” and “you”) ü People are more committed to an organization and
ü Criticism is punitive its activities
Results: ü Emphasizes the worth and importance of the
ü Well-defined group actions individual
ü Productivity is high ü People are better informed. Develop personal skills
ü Creativity, self-motivation and autonomy are ü Encourages open communication
reduced Disadvantage:
Advantages: ü Takes time to get others involved
ü Results in central control and coordination ü Results in compromise and watered-down decisions
ü More consistency in policy interpretation and ü Inaction can result from the diffused responsibility
implementation ü Participation may hold down the innovative, far-
ü Quicker decisions. sighted leader
ü Contributes to strong leadership that is important in ü Participative styles are difficult to learn
generating change and meeting crises ü Works well only under certain conditions
ü Good quantity and quality of output
 NCM 119: Nursing Leadership and Management
Laissez-faire Leaders (Free-reign)
Ø Give group complete freedom
Ø Provide necessary materials
Ø Participate only to answer questions
Ø Avoid giving feedback

Laissez-faire or Ultraliberal or Permissive Leadership

- full stability
Ø Shows low concern for both people and task
Ø Very permissive, nondirective, passive and inactive
Ø Turn most decisions over to the group and show little
interest in the work process or it results
Ø Absence of direct leadership
Ø Task is presented to the group, which establish it own
goals and works out it own techniques for accomplishing
goals within the framework of organizational policy
Ø Leaves subordinates to freely set objectives and work
procedure
Ø Leader acts as liaison between outside sources and the Leadership style may vary from one situation to the other
group and ascertain that necessary resources are available
to the group Leadership must promote high level of performance efficiently
Ø Leader allows complete freedom in planning activities and with little disruption
offers guidance in response to direct questions
Ø Emphasis is on encouraging individual performance by Factors affecting Leadership Styles
providing an unrestricted environment Ø Ability, skill and knowledge of the subordinates
Behaviors: Ø Manager’s personality/ preference, training,
ü Permissive with little or no control education & background
ü Motivates by support when requested by group or Ø Nature of task
individual Ø Organizational culture and climate
ü Provides little or no direction Ø The expectation of superior, from colleagues or
ü Uses upward and downward communication peers
between members of the group
ü Disperses decision making throughout the group
ü Places emphasis on the group
ü Does not criticize
Results:
ü Frustrating; group apathy and disinterest can occur
ü Can result in creativity and productivity if members
are highly motivated and self-directed
ü Appropriate when problems are poorly defined and
brainstorming is needed to generate alternative
solutions
Advantages:
ü Highly motivational to those people who seek
freedom and independence
ü Maximizes the potential of the individual
ü Encourages a free flowing adaptive organization
Disadvantages:
ü Can result in chaos because of lack of central control
and coordination
ü Personal rather than group goals may predominate
ü Easy for conditions to get out of hand before
corrective action is taken