Pronouns
A r subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes,
WEEK 2 REVIEW ENGLISH LANGUAGE RULES
Finding Nouns, Verbs and Subjects
 Noun is a word or set of words for a person, place,
thing, or idea.
 Proper nouns are always capitalized. They name
specific people, places, and things (e.g. Joe, Chicago,
Academy Award).
 Common nouns are words for a general class of
people, places, things, and ideas (e.g. man, city,
award, honesty). They are not capitalized.
 Compound noun is a noun of more than one word
(e.g. tennis court, gas station)
 Verb is a word or set of words that shows action
(runs, is going, has been painting); feeling (loves,
envies); or state of being (am, are, is, have been,
was, seem).
 Linking verbs are state-of-being verbs. They include
all forms of the verb to be (be, being, been, am, is,
are, was, were), plus such words as look, feel,
appear, act, go, followed by an adjective. e.g. We
feel fine.
 Helping verbs are so named because they help
clarify the intended meaning. Many verbs can
function as helping verbs, including is, shall, must,
do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.
 Gerunds are also called verbal nouns, because they
are formed when verbs have ‘-ing’ added to them and
are used as nouns. e.g. Walking is great exercise.
(The – ‘ing’ word, the gerund, is the subject of the
sentence.)
 Subject is the noun, pronoun or set of words that
performs the verb. e.g. The woman hurried. To find
the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then
ask who or what performed the verb. e.g. The jet
engine passed inspection.
Any request or command, such as Stop! or Walk quickly, has the
understood subject you, because if we ask who is to stop or
walk quickly, the answer must be "you. “ e.g. (You) Please bring
me some coffee
Subject-Verb Agreement
Rule.
shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb. e.g. The list
of items is on the desk.
Exceptions:
a. The first person pronoun I takes a plural verb (I go, I
drive).
b. The basic form of the verb is used after certain main
verbs such as watch, see, hear, feel, help, let, and
make. e.g. He watched Ronaldo score the winning
goal.
Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor
require a singular verb.
e.g. My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
The verb in an or, sentence agrees with the to it. e.g.
either/or, or neither/nor noun or pronoun closest
Neither the plates nor goes on that shelf.
the serving bowl
Parentheses are not part of the subject. e.g. Joe (and his pal Ben)
was always welcome.
Irregular Verbs
Verbs are either regular or irregular. We call a verb
regular when we add ed (wanted, looked) or sometimes just d
(created, loved) to form what are called the simple past tense
and the past participle .
A regular verb's simple past tense and past participle
are always identical. Irregular verbs form the simple past tense
and the past participle in any number of unpredictable ways.
Some irregular verbs, like let, shut, and spread, never
change, whether present or past. Others, like feel and teach,
become modified versions of themselves (felt, taught) to form
both the past tense and the past participle.
Still others, like break and sing, change to form the
past tense (broke, sang) and change again to form the past
participle (broken, sung). And then there are a few really weird
ones, like go: its past participle (gone) is recognizable enough,
but its simple past tense is a strange new word (went).
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 Clauses and Phrases

 A clause is a group of words containing a subject and

verb.
Who vs. Whom
 An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can The pronoun who is always subjective. Use who
stand on its own. e.g. She is hungry. wherever you would use the subjective pronouns I, he,
she, we, or they.
 A dependent clause cannot stand on its own. It
needs an independent clause to complete a sentence. e.g. Who wrote the letter?

The pronoun whom is always an object. Use whom

wherever you would use the objective pronouns me, him, her,
Dependent clauses often begin with such words as although,
us, or them.
since, if, when, and because.
e.g. Whom should I vote for?
e.g. Although she is hungry (dependent), she will give
him some of her food (independent).

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb Who, That, Which

component, used as a single part of speech.
Who and sometimes that refer to people. That and
e.g. Best friend (phrase acts as a noun) Needing help (phrase which refer to groups or things. e.g. Anya is the one who
acts as an adjective) rescued the bird.

Lokua is on the team that won first place.

Pronouns She belongs to a great organization, which specializes
in saving endangered species.
 A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they,
each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone,
everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a
noun. Adjectives and Adverbs

In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the
pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively.
There are three types of pronouns: subject (I, he, she,
we), object (me, him, her, us,) or possessive (mine, his, hers,
ours).
- An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies or
describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come
before the word they modify.
o e.g. That is a cute puppy. Adjectives may also
follow the word they modify.

The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, o e.g. That puppy looks cute.
theirs, and whose never need apostrophes.

An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs,

The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer how, when, where,
for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when why, or to what extent, how often or how much (daily,
it means who is or who has. completely).

Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive e.g. He speaks slowly (tells how) / He speaks very slowly (the
pronouns. adverb very tells how slowly)

There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself,

himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and
Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word
themselves.
can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an
Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and adverb.e.g. She thinks quickly.
the object of a verb are the same person or thing.

e.g. Joe helped himself.

The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.

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Adjectives come in three forms or degrees such as the normal
or usual (positive), comparative and superlative
degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following
examples:
Prepositions
 A preposition is a word or set of words that indicates
location (in, near, beside, on top of) or some other
relationship between a noun or pronoun and other
parts of the sentence (about, after, besides, instead
of).
A preposition is not a preposition unless it goes with a related
noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition. e.g. Let's
meet before noon. (Before is a preposition and noon is its
object)
Effective Writing
 Use concrete rather than vague language.
 Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice
means the subject is performing the verb. Passive
voice means the subject receives the action. e.g.
Barry hit the ball. (Active). The ball was hit.
(Passive)
To avoid confusion, don't use two negatives to make a positive
without good reason. e.g. They are not unwilling to help.
Better: They are willing to help.
 Use consistent grammatical form when offering
several ideas. This is called parallel construction.
e.g. I admire people who are honest, reliable, and sincere. The
adjectives are used to show consistency.
Punctuation Rules
 Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is
a statement.
 If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that
ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
e.g. This is Alice Smith, M.D.
 Question marks and exclamation points replace and
eliminate periods at the end of a sentence.
 Commas customarily indicate a brief pause; they're
not as final as periods.
 Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the
salutation in a business letter, even when addressing
someone by his or her first name. (Never use a
semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after
the salutation in more informal correspondence.
Formal: Dear Ms. Rodriguez:
Informal: Dear Dave,
Quotation marks are often used with technical terms. e.g. It's an
oil-extraction method known as “fracking.”
Fracking is the hydraulic fracturing of bedrock.
Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession
with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter ‘s’.
 Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by
adding either the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter,
letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural
possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.
e.g. two actresses’ roles (actress + es + apostrophe)
 Irregular nouns become plural by changing their
spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words.
Write out the entire irregular plural noun before
adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.
e.g. two children’s hats (children + apostrophe + s)
Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through
ninety-nine. e.g. thirty-two children
Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e.,
former), and all-. e.g. self-assured, ex-mayor, all- knowing
 Use a question mark only after a direct question.
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  Use an exclamation point to show emotion, stationery - writing paper. stationary - stable and
emphasis, or surprise. unmoving.

weather/whether

Capitalization Rules weather - climate outside.

 Capitalize the first word of a document and the first whether - word showing an alternative.
word after a period. where/were
 Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from where - what place.
proper nouns.
were - past plural form of the verb to be.
 Always capitalize the first word in a complete
quotation, even midsentence.

e.g. Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win." whose/who’s

whose - relative pronoun referring to a person or thing.

who’s - the contraction for who is.
Confusing Words and Homonyms

 Homonyms are words that are pronounced the same

Writing Number
but which are spelled differently and have different
meanings.  Spell out all numbers beginning a sentence. e.g Twenty-
three hundred sixty-one victims were hospitalized.
 There are some homonyms which are commonly
confused. There are other words which are not really  Hyphenate all written-out fractions. e.g. We recovered
homonyms because they are not pronounced the about two-thirds of the stolen cash.
same but are pronounced in a similar way. Here are
some words whose meanings are commonly  For clarity, use noon and midnight rather than 12:00 PM
confused: and 12:00 AM
accept/except

accept - to take or agree. except - something different. Courtesy and Etiquette in Correspondence and ication
affect/effect Courtesy in Business Communication
affect - to change something. effect - the result. - Courtesy in business communication involves
showing respect to others in the workplace. This
cite/site/sight
means that you need to be sincere and polite through
cite - to refer to or name someone or something. site written or in-person communication.
place or location.
Communication Etiquette
sight - what is seen.
- Good communication etiquette includes behavior and
principle/principal strategies that can help you relay information clearly
while maintaining positive relationships with your
principle - fundamental rule or doctrine. supervisors, colleagues and clients.
principal - as an adjective, main. as a noun, the head of Good Communication Etiquette
a school.
- Proper communication can ensure that employees
soul/sole interpret the meaning of your message as intended. It
can also label you as an effective communicator who
soul - spirit.
possess leadership qualities and potentially leading to
sole - the only one. greater professional opportunities in the future.

stationary/stationery
Tips on Communication Etiquette

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1. Determine the correct medium
- If you have only a quick update to convey to
your supervisor, a text message or instant
message may be optimal, as the subject isn't time-
sensitive or detailed. If you outline major
changes to a project, email or video calls might
be the preferred mediums.
2. Decide on the level of formality
- The required formality depends on the person
you are addressing. Some organizations with
relaxed working environments may prefer a more
informal manner of communication, with some
individuals in management positions wanting you
to address them by their first name.
3. Adjust your tone
- It can be challenging to gauge the correct tone in
your writing, but you can also prevent
misunderstandings with a few adjustments.
Expressions of gratitude can show that you
appreciate a recipient's time and consideration. If
you're uncertain about your tone, consider asking
a colleague to proofread your email or message
and offer advice before you send.
4. Be respectful on the phone
- Before a conversation, consider disclosing any
information pertaining to the privacy of the
conversation. During the conversation, try your
best to actively listen. Treat the person as though
they were in front of you by listening carefully
and taking notes on the details they provide.
Also, try to be conscious of the volume at which
you speak.
- and taking notes on the details they provide.
Also, try to be conscious of the volume at which
you speak.
5. Consider timing
- The time at which you make a call or send an
email can affect how the recipient receives it. If
you know the person is likely busy later in the day,
they may be more receptive to communication in
the morning. If an email or phone call later in
the day is necessary, consider sending a notice
to the person asking whether it would be
acceptable to email or call at a certain time.
6. Try being concise but thorough
- Time is often a precious commodity, so you can
value your colleagues' time by communicating
details concisely. It may help to arrange
information under headings or in list form,
which are easier to scan and navigate than
complete paragraphs. Structuring your emails in
this way can ensure others receive your message
as quickly and clearly as possible.
7. Practice proper video call etiquette
- Before a call starts, consider testing your audio
and video capabilities, as ensuring proper
functionality can prevent delays or false starts.
During the call, remember to mute your
microphone when you're not speaking since your
audio could interrupt other participants on the call.
8. Proofread your writing
- When you've finished writing an email, text
message or instant message, consider reading it
again and checking for errors. Proofreading is
vital when writing from your phone, which may
autocorrect some words. While proofreading, also
check that you’ve included the correct recipients
and provided the necessary attachments.
9. Constructively criticize
- If you provide constructive criticism to a
colleague, it may be best to do so in person in a
private setting. If you cannot arrange a face-to-
face meeting, a video or telephone call is
suggested for a more personal setting than an
email or text message. When giving constructive
criticism, try to focus on how the recipient can
improve their work, rather than what the person
did incorrectly.
10. Acknowledge others
- When you receive messages from others try to
respond in order to confirm your
understanding. If the communication regards an
ongoing task in which you're involved,
acknowledging the message can suggest that
you clearly understand updated information.
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 An expression of thanks can show you appreciate - able to emphasize a specific message or a goal at that
the sender providing the information. time.

- clear about your ideas.

Parts, Characteristics and Phonetics of Reports - the understanding of ideas becomes easier as the
meaning of the words is enhanced.
Types of Communication

1. Formal Communication
3. Correct
Formal communications are the one that flows through the
official channels. It may take place between a superior and a - correct communication of thoughts and ideas is also an
subordinate, a subordinate and a superior or among the same error-free form of communication.
employees or managers. These communications can be oral or
in writing and are generally recorded and filed in the office. - the names and titles that you have mentioned
should be correct.

Formal communication may be :

 Vertical Communication is one that flows vertically

4. Concrete
upwards or downwards through formal channels.
Upward communication refers to the flow of - the idea of being clear and particular
communication from a subordinate to a superior
whereas downward communication flows from a - supported by figures and facts thus it gives
superior to a subordinate. your ideas a boost.

 Horizontal or lateral communication takes place - are little to none chances that your message is
between one division and another. misinterpreted.

2. Informal communication 5. Complete

- Informal communication takes place without
following the formal channels of communication.
Informal communication spreads throughout the
organization and in all directions without any
regard to the levels of authority.
3. Unofficial Communication
- the audience has everything that they want to
be informed.
- includes all the facts and figures in the
sentences.
- leaves no room for doubt in the mind of the
readers and audiences.

- unofficial communication refers to employee

6. Courteous
communication outside of the workplace on
matters unrelated to work. - show respect to your reader by having
courteous communication.
The 7 C’s of Communication
- sending the message should be polite, sincere,
1. Concise
enthusiastic, and reflective.
- able to convey your messages in shortest possible
words.

- do not use vague words

7. Coherent
- message is clearly sent to everyone.
- all the points that have been mentioned should
be relevant to the topic and connected.
2. Clear
- the flow and tone of the communication
should also be consistent.
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 letters precisely, either when communicating initials,
abbreviations or spellings of words.
Parts of a Report

1. Introduction

• The introduction contextualizes the report by

tying it to a problem or an assignment, states
the purpose of the report, previews the
report’s contents and organization and Phonetic Spelling Alphabet
establishes the tone of the report. A-ALPHA
2. Body of the Report B-BRAVO
- It consists of the major sections that present, C-CHARLIE
analyze, and interpret the findings gathered as
part of your investigation. These sections D-DELTA
contain the detailed information necessary to
E-ECHO
support your conclusions and
recommendations. F-FOXTROT
3. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations G-GOLF
• Summary: The findings paraphrased from the H-HOTEL
body and stated in the order in which they
appear in the body. I-INDIA

• Conclusions: The analysis of what the findings mean. J-JULIET

In other words, answers to the questions that led to
K-KILO
the report.
L-LIMA
• Recommendations: Opinions, based on reason and
logic, about the course of action that should be taken. M-MIKE

N-NOVEMBER
Characteristics Of A Good Report O-OSCAR
• Precision P-PAPA
• Accuracy of Facts Q-QUEBEC
• Relevancy. R-ROMEO
• Simple Language S-SIERRA
• Conciseness T-TANGO
• Grammatical
U-UNIFORM
• Unbiased Recommendation
V-VICTOR
• Clarity
W-WHISKY
• Presentation
X-X-RAY
• Complete Information
Y-YANKEE

Z-ZULU
Phonetic Language

- The phonetic language - also known as the 'spelling

alphabet' or the NATO phonetic alphabet - is used by
professional communicators, especially police, military
and other emergency and armed forces, to identify
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