applied
sciences
Article
Study on the Compressive Stress–Strain Curve and
Performance of Low-Slump Polypropylene Fiber Concrete after
High Temperature
Bing Li, Wenbin Zheng and Yang Zhang *
Citation: Li, B.; Zheng, W.; Zhang, Y.
Study on the Compressive
Stress–Strain Curve and Performance
of Low-Slump Polypropylene Fiber
Concrete after High Temperature.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app13127222
Academic Editor: Laurent
Daudeville
Received: 22 April 2023
Revised: 2 June 2023
Accepted: 13 June 2023
Published: 16 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127222
Department of Civil Engineering, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China; tingchao136@163.com (B.L.);
zwb15799032372@163.com (W.Z.)
* Correspondence: zhangyang78@hainanu.edu.cn
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the effect of high temperature on the mechanical properties
of low-slump polypropylene fiber (PPF) concrete, and tests the tensile and compressive properties
of 204 groups of low-slump PPF concrete with eight different dosages and four different lengths at
normal temperature and after high temperature. The results of the compressive test showed that
PPF can significantly improve the mechanical properties of concrete after high temperature when the
fiber content is small, and the compressive strength of low collapse polypropylene fiber concrete after
high temperature showed a tendency to rise and then fall at the same temperature with an increase
of the fiber admixture. When the fiber content was 0.5 kg/m3 , the compressive strengths of 3 mm,
9 mm, 15 mm and 19 mm reached their maxima, which were 9.65%, 11.33%, 7.90% and 2.87% higher
than that of ordinary concrete, respectively. With an increase in fiber length, the effect of PPF on the
compressive strength of concrete is not obvious. PPF at high admixture further increases the pore and
air content in concrete, which decreases the compactness of the concrete, thus leading to a decrease in
the compressive strength of the concrete. When the temperature was 800 ◦ C and the fiber admixture
was 5.0 kg/m3 , the compressive strength of PPF concrete with different lengths reduced by 17.83%,
17.27%, 22.59% and 23.92%, respectively, compared to normal concrete. In addition, according to the
results, the optimal combinations of strength at room temperature and after high temperature were
3 mm fiber length and 1.0 kg/m3 dosing and 9 mm fiber length and 0.5 kg/m3 dosing, respectively,
which increased the compressive and tensile strengths by 17.15% and 25.72% at room temperature
and by at least 6% and 20% after high temperature, compared to the concrete without fiber dosing.
Moreover, the stress–strain constitutive equations of PPF concrete at normal temperature and after
high temperature were established, which can be used for finite element simulation and related
mechanical analysis of PPF after high temperature.
Keywords: low slump concrete; polypropylene fiber (PPF); after high temperature; stress–strain
curve; mechanical properties
1. Introduction
In recent years, various FRP materials have emerged, and new materials applied to
concrete have made significant progress. Among these, PPF concrete is a new type of
composite material that improves toughness and fire resistance by adding fibers. It is less
brittle than ordinary concrete and widely used in various civil and commercial buildings
due to its simplicity of construction and affordability [1–3]. The frequent occurrence
of fire incidents in recent years has caused significant harm to property and the safety
of lives, and fires are recognized as major dangerous disasters. Fires in buildings can
damage the performance of building materials under high temperatures, which necessitates
in-depth research on the mechanical behavior of concrete under such conditions. The
use of high-strength concrete is a direct method of improving the bearing capacity and
durability of buildings. However, relevant research has shown [4–6] that high-strength
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 2 of 25

concrete is highly susceptible to peeling, due to its high-density gelatinous matrix and
internal pore structure, making it more prone to cracking under fire. The addition of
PPF polymer to concrete can reduce this cracking phenomenon [7–9] and improve the
durability of the material. Several studies have investigated the mechanical properties of
PPF concrete under the influence of temperature. Özbay and Türker et al. [10] found that
the bending strength of PPF concrete after exposure to high temperature was significantly
lower than that of ordinary concrete. Dharanipathi and Arumairaj [11] found that the
addition of PPF improved the flexural strength and crack resistance of concrete. Ding
et al. [12] investigated the relationship between temperature and pore pressure of self-
compacting concrete with different diameters and doses of polypropylene fibers. They
found that fine PPF fibers could effectively alleviate pore pressure, and the pore pressures
of specimens with low-dose fine fibers were lower than those of specimens with high-dose
coarse fibers. Petrus et al. [13] found that the compressive strength of PPF concrete at the
same temperature was much higher than that of non-fiber-reinforced concrete. They also
observed that PPF could promote adhesion between cement slurry and aggregate. Shirsath
and Yaragal [14] found that PPF concrete could improve surface cracks of specimens,
and the addition of steel fibers and polypropylene fibers could increase the splitting
tensile strength of concrete within a certain temperature range (400–600 ◦ C). Wu et al. [15]
discovered that the cooling method had an impact on the residual compressive strength
of self-compacting PPF concrete after being exposed to high temperatures, and naturally
cooled specimens had higher residual compressive strength than water-cooled specimens.
Jameran [16] pointed out that, with a fixed volume fraction of 1.5%, the ratio of steel fibers
to polypropylene fibers was 3:1, and the residual compressive strength after 400 ◦ C was
the highest. Additionally, increasing PPF content could reduce the occurrence of concrete
spalling. Bosnjak et al. [17] found that adding steel fibers and polypropylene fibers to
concrete resulted in fracture energy at least two orders of magnitude higher than that
of the control group. Smarzewski [18] demonstrated that the internal thermal damage
to ultra-high-performance concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibers originates from
the effects of micro-pore pressure, thermal decomposition of hydration products, thermal
conductivity differences of various components, and the formation of micro-cracks within
the concrete. Amin et al. [19] noted that lightweight concrete containing 0.4% volume
fraction of polypropylene fibers had a residual compressive strength of 76% at 400 ◦ C
compared to that at room temperature. Krishna and Kaliyaperumal [20] found that adding
1% volume fraction of polypropylene fibers was more effective in preventing concrete
spalling but had a minimal impact on the bonding characteristics of concrete. Roy et al. [21]
discovered that adding polypropylene fibers can significantly reduce the loss of tensile
strength in high-strength concrete, and the mass loss rate is proportional to the fiber
content. Chen et al.’s research [22] showed that adding polypropylene and steel fibers
can improve not only the bonding performance, but also the mechanical properties, of an
ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) repaired cementitious composite system at high
temperatures. It can also inhibit the high-temperature bursting and spalling of concrete.
Meanwhile, Qin et al.’s results [23] demonstrated that adding a 0.2% volume fraction of
polypropylene fibers to beam specimens of ultra-high-performance concrete cured at room
temperature can effectively reduce the bursting of the beam surface under fire conditions.
Zhang and Tan [24] suggested that the aspect ratio of polypropylene fibers is the critical
factor that affects the spalling effect of UHPC concrete. Thinner and longer polypropylene
fibers are better at preventing spalling. When the fiber content is below 3 kg/m3 , UHPC
can be prevented from peeling, and the critical value of the aspect ratio of peeling is not
less than 300. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a current research hotspot. Ning et al.’s
research [25] showed that a small amount of polypropylene fiber can effectively inhibit the
explosive spalling of self-compacting concrete. Moosaei et al. [26] found that, compared
with steel and glass fibers, polypropylene fibers can more effectively reduce the slump of
concrete, and the mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber concrete with a volume
fraction of 0.5% are optimal after being exposed to 800 ◦ C. Xu et al. [27] found that when the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 3 of 25

mixing ratio of polypropylene and steel fibers is 1:0.2, the dynamic splitting performance
and tensile toughness of concrete at high temperatures can be significantly improved.
Kencanawati et al. [28] showed that when the amount of added polypropylene fiber does
not exceed 2.5 kg/m3 , the alkaline components in the concrete decrease with increase
in temperature, and the degree of decrease increases with the increase in the amount of
polypropylene fiber. Zheng [29] pointed out that when the addition of polypropylene fiber
was 0.25% volume fraction, the impact strength of foamed concrete increased by 300%
compared to a blank control group. To reduce the bursting and peeling of concrete shield
tunnel segments under fire and to improve durability, Zhang et al. [30–35] investigated
the fire performance of concrete shield tunnel segments with polypropylene fibers and
their mixtures. Krishna et al. [36] observed that the hybrid mixture of polypropylene
and micro-steel fibers exhibited good impact resistance at high temperatures. Meena
and Ramana [37] stated that adding 0.5% PPF significantly improved various mechanical
properties of concrete at high temperatures.
In summary, research on the effect of high temperature on PPF concrete mainly focuses
on the following: the inhibitory effect of PPF on the bursting phenomenon of different
types of concrete (including ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), Self-compacting
concrete (SCC), lightweight concrete, etc.); the performance of PPF applied in actual struc-
tural components (such as reinforced concrete beam-slab structures, concrete shield tunnel
lining structures, etc.); the mixed mechanical properties of PPF with other fibers. No
studies were found on the three-factor coupling effect of PPF length, PPF dosage, and
temperature on multiple samples. This study conducted mechanical research on PPF
concrete with eight dosages and four lengths after high temperature, to more fully un-
derstand the working mechanism of PPF in concrete and fill the gap in related research.
Regarding research on stress–strain curves of PPF concrete, studies related to PPF con-
crete subjected to high temperatures mainly demonstrate the characteristic changes in
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of PPF concrete after exposure to high
temperatures. However, experimental data show a large dispersion, and the conclusions
of related studies differ significantly, indicating a need for further research [38–41]. On
actual construction sites, the slump test is a simpler and more direct performance indicator
that can quickly provide a general understanding of the concrete mix. Modern concrete
buildings are typically constructed using concrete batching plants for batching, concrete
mixers for mixing and transportation, and concrete pumps for pouring into the specified
location. This also requires testing for the concrete’s slump. Studies have shown [42] that
the degree of slump has a correlation with the mechanical properties of concrete. The
determination of the slump degree is measured according to the relevant provisions of the
specification GB/T50080-2002 Standard for Test Methods for the Properties of Ordinary
Concrete Mixes [43]. According to the provisions of GB50164-92 “Concrete Quality Control
Standard” [44], the slump degree grade is divided into four levels, and low-slump con-
crete refers to concrete with a slump degree range of 10–40 mm. In the actual practice of
production, concrete segregation and segregation should be avoided as much as possible,
and the working properties of low-slump concrete happen to meet the requirements. As
the stability and integrity of low-slump concrete are better than normal concrete, higher
strength can still be obtained with reduced cement dosage [45]. In environments such
as pavement construction and bridge construction, low-slump concrete is used in large
quantities due to its advantages [46]. Most of the concrete studied in the literature has a
slump greater than 50 mm and is generally concentrated above 100 mm, resulting in few
studies on low-slump concrete and almost a void in the study of low-slump PPF concrete.
In actual manufacturing, transportation, and pumping of low-slump concrete, adequate
vibration and the addition of fibers are needed to ensure that the low-slump concrete meets
the commonly used acceptance standards for slump concrete. With increasing attention to
fire hazards, the mechanical properties of low-slump PPF concrete after high temperature
need to be urgently addressed, and the principal structural relationship of low-slump PPF
concrete after high temperature has more value for practical engineering applications and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 4 of 25

theoretical analysis. S tests of low-slump polypropylene fiber (PPF) concrete at room tem-
perature and after high temperature with different admixtures and lengths were conducted,
and the physical and mechanical properties of PPF concrete were compared and analyzed,
based on the test results. Finally, the principal structural relationship of low-slump PPF
concrete after high temperature was conclusively identified, based on the test data.

2. Experimental Overview
2.1. Raw Materials and Mix Proportions
The cement used in the experiment was “Tianya” PC32.5 cement from Hainan, and
the detailed parameters of the cement are shown in Table 1. The coarse aggregate was
graded crushed stone with a maximum particle size of 40 mm and an apparent density of
2600 kg/m3 . Fine aggregate was selected as medium sand with a fineness modulus of 3.0
and an apparent density of 2700 kg/m3 . The polypropylene fiber used was a monofilament
fiber with a diameter of 80 µm, and the cross-section of the PPF under the scanning electron
microscope is shown in Figure 1. The mechanical properties of PPF are shown in Table 2.
The mix proportion of the PPF concrete was consistent with that of ordinary concrete. The
fiber content of the PPF concrete was divided into three levels with three different lengths
and eight levels with four different lengths, according to the different properties of the
test. The specific mix proportions and grouping details are shown in Table 3, and the
fiber lengths used are illustrated in Figure 2. Due to the large number of variables, the
description of variables in the following text often uses a combination of letter abbreviations
and numbers, as detailed in Table 4.

Table 1. Cement Specifications.

Compressive Strength Flexural Strength Stability of Specific Surface

Coagulation Time (min)
(MPa) (MPa) Concrete Product (m2 ·kg−1 )
early end
3d 28 d 3d 28 d
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR
condensate PEER REVIEW
condensate qualified 350 5 of 26
140 272 23.5 53.1 4.3 8.7

(a) (b)
Figure1.1. The
Figure Thesection
sectionof
ofPPF.
PPF.(a)
(a)shows
showsthe
thedistribution
distributionofof polypropylene
polypropylene fibres
fibres in in concrete
concrete within
within the
the concrete under SEM at a magnification of 500× and (b) shows the cross-sectional morphology
concrete under SEM at a magnification of 500× and (b) shows the cross-sectional morphology of the
of the polypropylene fibres under SEM at a magnification of 1500×.
polypropylene fibres under SEM at a magnification of 1500×.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 5 of 25

Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of PPF.

Density Tensile Strength

Length (mm) Diameter (µm) Elastic Modulus (GPa) Melting Point (◦ C)
(g·cm−3 ) (MPa)
3, 9, 15, 19 80 0.91 210 2.2 165

Table 3. Concrete Mix Ratio and PPF parameter.

Test Category Water Cement Sand Stone PPF Content PPF Length
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (mm) Test Block Size (mm)

Uniaxial Compression 185 394 601 1220 0/0.5/1/1.5 3/9/15 100 × 100 × 300
Test
(a) (b)
Compressive strength test 185 394 601 1220 0/0.5/1/1.5/ 3/9/15/19 150 × 150 × 150
2/2.5/3/4/5of polypropylene fibres in concrete within
Figure 1. The section of PPF. (a) shows the distribution
splitting tensile test 185the concrete394
under SEM 601
at a magnification
1220 of0/0.5/1/1.5
500× and (b) shows the cross-sectional
3/9/15/19 150 ×morphology
150 × 150
of the polypropylene fibres under SEM at a magnification of 1500×.

(a) 3 mm (b) 9 mm

(c) 15 mm (d) 19 mm
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Display
Display diagram
diagram of
of different fiber lengths.
different fiber lengths.

Table 3. Concrete Mix Ratio and PPF parameter.

Table 4. Variable Symbol Description.
Water Cement Sand Stone PPF Content PPF Length Test Block Size
Test Category Variable Symbol Variable Description
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mm) (mm)
PL0C0 Blank control group without fibers
Uniaxial Compression
185 394 601 1220
PPF concrete0/0.5/1/1.5 3/9/15
with a length of 3 mm 100of
and a dosage × 100 × 3003 .
0.5 kg/m
Test PL3C0.5 The other lengths and dosage of PPF concrete are represented in
Compressive strength test 185 394 601 1220 0/0.5/1/1.5/ the same
3/9/15/19
way. 150 × 150 × 150
After experiencing a peak temperature of 200 ◦ C, PPF concrete
with a length of 3 mm and a dosage of 0.5 kg/m3 was used. The
PL3C0.5-T200
representation method for PPF concrete at other temperatures
was the same.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 6 of 25

Table 4. Cont.

Variable Symbol Variable Description

εc,T Peak strain
fc,T Peak stress
Ec,T Elastic modulus
νc,T Poisson’s ratio

2.2. Preparation and Curing of Test Blocks

Compared to producing dry and hard concrete, which requires special compres-
sion molding equipment, the production of low-slump concrete is not limited to using
specific instruments. It only requires changing the order of raw material addition and
extending the mixing time. The test specimens consisted of 60 sets of polypropylene fiber-
reinforced concrete prisms and 144 sets of polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete cubes,
with three specimens in each group and dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm and
150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm, respectively. Figure 3 provides 3D drawings of the two
sizes of PPF concrete. The lengths and dosages of the added fibers in accordance with the
specific experiments are provided in Table 3. When adding fibers to concrete, it is necessary
to prevent fiber agglomeration and uneven mixing. A small amount of PPF can be added
to the concrete mixer multiple times. After sufficient mixing, the slump of some concrete
was measured using a slump tester. The slump tester was a conical cylinder with a small
mouth diameter of 100 mm, a large mouth diameter of 200 mm, and a height of 300 mm.
The results showed that the average slump was between 10 mm and 40 mm, as shown
in Table 3. After the test was completed, the mixture was remixed in the mixer, poured
into the mold, fully compacted using a fine tamping rod or a vibrating table, the surface
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 26
smoothed, and then left stand at room temperature in an environment with a temperature
of 20 ± 3 ◦ C and humidity of ≥90% for 24 h before demolding. After marking the surface
of the specimens, they were placed in water for 28 days for curing, and then taken out and
placed in a ventilated and dry place for 14 days for static curing.

(a) 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm (b) 100 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Three
Three dimensional
dimensional drawing
drawing ofof sample
sample size.
size.

2.3.Experimental
2.3. ExperimentalApparatus
Apparatusand
andEquipment
Equipment
Thetemperature
The temperatureheating
heating device is is depicted
depictedininFigure
Figure4. 4.
It consisted of anofRX3
It consisted an model
RX3
box-type
model resistance
box-type furnacefurnace
resistance that could
thatoperate at up to at
could operate 380upV and
to 380with
V anandoutput
with of
annearly
out-
◦ C/min and
24 kW. The furnace temperature could rise at a rate close to 20 °C/min and could reach a
put of nearly 24 kW. The furnace temperature could rise at a rate close to 20
◦ C. The furnace’s interior dimensions were
maximum
could reach atemperature of 1280 °C. The
maximum temperature furnace’s
of 1280 interior dimensions were 500 mm × 400
mm
500 mm × 400 mm.
× 400 mmPrism
× 400specimens
mm. Prismwere tested at
specimens 25 °C,
were 25 ◦300
200at°C,
tested ◦ C, 300 ◦ C, 400 ◦ C,
°C, 400
C, 200 °C, 600 °C, and
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 800 ◦ C. The
800C,
600 °C,and
while
800cube specimens
C, while cubewere tested at
specimens 25 °C,
were 600 at
tested °C,25and C,800
600°C.C,The
andmechanical test
employed test
mechanical a computerized
employed a data acquisitiondata
computerized andacquisition
control hydraulic servohydraulic
and control universal servo
testing
machine with a 30 t capacity, as shown in Figure 5. Before conducting the uniaxial
compression test, transverse and longitudinal strain gauges were attached to the center of
the four sides of the prism specimen’s long edge. The test should be performed at an air
temperature of 28 ± 3 °C and a humidity of 78 ± 5%. Before the strength test, the central
 compression test, transverse and longitudinal strain gauges were
the four sides of the prism specimen’s long edge. The test should
temperature of 28 ± 3 °C and a humidity of 78 ± 5%. Before the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 axis of the concrete test piece should be aligned with the compr
7 of 25

press, and the upper surface of the concrete test block should
pressing
universal plane
testing machineofwiththea 30press to asprevent
t capacity, eccentric
shown in Figure 5. Beforedamage.
conducting the The co
rate was set at 0.5 MPa/s, and the splitting tensile test was set to 0
uniaxial compression test, transverse and longitudinal strain gauges were attached to the
center of the four sides of the prism specimen’s long edge. The test should be performed at
with
an the relevant
air temperature of 28 ± 3 provisions of the Standard for Test Method
◦ C and a humidity of 78 ± 5%. Before the strength test, the

Concrete Mixes (GB/T 50080-2002) [43] and the Standard for Test
central axis of the concrete test piece should be aligned with the compressive central axis of
the press, and the upper surface of the concrete test block should be parallel to the upper
Properties
pressing plane of of Plain
the press Concrete
to prevent (GB/T
eccentric damage.50081-2002) [47],
The compressive test’s with
loading ratereferen

in relevant
Zhao’s test [48]. Splitting tensile
Methodstest deviceof Plain
diagramConcretesee Fi
was set at 0.5 MPa/s, and the splitting tensile test was set to 0.05 MPa/s, in accordance with
the provisions of the Standard for Test of Properties
precise
Mixes (GB/Ttest results
50080-2002) [43]and the
and the control
Standard test
for Test error,
Methods a force sensor
of Mechanical Propertieswas in
of Plain Concrete (GB/T 50081-2002) [47], with reference to the methods used in Zhao’s
block
test [48]. and thetensile
Splitting indenter plane
test device of the
diagram test 6.machine
see Figure in the
To obtain more uniaxial
precise test co
in Figure
results 7. test error, a force sensor was included between the test block and the
and the control
indenter plane of the test machine in the uniaxial compressive test, as shown in Figure 7.

. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure
Figure 4. model
4. RX3 RX3 box-type
modelresistance
box-type resistance
furnace. furnace.

Figure
Figure 5. Floor
5. Floor plan
plan of the of the
universal universal
testing machine. testing machine.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 8 of 25

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Floor
Floor plan
plan of
of the
the universal
universal testing
testing machine.
machine.

Figure6.
Figure
Figure 6.Splitting
6. Splittingtensile
Splitting tensiletest
tensile testdevice
test devicediagram.
device diagram.
diagram.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Uniaxial
Uniaxial compressive
compressive test
test device
device diagram.
diagram.
Figure 7. Uniaxial compressive test device diagram.

3. Test Results and Analysis

3.1. Axial Compression Test Results and Analysis
3.1.1. Peak Strain
The relationship curve between peak strain and temperature of PPF concrete after high
temperature exposure is shown in Figure 8. The symbols in the figure represent the length
and dosage of PPF fibers. See Table 4 for descriptions of the symbols. The peak strain of
the PL0C0 ordinary concrete group at room temperature was 1.761 × 10−3 , while the peak
strain of the PL9C1.5 fiber reinforced concrete group at room temperature was 11.14% lower
than that of the PL0C0 group. The peak strains of the other groups with different dosages
and lengths were slightly higher. The group with the highest peak strain was PL3C1.5,
which was 15.16% higher than that of the plain concrete group. It can be seen that under a
certain amount of PPF fiber dosage and at a certain length, randomly distributed PPF fibers
could achieve a certain toughening effect. When the temperature was between 200 ◦ C and
300 ◦ C, the peak strain slowly increased with the increase in temperature, and the peak
strain of the PL0C0 concrete group was higher than that of the fiber reinforced concrete
group. Among them, the peak strain of the PL9C1.5-T200 group was 20.8% lower than that
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 9 of 25

of the PL0C0-T200 group, while the peak strains of the PL9C1.5-T300 and PL9C1.0-T300
groups were 19.05% and 25.58% lower than that of the PL0C0-T300 group, respectively.
It was observed that the peak strain did not change much between 25 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C,
which is because, as the temperature increases, the evaporation of free water in the cement
paste accelerates the hydration of the cement paste, increases the density of the C-S-H gel
structure, and causes the cement paste to shrink and produce high-strength siloxane [49,50].
The removal of free water is similar to steam curing, which accelerates the hydration of the
cement, and repairs the damage inside the concrete. The reason for the lower peak strain
of PPF concrete, than that of ordinary concrete, is analyzed as follows. PPF fibers melt at
around 170 ◦ C and vaporize at around 370 ◦ C. The connecting holes formed by the melting
of PPF may be transformed into micro-cracks, increasing the crack propagation path. As the
temperature increases, the porosity inside the PPF concrete increases rapidly, and the crack
propagation gradually transitions from micro-cracks to macro-cracks [51,52]. Therefore,
when the temperature was below 400 ◦ C, the peak strain of PPF concrete was smaller than
that of ordinary concrete. When the temperature reached 400 ◦ C, a significant increase in
peak strain was observed. The peak strain of the PL3C1.0-T400 group was 11.11% higher
than that of the group without fibers, while the peak strains of the other fiber-reinforced
concrete groups were lower than that of the group without fibers. After the temperature
exceeded 400 ◦ C, the peak strain increased rapidly with increasing temperature. The growth
rate of peak strain in the fiber-reinforced concrete group was greater than that in the group
without fibers, and different combinations of fiber lengths and contents showed different
growth trends. Overall, the longer the fiber length and the lower the content, the greater
the peak strain of the concrete after high temperature. Compared with the group without
fibers (PL0C0), the peak strain of the PL15C0.5 group after 400 ◦ C increased the most, with
an increase of 36.89% at 600 ◦ C, while the peak strain of the PL3C1.5 group decreased by
9.58%. An increase in porosity, the connectivity of micro-cracks, and the local aggregation
of high-density fibers can lead to a decrease in the internal cohesion of concrete, inadequate
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26
stress transfer paths, and a decrease in toughness [18]. Within the condition of ensuring
that the fibers do not break, the anchorage length of the fibers affects the bonding force
between the concrete matrix. Short polypropylene fibers and high polypropylene fiber
content can lead to the above situation.

Figure 8.8.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweenpeak
peakstrain and
strain temperature.
and temperature.

3.1.2.Peak
3.1.2. Peak Stress
Stress
TheTherelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenpeakpeakstress
stressand
andtemperature
temperatureofofPPF
PPFconcrete
concreteafter
afterhigh
high
temperature is shown in Figure 9. At room temperature, the peak stress
temperature is shown in Figure 9. At room temperature, the peak stress of ordinary of ordinary
concretePL0C0
concrete PL0C0was wasthe
thelowest,
lowest,which
whichwaswas3030MPa.
MPa.When
Whenthe thetemperature
temperaturewas
wasbelow
below
300 ◦ C, the peak stress always decreased with increase of temperature, and the addition
300 °C, the peak stress always decreased with increase of temperature, and the addition
ofofPPF
PPF of any dosage and length was beneficial to improve the peak stress of concrete.
of any dosage and length was beneficial to improve the peak stress of concrete. The
The most significant improvement s observed in the PL3C1.0 and PL3C1.5 groups, with
most significant improvement s observed in the PL3C1.0 and PL3C1.5 groups, with an
an average increase of peak stress by 19.53% and 19.60%, respectively, compared to the
average increase of peak stress by 19.53% and 19.60%, respectively, compared to the peak
stress of the group without fiber-reinforced concrete. The reason for this is that when the
temperature is below 170 °C, the addition of PPF and the cement paste in concrete form a
complex three-dimensional network structure, which enhances the bridging and
anchoring effects between the components of the concrete, thereby buffering and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 10 of 25

peak stress of the group without fiber-reinforced concrete. The reason for this is that when
the temperature is below 170 ◦ C, the addition of PPF and the cement paste in concrete
form a complex three-dimensional network structure, which enhances the bridging and
anchoring effects between the components of the concrete, thereby buffering and absorbing
energy generated by external forces, to a certain extent. When the temperature is between
170 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C, the PPF melts, causing an increase in the porosity of concrete, which
increases the paths for water vapor to escape along, thereby reducing the pore pressure and
lowering the extension of micro-cracks caused by high steam pressure [53]. This indicates
that the addition of fibers has a promoting effect on stress at lower temperatures. When the
temperature was higher than 300 ◦ C, the peak stress of most PPF concrete groups decreased
more rapidly with increase in temperature, and the peak stress of fiber-reinforced concrete
gradually became lower than that of ordinary concrete. The reason for this phenomenon
is that the increase in residual porosity volume significantly reduces the strength of the
concrete. After the temperature exceeds 300 ◦ C, the holes left by completely melted and
vaporized PPF increase the paths of micro-crack extensions, leading to an increase in
residual pore volume. At the same time, after 500 ◦ C, the chemical composition of concrete
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26
decomposes, leading to an increase in pore volume. The data results showed that, when
the PPF content was 0.5 kg·m−3 and the length was 9 mm, the peak stress after 300 ◦ C was,
on average, 6.49% higher than that of ordinary concrete.

Figure
Figure9.9.The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenpeak
peakstrain
strainand
andtemperature.
temperature.

3.1.3. Elastic Modulus

3.1.3. Elastic Modulus
Due to the influence of temperature on the elastic modulus of concrete after exposure
Due to the influence of temperature on the elastic modulus of concrete after exposure
to high temperatures, there is no obvious elastic phase. Therefore, the secant modulus
to high temperatures, there is no obvious elastic phase. Therefore, the secant modulus of
of elasticity E is calculated as 40% of the slope of the line connecting the origin of the
elasticity Ec,T isc,T
calculated as 40% of the slope of the line connecting the origin of the stress–
stress–strain curve to the peak stress point. The relationship between the elastic modulus
strain curve to the peak stress point. The relationship between the elastic modulus and
and temperature is shown in Figure 10. At room temperature, the elastic modulus of
temperature is shown in Figure 10. At room temperature, the elastic modulus of PPF
PPF concrete was higher than that of ordinary concrete PL0C0, and the increase in elastic
concrete was higher than that of ordinary concrete PL0C0, and the increase in elastic
modulus was particularly significant, with the largest increase observed in PL3C1.5 and
modulus
PL15C1.5,was particularly
which significant,
had increased ratios with the largest
of 21.65% increase
and 17.42%, observed in
respectively. PL3C1.5
The and
addition of
PL15C1.5, which had increased ratios of 21.65% and 17.42%, respectively.
PPF could effectively suppress the cracking of concrete, and there was a positive correlation The addition of
PPF could
between theeffectively
increase insuppress
PPF content theand
cracking
length andof concrete,
the elasticand there With
modulus. was aanpositive
increase
correlation between the increase in PPF content and length and the elastic
in temperature, the elastic modulus of PPF concrete with different contents and lengths modulus. With
an increase in temperature, the elastic modulus of PPF concrete with
decreased. However, there was no significant correlation between the content and length different contents
and lengths
of fibers anddecreased.
the changeHowever, there was
in the elastic no significant
modulus. correlation
The presence between
of fibers the content
at temperatures
and length of ◦ fibers and ◦ the change in the elastic modulus. The
between 200 C and 300 C reduce the elastic modulus of concrete, as high temperatures, presence of fibers at
temperatures ◦ between 200 °C and 300 °C reduce the elastic modulus
above 170 C, cause the PPF to melt, increasing the internal porosity and weakening of concrete, as high
the
temperatures,
cross-section of above 170 °C, cause
the concrete. the PPF loss
The average to melt, increasing
of elastic modulusthe internal
at 300 Cporosity
◦ and
was 44.97%.
weakening
The criticalthe cross-section
temperature of the concrete.
at which the elasticThe averagedecreased
modulus loss of elastic
most modulus at 300was
significantly °C
was ◦44.97%. The critical temperature at which the elastic modulus
400 C, where it decreased by 70% compared to that at room temperature [54]. The elastic decreased most
significantly
modulus of was 400 °C, where
fiber-reinforced it decreased
concrete at 400by ◦ C70%
wascompared
higher than to that
thatat
ofroom temperature
ordinary concrete,
[54]. The elastic modulus of fiber-reinforced concrete at 400 °C was higher than that of
ordinary concrete, with the highest increase in strength reaching 64.84%. When the
temperature rose to 600–800 °C, the influence of fiber content and length on the elastic
modulus could be ignored, as, at high temperatures, the development of concrete cracks
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 11 of 25

with the highest increase in strength reaching 64.84%. When the temperature rose to
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
600–800 ◦ C, the influence of fiber content and length on the elastic modulus could be
ignored, as, at high temperatures, the development of concrete cracks is dominated by
macroscopic cracks, and the role of the internal micro-structure disappears. At higher
temperatures, the deterioration of the concrete material itself makes the elastic modulus
maintain a relatively stable value, of only 1% to 3% of that at room temperature.

Figure 10.The
Figure 10. The relation
relation between
between elasticand
elastic modulus modulus and temperature.
temperature.

3.1.4. Poisson’s Ratio

3.1.4.The
Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio νc,T of PPF concrete is defined as the ratio of transverse strain to
The Poisson’s ratio νc,T of PPF concrete is defined as the ratio of transv
longitudinal strain. The curve of the Poisson’s ratio νc,T with respect to temperature T is
shown in Figure 11. At room temperature, the bridging effect of fibers slows down the
longitudinal strain.and
propagation of cracks, The curvetheofdeformation
increases the Poisson’scapacity ratio νc,T with
of concrete, and, respect
therefore, to tem
shown in Figure
the Poisson’s 11. concrete
ratio of PPF At room temperature,
is higher than that of the bridging
ordinary concrete.effect of fibers slo
The Poisson’s
propagation of cracks, and increases the deformation capacity of◦ concrete, a
ratio of the ordinary concrete group was 0.206, and the highest Poisson’s ratio was in the
PL3C0.5 group, which was 11.31% higher than that of ordinary concrete. At 200 C, the
the Poisson’s
Poisson’s ratio ofratio of PPF
all groups showedconcrete is higher
a decreasing than
trend, and the that of in
decrease ordinary concrete. T
Poisson’s ratio
ratio
in fiberofconcrete
the ordinary concrete
was less than group
in ordinary wasThis
concrete. 0.206, and the
is because highest Poisson’s
the continuous evapo- ra
PL3C0.5 group, which was 11.31% higher than that of ordinary concrete. A
ration of free water in PPF concrete promotes reaction between water and cement particles,
fills the micro-cracks inside, strengthens the aggregation between concrete components,
Poisson’s
and reducesratio of all groups
the transverse showed
strain. When a decreasing
the temperature was belowtrend,
300 and the
◦ C, the decrease in P
fluctuation
in fiber
range of theconcrete wasof less
Poisson’s ratio than and
PPF concrete in ordinary concrete.
ordinary concrete was withinThis is because
12.73%. After th
◦ C, the Poisson’s ratio increased rapidly with temperature,
evaporation of free water in PPF concrete promotes reaction between wate
the temperature reached 400
and the dispersion of the Poisson’s ratio of different PPF contents and lengths increased
particles, fills the
with temperature. micro-cracks
The reason inside,
for this is that higherstrengthens
temperatures have thea greater
aggregation
impact betw
components,
on the Poisson’sand ratio,reduces the types
and different transverse strain.
of PPF have When
different the temperature
degrees of weakening was b
the fluctuation range of the Poisson’s ratio of PPF concrete
effect on the concrete section. In addition, PPF melts and gasifies at high and ordinary
temperatures,
releasing some of the internal thermal stress, which makes the change in Poisson’s ratio
within 12.73%.
more complex After
as the the temperature
temperature reached
increases, although, 400
overall, °C, the
it tends Poisson’s
to increase. From ratio
the incr
with
graphtemperature,
it can be observedand that,the
afterdispersion of the of
the high temperature Poisson’s
400 C wasratio
◦ reached,of relatively
different PPF
lengths increased with temperature. The reason for this is that higher tempe
stable maximum and minimum Poisson’s Ratio appeared in the PL15C1.0 and PL15C0.5
groups, respectively, which were 5.7% higher and 7.37% lower than the Poisson’s ratio of
aordinary
greaterconcrete,
impact on the Poisson’s ratio, and different types of PPF have diff
respectively.
of weakening effect on the concrete section. In addition, PPF melts and ga
temperatures, releasing some of the internal thermal stress, which makes t
Poisson’s ratio more complex as the temperature increases, although, overa
increase. From the graph it can be observed that, after the high temperature
reached, relatively stable maximum and minimum Poisson’s Ratio app
PL15C1.0 and PL15C0.5 groups, respectively, which were 5.7% higher and
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 12 of 25

Figure 11.The
Figure 11. The relation
relation between
between Poisson’s
Poisson’s ratio
ratio and and temperature.
temperature.

4. Test Results and Analysis of Compressive Strength

4. Test
TheResults andbetween
relationship Analysis
PPFofadmixture
Compressive Strength strength of concrete at
and compressive
roomThe relationship
temperature is shown between
in Figure PPF
12. admixture
The number at and the compressive
end indicates the strength
average of conc
compressive strength that could be achieved by a specimen. It can be seen that the PPF
room temperature is shown in Figure 12. The number at the end indicates the a
admixture significantly increased the compressive strength of concrete. The compressive
compressive
strength decreased strength
as thethat couldbecame
PPF fibers be achievedlonger for bythe a specimen.
same PPF content, It canwhile
be seenan that t
admixture
increase in PPF significantly
content for the increased
same PPFthe fibercompressive
length led to an strength of concrete.
initial increase and then Thea comp
strength
decrease indecreased
the compressive as the PPF fibers
strength. The peak became
point oflonger
increasefor the same
occurred PPF content,
at the lower PPF w
increase in PPF content for the same PPF fiber length led to an initial increase and
content, which was in agreement with the findings of Ferreira et al. [55]. The appropriate
amount of PPF fiber length and admixture can increase the compressive strength of concrete
decrease in the compressive strength. The peak point of increase occurred at the
because the bridging effect of PPF is greater than the negative effect of porosity. A small
PPF
amount content, which
of admixture andwasshortin agreement
length of PPF fibers with
can the findings
fill the of Ferreira
internal pores of concrete.et al. [55
appropriate
However, an increaseamount in of
fiber PPFlengthfiber andlength
admixture and admixture
leads to a decrease caninincrease
the apparentthe comp
strength
density and of an concrete
increase because
in porosity, the bridging
which results effect of PPFin is
in a decrease greaterAdditionally,
strength. than the negativ
too long fibers may form tangles inside, which decreases the uniformity of distribution,
of porosity. A small amount of admixture and short length of PPF fibers can
also increases porosity. The compressive strengths of PPF concrete with PPF fiber lengths
internal
of 3 mm poresand 9 mm of concrete.
were highest However,
at a PPF an increase
admixture of in fiber3length
1 kg/m , which and admixture
increased by lea
decrease
17.15% andin14.85%,the apparent
respectively, density
compared andtoan increase
ordinary in porosity,
concrete. whichstrength
The compressive results in a d
in strength. Additionally, too long fibers may form tangles inside, which
of PPF concrete with PPF fiber lengths of 15 mm and 19 mm reached a maximum at a decrea
3 , which increased by 11.25% and 11.2%, respectively. With
uniformity of distribution, also increases porosity. The compressive strengths
PPF admixture of 0.5 kg/m
an increase in PPF admixture, the compressive strength of 19 mm long PPF concrete was
concrete with PPF fiber lengths of 3 mm and 9 mm were highest at a PPF admixtu
initially lower than that of ordinary concrete, while the compressive strength of 15 mm
kg/m 3
long PPF , which
concreteincreased
was only 1.37% by 17.15%
higher than and that14.85%,
of ordinary respectively,
concrete. When compared
the PPF to or
concrete.
admixture The amount compressive
reached 5 kg/m strength
3
of PPF concrete
, the compressive strengthwithof PPFPPF fiberwith
concrete lengths
9 mm of 15 m
19 mm reached a maximum at a PPF admixture of 0.5 kg/m , which increased by
length was 2.67% lower than that of ordinary concrete, while the 3
compressive strength
of PPF concrete with 3 mm length was 6.52% higher than that of ordinary concrete. This
and 11.2%, respectively. With an increase in PPF admixture, the compressive stre
indicates that the effect of polypropylene fiber admixture on the mechanical properties of
19 mm long
concrete PPFtemperature
after high concrete iswas moreinitially
significant lower thantothat
compared of ordinary
the fiber length, dueconcrete,
to the wh
compressive strength of 15 mm long PPF concrete
greater porosity brought about by the large admixture, compared to that brought about by was only 1.37% higher than
ordinary concrete. When the PPF admixture amount reached 5 kg/m3, the comp
the length [56].
strength of PPF
The effect concrete
of PPF admixture withon9 the mm length was
compressive 2.67%oflower
strength concrete than thattempera-
at high of ordinary co
tures is illustrated in Figure 13. After being exposed to temperatures of 600 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C,
while
relativelythefew
compressive
cracks werestrengthobserved of on PPF concrete
the surface of PPFwith 3 mmspecimens.
concrete length was 6.52%
This is high
that of due
largely ordinary
to the factconcrete.
that PPF,This indicates
after melting andthat the effect
vaporizing at highoftemperatures,
polypropylene fiber adm
creates
on the mechanical properties of concrete after high temperature is more sign
many holes inside the concrete, increasing its internal connectivity. As a result, water vapor
compared
and heat canto the more
escape fibereasily,
length, due vapor
reducing to thepressure
greater andporosity
providingbroughtmore free about
space. by th
This also acts as a thermal shock absorber, reducing the damage to the micro-structure of the
admixture, compared to that brought about by the length [56].
The effect of PPF admixture on the compressive strength of concrete a
temperatures is illustrated in Figure 13. After being exposed to temperatures of
and 800 °C, relatively few cracks were observed on the surface of PPF concrete spec
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 13 of 25

concrete [57]. In contrast, the strengths of plain concrete after being exposed to maximum
temperatures of 600 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C were only 68% (28 MPa), 35% (14.3 MPa), and 22%
(9.1 MPa) of that at room temperature. The compressive strength of PPF concrete showed a
trend of increasing and then decreasing with increase of the fiber admixture, except for the
compressive strength of concrete with a fiber length of 9 mm, which reached its maximum
with the same admixture. The law of compressive strength follows a decreasing trend
with the increase of length. This is likely because the pores of PPF after high-temperature
melting and vaporization cause an increase in porosity, which reduces the area of the
concrete matrix subjected to load. Moreover, the PPF pores increase the path of micro-crack
expansion, causing the strength of concrete after high temperature to be much lower than
that of concrete at normal temperature. Increasing fiber length leads to higher porosity and
larger capillaries, which weaken the effective load-bearing cross-sectional area of concrete.
Similarly, increasing the number of fibers also leads to higher porosity, which weakens
the effective load-bearing area, while providing more paths for micro-cracks to develop.
As shown in Figure 13a, the maximum compressive strength was achieved for 3 mm,
9 mm, 15 mm, and 19 mm when the fiber admixtures were 0.5 kg/m3 , which is 4.21%,
6.29%, 0.86%, and 0.32% higher than that of normal concrete, respectively. The compressive
strength reduced by 17.64%, 15.43%, 24%, and 27.04% at a 5.0 kg/m3 fiber admixture.
Figure 13b shows that the residual strength of PPF concrete after 800 ◦ C was consistent with
that after 600 ◦ C. The effect of PPF type showed less dispersion in strength, and the trend
of the curve was closer, indicating that the effect of PPF type on the compressive strength
of concrete kept decreasing at higher temperatures. The macro-cracks which developed
from micro-cracks and the calcification damage of the material are the main causes of the
decrease in strength. When the fiber content is small, PPF can significantly improve the
mechanical properties of concrete after high temperature. The compressive strength of
low collapse polypropylene fiber concrete after high temperature showed a trend of rising
and then falling at the same temperature with increase in fiber admixture. When the fiber
admixture was 0.5 kg/m3 , the compressive strengths of 3 mm, 9 mm, 15 mm and 19 mm
reached their maxima of 9.65%, 11.33%, 7.90% and 2.87%, representing improvement over
ordinary concrete, The effect of PPF on the compressive strength of concrete due to increase
in fiber length was not obvious. According to the literature [58], the residual strength of
ordinary PPF-free concrete is highest when exposed to high temperatures. However, the
conclusion from literature [53] that the variation of PPF type has an insignificant impact on
the fluctuation of residual compressive strength, differs significantly from the conclusion of
the low collapse degree PPF concrete tests in this paper. In addition, the literature [59,60]
has shown that the compressive strength of ordinary PPF concrete with a PPF admixture of
3.6 kg/m3 is higher than that of PPF concrete. The conclusion that the compressive strength
of concrete is higher than that of PPF concrete slightly differs from the results of this paper,
which indicate that different collapse degrees have inconsistent effects on the performance
of PPF concrete. Therefore, the study of low collapse degree in this paper is practically and
realistically significant. In the present experimental study, the residual compressive strength
of PPF concrete significantly decreased when the admixture amount exceeded 0.5 kg/m3 ,
regardless of fiber length, and the rate of strength decrease significantly accelerated as
the fiber length increased. The maximum residual compressive strength was achieved
with a dosing rate of 0.5 kg/m3 and a fiber length of 9 mm, which differs greatly from the
study of PPF concrete with conventional collapse at room temperature. The research in
this paper shows that PPF can significantly improve the mechanical properties of concrete
after high temperature when the fiber content is small under high temperature conditions,
and the effect of high dosing of PPF on the mechanical properties of concrete after high
temperature is more significant. This is consistent with the change of compressive strength
at room temperature.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 14 of 25

Figure 12. Compressive strength of PPF concrete at ambient temperature.

Figure 12.Compressive
Figure12. Compressivestrength
strengthofofPPF
PPFconcrete
concreteatatambient
ambienttemperature.
temperature.

(a) 600 °C (b) 800 °C

(a) 600 °C (b) 800 °C
Figure 13. Compressive strength of PPF concrete after elevated temperatures.
Figure13.
Figure 13.Compressive
Compressivestrength
strengthofofPPF
PPFconcrete
concreteafter
afterelevated
elevatedtemperatures.
temperatures.

5.
5.5.Tensile Splitting Test Results and Analysis
TensileSplitting
Tensile SplittingTest TestResults
Resultsand andAnalysis
Analysis
The splitting tensile strength results for plain concrete and PPF concrete at room
The splitting tensile strength results for
The splitting tensile strength results for plain
plain concrete
concrete and and PPF
PPF concrete
concrete atatroomroom
temperature are shown in Figure 14, and the numbers in the bars represent the maximum
temperatureare
temperature areshown
shownininFigure
Figure14, 14,andandthe thenumbers
numbersin inthe
thebars
barsrepresent
representthe themaximum
maximum
splitting tensile strengths
strengths thatthatthethespecimens
specimenscould couldreach.
reach. It can be be seen from
the the graph
splittingtensile
splitting tensile strengths that the specimens could reach.
It canIt can be seen
seen from from the graph
graph that
that the curve trend of tensile strength at lower temperatures was consistent with
that the curve trend of tensile strength at lower temperatures was consistent with
the curve trend of tensile strength at lower temperatures was consistent with compressive
compressive strength. As the PPF content increased,
strength the tensile strength initially
compressive
strength. As the strength.
PPF content As increased,
the PPF the contenttensile increased, the tensile
initially strength
increased, initially
followed by
increased,
decrease.followed
aincreased, The tensilebystrength
a decrease.
of plain The tensileatstrength
concrete room of plain concrete
temperature was 3.11 at room
MPa, and
followed by a decrease. The tensile strength of plain concrete at room
temperature
the peak tensile wasstrengths
3.11 MPa,ofand PPF, the peak
with tensile
lengths ofstrengths
15 mm and of 19
PPF,mm, with lengths
were of 15 mm
is achieved
temperature was 3.11 MPa, and the peak tensile strengths of PPF, with lengths of 15 atmma
and
smaller19 mm, were(0.5
dosage is achieved
kg · m −3 ).atThe
a smaller
peak dosagestrength
tensile (0.5 kg·m of−3). The peak tensile strength of
3 mm and 9 mm PPF concrete
and 19 mm, were is achieved at a smaller dosage (0.5 kg·m−3). The peak tensile strength of
3occurred
mm andat 9 mm PPF concrete occurred· −at
3 ),adue
higher dosage (1.0fiber
kg·mlength.
−3), due to the shorter
3 mm and 9 mm PPF concrete occurred at a higher dosage (1.0 kg·m ), dueMoreover,
a higher dosage (1.0 kg m to the shorter −3 the
to the shorter
fiber
curve length.
shows Moreover,
that shorter the
fibercurve
length shows
resulted that in shorter
a more fiber length
significant resulted inina tensile
improvement more
fiber length. Moreover, the curve shows that shorter fiber length resulted in a more
significant
strength. improvement
The peak tensile in strengths
tensile strength.
of PPF The peak at
concrete tensile
roomstrengths
temperature of PPFwere concrete
PL3C1.0, at
significant improvement in tensile strength. The peak tensile strengths of PPF concrete at
room
PL9C1.0, temperature
PL15C0.5, and werePL19C0.5,
PL3C1.0,respectively.
PL9C1.0, PL15C0.5,Compared and to thePL19C0.5,
compressive respectively.
strength of
room temperature were PL3C1.0, PL9C1.0, PL15C0.5, and PL19C0.5, respectively.
Compared to the compressive
ordinary concrete, they increased strength
by 25.72%,of ordinary
18.33%,concrete,
5.14%, and they increased
0.64%, by 25.72%,
respectively.
Compared to the compressive strength of ordinary concrete, they increased by 25.72%,
18.33%, 5.14%, and 0.64%, respectively.
18.33%, 5.14%, and 0.64%, respectively.
The mechanism underlying the above phenomena needs clarification. The
The mechanism underlying the above phenomena needs clarification. The
compactness of the internal structure of concrete, the tightness of the connection between
compactness of the internal structure of concrete, the tightness of the connection between
various components inside the concrete, the number of defects, and the number of micro-
various components inside the concrete, the number of defects, and the number of micro-
 indicating further deterioration of the internal structure of the concrete and increased
porosity, due to the decrease in the bonding ability of the C-S-H gel. The significant
decrease in splitting tensile strength under high-temperature conditions can be attributed
to the coarsening effect of temperature on the pore distribution [65–67], which may cause
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222
pores resulting from melting and vaporization. 15 of 25

Figure 14.Split
Figure 14. Splittensile
tensile strength
strength of PPF
of PPF concrete
concrete at ambient
at ambient temperature.
temperature.

The mechanism underlying the above phenomena needs clarification. The compact-
ness of the internal structure of concrete, the tightness of the connection between various
components inside the concrete, the number of defects, and the number of micro-cracks
are all key factors affecting tensile strength. The three-dimensional mesh structure formed
by PPF [61]. and the concrete colloid. can bridge the internal cracks of the concrete, effec-
tively weaken the stress concentration at the crack tip, redistribute the stress, and change
the crack direction, delaying the rate of micro-crack development [62–64] and effectively
improving the splitting tensile strength of PPF concrete. The effect of fiber content on
porosity is negligible. As dosage increases, the internal porosity increases, and the increase
in fiber length also leads to a slight increase in porosity, providing more paths for crack
propagation. Therefore, with an increase in fiber dosage, the compressive strength first
increases and then decreases. However, the decrease in compressive strength is smaller
than the effect of dosage. Short PPF is recommended for actual engineering applications
under the same conditions.
The splitting tensile strength test results for polypropylene fiber (PPF) reinforced
concrete after exposure to high temperatures are shown in Figure 15. The tensile strengths
of PPF concrete at 600 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C were approximately 1/66-1/60 and 1/70-1/90,
respectively, of the residual compressive strength of ordinary concrete at room temperature.
The curves for 3 mm and 9 mm length PPF concrete after high-temperature exposure show
an initial increase followed by a decrease in tensile strength with increasing fiber dosage,
which reached a maximum at a dosage of 0.5 kg·m−3 . The fiber content had the largest
effect on the 9 mm length specimens, with an increase in strength of 0.54 MPa and 0.42 MPa
at 600 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C, respectively. For the 15 mm and 19 mm length specimens, the splitting
tensile strength decreased with increasing fiber dosage, indicating that longer lengths had
a more negative effect on tensile strength. The overall decrease in splitting tensile strength
from 600 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C was approximately 20%, indicating further deterioration of the
internal structure of the concrete and increased porosity, due to the decrease in the bonding
ability of the C-S-H gel. The significant decrease in splitting tensile strength under high-
temperature conditions can be attributed to the coarsening effect of temperature on the
pore distribution [65–67], which may cause pores resulting from melting and vaporization.
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 16 of 25

(a) 600 °C (b) 800 °C

Figure
Figure 15.15. Split
Split tensile
tensile strength
strength of of
PPFPPF concrete
concrete after
after elevated
elevated temperatures.
temperatures.

6. 6. Analysis
Analysis ofof Variance
Variance (ANOVA)
(ANOVA)
ToTo further
further investigate
investigate thethe strength
strength effects
effects ofof temperature,
temperature, polypropylene
polypropylene fiber
fiber (PPF)
(PPF)
length,
length, andandPPFPPF content,
content, a three-factor
a three-factor analysis
analysis ofof variance
variance was
was performed,
performed, andand thethe results
results
are
are shown
shown ininTable
Table5.5.The
Thethree-factor
three-factoranalysis
analysisof ofvariance
variance was was used
used to
to study
study thethe effects
effectsof
ofPPF
PPF content,
content, PPF
PPF length,
length, andand temperature
temperature on on the
thestrength.
strength.FromFromTableTable5,5,ititcancanbebe seen
seen
that PPF content, PPF length, and temperature were significant (F = 47.924, p = 0.000 < 0.05;
that PPF content, PPF length, and temperature were significant (F = 47.924, p = 0.000 < 0.05;
73.448,pp== 0.000 << 0.05;
F F= =73.448, 0.05;FF= =24410.222,
24410.222, p =p 0.000
= 0.000 < 0.05), indicating
< 0.05), that that
indicating the main effects
the main
existed
effects and and
existed that that
PPF PPFcontent, PPFPPF
content, length, andand
length, temperature
temperature had a differential
had a differentialeffect effecton
onstrength.
strength.Based
Basedon onthe
thesize
size of
of the F-value, it
the F-value, it can
can be bedetermined
determinedthat thatthe
theorder
orderofofthe the
influencing
influencing factors
factors was
was temperature
temperature > PPF
> PPF length
length > PPF
> PPF content.
content. Under
Under conditions
conditions where
where
PPF
PPF content,
content, PPF PPF length,
length, andand temperature
temperature werewere significant,
significant, the significance
the significance of theof the two-
two-way
way interaction between them was explored. The results showed that the interaction
interaction between them was explored. The results showed that the interaction of PPFof
content × PPF length,
PPF content × PPF length,
PPF content × temperature,
PPF content × temperature,
and PPFand PPF×length
length × temperature
temperature (F = 3.229,(F =
p= 0.040p<=0.05;
3.229, 0.040F =< 12.614, 0.000 <p0.05;
0.05; F p= =12.614, = 0.000 < 0.05;pF= =0.002
F = 7.021, 7.021, p = 0.002
< 0.05) were <all0.05) were all
significant,
and the significance
significant, and theranking
significancewas PPFranking was ×
content PPFtemperature > PPF length> ×
content × temperature PPF tempera-
length ×
ture > PPF content × PPF length. It can be seen that the significance
temperature > PPF content × PPF length. It can be seen that the significance of the of the interaction
related to temperature
interaction related to was the most obvious,
temperature was the and the interaction
most obvious, and of PPF
the content
interaction × temper-
of PPF
ature was the most significant. The comprehensive ranking
content × temperature was the most significant. The comprehensive ranking shows shows that temperature > PPF that
length > PPF content
temperature > PPF content
> PPF length × temperature
> PPF content > PPF content> PPF length × temperature
× temperature > PPF ×
> PPF length
content × PPF >length.
temperature Figures
PPF content 16–18
× PPF show Figures
length. the mean square
16–18 show histograms
the meanundersquareeach influ-
histograms
ence parameter, and the values at the top of the histograms represent the mean values
under each influence parameter, and the values at the top of the histograms represent the
of compressive strength, from which it can be seen that the strength variation was not
mean values of compressive strength, from which it can be seen that the strength variation
particularly obvious under the influence of PPF admixture and PPF length.
was not particularly obvious under the influence of PPF admixture and PPF length.
Table 5. Three-factor ANOVA results.
Table 5. Three-factor ANOVA results.

Source
Source of Difference
of Difference Square
Square SumSum df Mean Square
df Mean Square F F p p
Intercept 31,684 1 31,684 246,266.427 0.000 **
PPFIntercept
Dosage 31,684
12.332 21 6.166 31,684 47.924 246,266.427 0.000 0.000** **
PPF
PPF Dosage
Length 12.332
28.349 2
3 9.45 6.166 73.448 47.924 0.000 0.000
** **
Temperature 6281.112 2 3140.556 24,410.222 0.000 **
PPF
PPF Dosage Length
× PPF Length 28.349
2.493 3
6 0.415 9.45 3.229 73.448 0.0400.000
* **
PPF Dosage × Temperature 6.492 4 1.623 12.614 0.000 **
Temperature
PPF Length × Temperature 6281.112
5.419 2
6 0.903 3140.556 7.021 24,410.222 0.002 0.000 ** **
PPF Dosage
Residual× PPF Length 2.493
1.544 6
12 0.129 0.415 3.229 0.040 *
PPF Dosage × Temperature 6.492“*” indicates a more
Note: In p-values, 4 significant effect of1.623 12.614
this factor on intensity 0.000
and “**” indicate **
a highly
significant effect of this factor on intensity.
PPF Length × Temperature 5.419 6 0.903 7.021 0.002 **
Residual 1.544 12 0.129
Note: In p-values, “*” indicates a more significant effect of this factor on intensity and “**” indicate
a highly significant effect of this factor on intensity.
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 17 of 2518 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

PPF Dosage & PPF Length

PPF Dosage & PPF Length
32.0
32.0 30.8 31.0 30.5 30.8
31.0 30.8 31.0 30.1 30.5 30.8 30.0 30.0
31.0 30.1 29.7 30.0 30.0
30.0 29.7 29.2
30.0 29.2
29.0 28.1 28.3
29.0 28.1 28.3 27.6
28.0 27.6
28.0
27.0
27.0
26.0
26.0
25.0
25.0
0.5 1 1.5
0.5 1 1.5
3 9 15 19
3 9 15 19
Figure 16.
Figure 16. PPF Dosage PPF Dosage
& PPF Length.& PPF Length.
Figure 16. PPF Dosage & PPF Length.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 26

Figure 17. PPF Length & Temperature.
Figure 17.
Figure 17. PPF Length PPF Length & Temperature.
& Temperature.

Figure 18. PPF Dosage & Temperature.

Figure 18. PPF Dosage & Temperature.
7. Stress–Strain Behavior of Low Slump PPF Concrete after High Temperature
Exposure
7.1. Stress–Strain Curves of Polypropylene Fibers with Different Dosages and Lengths after High
Temperature Exposure
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 18 of 25

7. Stress–Strain Behavior of Low Slump PPF Concrete after High

Temperature Exposure
7.1. Stress–Strain Curves of Polypropylene Fibers with Different Dosages and Lengths after High
Temperature Exposure
This section only studies the stress–strain curves of low-dosage (dosage less than,
or equal to, 1.5 kg/m3 ) PPF concrete. This is because the research on peak compressive
strength and peak strain in this paper shows that the negative effect of PPF on concrete
is significant with high dosage, and the study of stress–strain curves of high-dosage PPF
concrete is not realistic and does not meet actual production needs. The stress–strain curve
of PPF concrete with temperature changes is shown in Figure 19. Compared to ordinary
concrete, the stress–strain curve for PPF concrete is sharper. With increasing temperature,
the most noticeable effect is the decrease in peak stress. The curve progresses forward,
and the peak strain increases as the peak stress decreases. At high temperatures, the curve
takes on a hump-like shape. The stress–strain curve for PPF concrete at different dosing
levels and lengths at the same temperature can be compared to the stress–strain curve
for PPF concrete at the same dosing level, which tends to flatten out more as the length
is extended. The increase in the area enclosed by the curve indicates that its ability to
absorb external energy also increased. The stress–strain curve for PPF concrete at the same
length also tended to flatten out with increased dosing levels, and the area enclosed by
the curve and strain tended to become larger. In summary, increasing fiber content and
length enhances the instantaneous impact of concrete energy to a certain extent, improving
ductility. According to the literature [68], 300–400 ◦ C is a turning point where the trend
of change accelerates due to increased internal hydration, complete evaporation of free
water, and gradual decomposition of crystalline water. Between 25 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C, the
temperature effect produced less temperature stress, resulting in fewer internal micro-
cracks. After 400 ◦ C, the curve tended to flatten out. After 600 ◦ C, the peak stress dropped
to about 35% of that at room temperature, and the curve tended to flatten out overall. After
800 ◦ C, the peak point shifted down to almost the limit, and the peak stress was only a few
MPa.... The curve characteristics of PPF concrete were basically similar to those of ordinary
concrete. Overall, the presence of PPF increased the area enclosed by the curve in relation
to the horizontal axis and significantly enhanced the energy absorption rate compared to
normal concrete. After high temperature exposure at 800 ◦ C, the PL9C0.5 group had the
highest peak residual stresses of 12.7 MPa and 4.8 MPa, respectively, while the rest of the
PPF concrete specimens, with different dosing levels and lengths, had significantly lower
peak stresses.

7.2. Compressive Stress–Strain Curve Equation

The mathematical expressions for the concrete stress–strain curve have been studied
and proposed by many scholars and national regulations [69–71]. The curve is generally
divided into two parts, including the ascending part and the descending part. The math-
ematical function expressions generally include a polynomial, a rational fraction, power
function, exponential function, and combination of trigonometric functions. As mentioned
earlier, the presence of fibers can improve the elastic modulus and compressive strength of
concrete to some extent. Therefore, in this paper, the ascending part of the curve was fitted
using a polynomial function, and the descending part was fitted using a rational fraction
function. The basic equation for fitting the stress–strain curve was based on the curve
proposed by Zhenhai Guo [69], and the mathematical expression is shown in Equation (1):
(
αx + (3 − 2α) x2 + (α − 2) x3 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
x
( x ≥ 1) (1)
2
β ( x −1) + x

where y = σ/σc (T), x = ε/εc (T), σc (T) represents the peak stress at temperature T, and εc (T)
represents the peak strain at temperature T. Value α represents the ratio of the initial
tangent modulus of the curve to the secant modulus at the peak point, and its value range
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 19 of 25

the rest of the PPF concrete specimens, with different dosing levels and lengths, had
is 1 < α < 5/3. β is related to the area of the curve and the strain axis envelope of the
significantly lower peak stresses.
descending segment, and its value range is β > 0.

(a) PL0C0 group (b) PL3C0.5 group

(c) PL3C1.0 group (d) PL3C1.5 group

(e) PL9C0.5 group (f) PL9C1.0 group

Figure 19. Cont.

 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 20 of 25

(g) PL9C1.5 group (h) PL15C0.5 group

(i) PL15C1.0 group (j) PL15C1.5 group

Figure 19. The full stress–strain curve of PPF concrete specimens at different temperatures.
Figure 19. The full stress–strain curve of PPF concrete specimens at different temperatures.
7.3. Fitting Results
7.2. Compressive Stress–Strain Curve Equation
The parameters α and β are the shape parameters of the curve. Parameter α was calcu-
lated from the ratio of The mathematical
the cutline modulusexpressions for the modulus
to the tangent concrete stress–strain curve have been
after high temperature in studied
and proposed by many scholars and national regulations [69–71]. The curve is generally
the above section, and the value of β was obtained from the falling section of the measured
divided into two parts, including the ascending part and the descending part. The
stress–strain curve by curve fitting. Nonlinear curve fitting was achieved by the fitting
mathematical function expressions generally include a polynomial, a rational fraction,
function in OriginPro
powersoftware
function, developed
exponentialby OriginLab.
function, The fitted αofand
and combination β values were
trigonometric functions. As
obtained by the custom
mentioned earlier, the presence of fibers can improve the 1,
function, and the fitted R2 values were both close to indicating
elastic modulus and
that the curve proposed
compressiveby Zhenhai
strength ofGuo [69] could
concrete to somesimulate the stress–strain
extent. Therefore, curve
in this paper, theofascending
part of the curve was fitted using a polynomial function, and the descending
low slump PPF concrete with different lengths and admixtures very well. To make the part was
fitted using
equations more concise, the αa and
rational fraction
β values function.
derived Thefitting
from basic at
equation
differentfor temperatures
fitting the stress–strain
curve was
were used for secondary based
fitting toon the curve
obtain the α,proposed by Zhenhai Guo [69], and
β, and temperature-dependent the mathematical
parametric
equations. The R2expression is shown fitting
of the secondary in Equation (1): to 1, and the product of the R2 values
was close
of the two fits was also close to 1. The fitting 𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥 +process
(3 − 2𝛼𝛼)𝑥𝑥 cannot
2 be2)𝑥𝑥
+ (𝛼𝛼 − listed
3 in 𝑥𝑥detail,
(0 ≤ ≤ 1) due to the
space limitation of the article. The doping � amounts and𝑥𝑥 lengths of different PPF param- (1)
(𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1)
2 + 𝑥𝑥 expressions are shown in
eter values were fitted after high temperature, and 𝛽𝛽(𝑥𝑥the
− 1)specific
Equation (2), which utilized temperature T value values between 25 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C. All
where y = σ/σc(T), x = ε/εc(T), σc(T) represents the peak stress at temperature T, and εc(T)
gradually decreased with increasing
represents temperature,
the peak strain while showing
at temperature T. Value aα trend of first
represents theincreasing
ratio of the initial
and then decreasing, indicating that the ability to absorb energy first weakened and was
then slightly enhanced. The model also considers the change pattern of the upper and
lower sections after high temperature, which can be used for the whole process of PPF
finite element simulation of concrete structure after high temperature. Table A1 shows the
correlation coefficients of the values of parameters α and β with PPF admixture and length,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 21 of 25

and also see Appendix A. The table shows that the correlation coefficients of α and β values
were three each, and the fitted correlation coefficients R2 were close to 1.0.
  2  
 α = x T −25 + y T −25 + z

800 800
 2   (2)
 β = u T −25 + v T −25 + w

800 800

8. Conclusions
In general, the addition of PPF enhanced the Poisson’s ratio, peak strain, peak stress,
and elastic modulus of concrete at room temperature. In comparison to regular low-slump
concrete, the most considerable enhancement in Poisson’s ratio was observed in the PL3C0.5
group, whereas the most substantial improvements in peak strain, peak stress, and elastic
modulus were seen in the PL3C1.5 group, with enhancements of 11.13%, 15.6%, 19.6%, and
21.65%, respectively.
The changes in several parameters of Poisson’s ratio, peak strain, peak stress, and
modulus of elasticity after high temperature are related to the amount and length of
PPF admixture and depend on the change in porosity, release of vapor pressure, and the
degree of material deterioration. The PL15C0.5 group had the maximum peak strain after
600–800 ◦ C, with an increase of 36.66% in the average peak strain compared to the fiber-free
concrete group, while the minimum was found in the PL3C0.5 group with a 7.17% decrease
in average peak strain, compared to the fiber-free concrete group. This indicates that longer
PPF has a toughening effect on concrete at low admixture levels, and the peak strains of
PPF concrete all increased to varying degrees after high temperatures. The largest increase
in peak stress after 600 ◦ C was in the PL9C0.5 group, which was 6.70% higher than the fiber-
free concrete group, and the largest decrease was in the PL9C1.5 group, which was 29.41%
lower. Overall, the presence of PPF reduces the peak stress of concrete, and the weakening
effect brought about by the increase in content is more obvious than the weakening effect
produced by the increase in length. A significant weakening of the modulus of elasticity
occurred at 400 ◦ C. In contrast, the addition of fibers was able to increase the modulus
of elasticity of the concrete, to some extent, with the degree of reduction and increase
depending on the change in porosity due to PPF. The Poisson’s ratio increased by 5.8% and
decreased by 8.68%, respectively, compared to the fiber-free concrete.
The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of PPF concrete at room tem-
perature were significantly influenced by both the lengths of fibers and the amounts of
admixture. The strength exhibited a decreasing trend with increasing PPF length. At an ad-
mixture amount of 5.0 kg/m3 , the fiber specimens with a length of 19 mm showed the most
significant drop, with a compressive strength drop of 8.2% compared to normal concrete,
while the effect of admixture on strength demonstrated an initial increase followed by a
decrease with higher admixture levels. The maximum compressive strength and splitting
tensile strength were achieved at 48.5 MPa and 3.9 MPa, respectively, with a PPF fiber
length of 3 mm and an admixture amount of 1.0 kg/m3 . This resulted in a strength increase
of 17.15% and 25.72% compared to concrete without PPF.
The change in compressive and splitting tensile strengths of PPF concrete under high
temperature follows the same pattern as that at room temperature. Under high temperature
conditions, PPF with smaller content can significantly improve the mechanical properties of
concrete after high temperature. The compressive strength of low collapse polypropylene
fiber concrete after high temperature shows a trend of rising and then falling at the same
temperature with increase in the fiber admixture. When the temperature wass 800 ◦ C and
the fiber admixture was 0.5 kg/m3 , the compressive strengths of 3 mm, 9 mm, 15 mm and
19 mm reached their maxima of 9.65%, 11.33%, 7.90% and 2.87% over ordinary concrete.
The effect of PPF on the compressive strength of concrete was not obvious with the increase
of fiber length, and the rate of strength reduction in PPF concrete with a large admixture
was much higher than that caused by the length of PPF. The maximum compressive and
tensile strengths were achieved with a PPF admixture of 0.5 kg/m3 and a length of 9 mm,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7222 22 of 25

resulting in a 6.29% increase in compressive strength and a 28.57% increase in tensile

strength at 600 ◦ C, and an 11.33% increase in compressive strength and a 20% increase in
tensile strength at 800 ◦ C, compared to normal concrete.
Based on Zhenhai Guo’s stress–strain model for concrete, we developed full-curve
principal structural equations for the stress–strain of PPF concrete at both room temperature
and high temperature. Our results show that the stress–strain curve model proposed
by Zhenhai Per can be used to fit the stress–strain curve of low-slump PPF concrete
after exposure to high temperatures. The fitting method takes into account the effects
of temperature, PPF admixture, and PPF length on the two important curve parameters
α and β. Finally, the normalized fitting produces equations and tables that relate α and
β to temperature, PPF content, and PPF length, which can be used to obtain accurate
stress–strain curves for PPF concrete at specific temperatures, PPF contents, and lengths.

Author Contributions: Project administration, supervision and writing—review & editing, B.L.;
Formal analysis, investigation and writing—original draft, W.Z.; funding acquisition and resources,
Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Nature Science Foundation of China grant num-
ber 51768017.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Coefficient between parameter values α, β and temperature T.

Coefficient PL0C0 PL3C0.5 PL3C1.0 PL3C1.5 PL9C0.5 PL9C1.0 PL9C1.5 PL15C0.5 PL15C1.0 PL15C1.5
x 0.034 0.714 0.06 1.388 −0.19 −0.25 −0.10 0.064 0.251 −0.47
α
y −1.46 −2.04 −1.15 −2.42 −0.11 −1.09 −1.04 −1.36 −1.16 −40.25
z 1.72 1.70 1.51 1.85 1.59 1.55 1.49 1.6 1.57 1.47
u −20 −27.94 −0.90 −11.88 −7.02 5.42 5.26 −13.5 −8.06 15.47
β
v 26.91 39.53 6.29 9.47 9.46 −4.91 −4.76 12.34 14.82 −16.9
w 5.75 7.2 8.17 6.03 5.95 12.9 12.5 9.72 6.50 13

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