English - Text Types

Aashvi, Aliya, Ruhi and Neisha

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 Objective
Be able to use the correct format and register for each of the types.

This means that you should:

● Write in an appropriate tone.
● Have a clear sense of who you are writing for.
● Write with a strong sense of purpose.
● Give your writing a shape or layout that conforms to accepted standards.
● Punctuate accurately and observe the rules of grammar.
● Keep your content relevant to the question.

1.Argumentative Writing
Definition
An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could
be both sides presented equally or one brought out with more force. This would depend on the writer
and what side they would support the most.

General Structure
1. Introduction - Attention grabber, background information, thesis statement
2. Body - 3 body paragraphs
3. Counter Argument - Refute earlier arguments and give weight to your point of view
4. Conclusion - Rephrase your thesis statement, major points and give concluding remarks

Introduction
● You should use the title to present your point of view.
● Your title is often your thesis statement.
● You should not debate your point, introduce it.
● You should appeal to the reader’s emotions so they can empathize with your point.
● You could present information from sources that are highly regarded and reliable, this would make
your piece of work trustworthy

Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is a one sentence in your introductory paragraph that summarizes your main
point(s).The three formats of writing the thesis statement are: Question/answer format, refute
objections, and roadmap.

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 1. Question/Answer Format
The topic or prompt should be a question. For example: Does divorce cause serious problems for the
children? The most important way to make your marriage divorce-proof is to make sure you have
carefully prepared for that commitment. The answer to your question is the thesis statement.

2. Refute (Oppose) Objections

Another way to create a thesis statement is to state one side and present an opposing statement. For
example: While some people think there is no way to divorce-proof your marriage, studies have shown
there are fewer divorces when people carefully prepare for commitment.

3. Roadmap
An additional way to make a strong thesis is to do a ‘Roadmap’’ which in just a few words tells you the
three or more main points you will cover. For example: While some people think there is no way to
divorce-proof your marriage, studies have shown that there are fewer divorces when people carefully
prepare for that commitment by taking the time to get to know the other person before becoming
engaged; by spending time with one another's family and friends; by talking about hot-button issues like
finances; and by getting extensive premarital counseling.

Body
● Consists of three or more paragraphs
● Each paragraph represents a seperate piece of evidence that supports your thesis. The reasons are
the topics sentences for each paragraph of the body
● You can make your argument stronger by stating opposite points of view and refuting those points
● The reasons should be supported with logic, examples, statistics and authority
● You should use PEEL paragraphs as well as counter arguments and provide a rebuttal to the
counter-argument.

Conclusion
● The conclusion in many ways mirrors the introduction. It summarizes your thesis statement and
main arguments
● The conclusion should tie the whole piece together
● The conclusion aims to show the reader that your argument is the best
● The conclusion can include hypotheticals. Show what will happen if the reader adopts your ideas and
use real life examples of how your ideas will work
● Inspire the reader to agree with your argument
● Appeal to the reader’s emotions, morals, character, or logic

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 2. Article
Newspaper Article
News articles cover the basics of current events. They answer the questions: who, what, where, how, and
when?

The best way to structure a

newspaper article is to first write
an outline. Review your research
and notes. Then jot down ideas
for the following six sections.
Remember, this is just a
foundation upon which to build
your story.

1. Lead Sentence - Grab and hook your reader right away.

2. Introduction - Which facts and figures will ground your story? You have to tell your readers where
and when this story is happening.

3. Opening Quotation - What will give the reader a sense of the people involved and what they are
thinking?

4. Main Body - What is at the heart of your story?

5. Closing Quotation - Find something that sums the article up in a few words.

6. Conclusion (Optional - The closing quote may do the job)

What is a memorable way to end your story? The end quote is a good way to sum things up. That doesn’t
always work. If you are quoting more than one person with different points of view in your story, you
cannot end with a quote from just one of them. Giving one of your interviewees the last word can tilt the
story in their favor. In this age of the Internet, you can also end your story with a link to more information
or even your own behind-the-scenes blog post.

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Magazine Article
Writing articles for magazines is definitely a dream for a lot of writers. This is because the pay is usually
huge. Not only that, it can also offer exposure that can lead to more article writing projects.

Below are the things that you need to learn in order to write amazing articles for magazines:
1. Make sure to choose a topic that you’re an expert on or you feel interested in.
You’ll most likely produce high quality magazine articles if you choose topics that are included in your
areas of expertise and areas of interest. Publishers always look for articles that contain in-depth
information or those that are very authoritative. I would recommend that you list down all the things that
you feel you’re very good at. Then, choose those ones that you can easily sell to different magazines.

2. Choose interesting angles.

You have better chances of getting your articles published if they’re very interesting. Study your chosen
topic carefully and figure out the angles that were not yet discussed before and those that will grab your
target audience by the throat. Also, make sure that you do not write about general topics. Publishers in
general do not like articles that contain too much information that are not really useful or beneficial to
their clients.

3. Research.
Even if you think that you know your chosen topic inside out, I am sure it wouldn’t hurt if you conduct
research. This will surely allow you to get more useful and fresh information that can make your articles
more informative and more valuable to the eyes of your target audience. Read relevant resources and if
needed, interview other experts.

4. Create an outline - Next step is to create a structure that you can follow when writing your articles.
This must contain the ideas that you’re going to discuss in your introduction, article body, and
conclusion. Decide if you’re going to add images, testimonials, and graphics.

5. Write your articles - Unlike when writing news articles, you’re not required to follow a specific
structure or format when writing your magazine articles. You can be as creative as you want to be. To
hook your readers, I suggest that you write using their language. It will also help if you strive to sound
upbeat and warm all the time. Remember, your readers are reading magazine articles not just to get
informed but to be entertained as well.

6. Check out the style sheet or guidelines of the magazines where you would like to submit
your articles to.
Every magazine has its own list of instructions about the subjects, approach, and tone that you need to
use. If these are not published, I would recommend that you read all the articles that were used by the
magazines where you would like to submit your copies to. Doing this will surely give you a clear idea as to
what exactly they’re looking for.

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Feature Articles
Feature articles are longer and more in depth than regular news articles. They cover one subject from
multiple angles and are written in a more creative, entertaining format. Although a news story can be
creative and entertaining, too.

Column articles are about 300-350 words.

Introduction
Set the scene. Bring it to life. You might start with a question, a narrative or a description, but however you do it,
you need to seduce readers into your story via the first paragraph. A quick tip here is that it’s often a good idea to
write the opening paragraph last of all, once you’ve written everything else. Or write it and then go back to it when
you’ve finished the rest of the feature. A lot of the time, the first paragraph that we write will turn out to be drivel,
and either we’ll look at it in horror and cut it ourselves, or the editor will do it for us.

Your first or in most cases, second, paragraph will ideally explain the feature in a nutshell, so that the reader knows
what they are reading about and why they are reading it.

Body Text
Having got your readers hooked at the start, keep them reading. This is where your writer’s skill in
creating a logically progressed narrative comes into play. Each paragraph will move your story along, and
add to the reader’s information. Embed facts into scenes, so that something new is revealed with each
paragraph.

If you have interviewed people, let them reveal their parts of the story via direct quotes – you are telling a
story with characters in it so let them speak. Their voices will bring your feature story to life.
Don’t info-dump. Space out your information so that everything necessary is included without disrupting
your narrative flow.

If you haven’t enough space to get in all the facts, cut your prose rather than sacrifice information that
will add to a reader’s knowledge.

Conclusion
Create a satisfactory ending so that the reader understands that the story has reached a conclusion.
Don’t spoil a good feature by letting it tail off, or make it bottom-heavy by cramming in information that
should have been woven in higher up. Be careful too not to sound pat or – heaven forbid –
press-releasey.

Feature writing is about real life stories, and real life is complex, and does not always wrap up into a neat
conclusion. One-liners can be a nice way to end a piece, or if you have it, a good quote that underlines
everything that you’ve been saying throughout the feature.

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 3. Biography & Autobiography
Biography
Definition
A biography essay is an essay where you tell the story of a person's life. It's a chance for you to do
research and learn interesting facts and opinions about someone. That person could be a historical
figure, a famous actor, politician, artist, writer or inventor. The point of the biographical essay is to reveal
who that person was and what contribution they have made to the world.

General Structure
In order to write a great biography essay, you'll need to develop a thesis statement about them and write
supporting paragraphs with information about their life and work. Finally, a conclusion will help show the
lasting impact they've had.

Step 1 - Choose Your Subject

The person you choose to write about should be someone famous. Since you'll need to do research
about them, they need to be someone who you can find articles and books about. It would be best if the
person is someone you're interested in. That way it will make it easier for you to get excited about doing
the research.

Step 2 - Do Research
The more you read about your subject, the clearer a picture you'll have of who they are, what they
accomplished and why they're famous. Different writers will have varying opinions and information
about your chosen person, so it's best to read a wide range of sources. As you do your research, take
notes of interesting facts, dates, events, names. Take note as well of particularly strong opinions,
especially if they are opposing or contradictory to your subject.

Step 3 - Write an Outline

Make an outline of your essay. Your essay should follow the standard five paragraph format
(Introduction, Body Paragraphs, Conclusion) unless otherwise instructed by your teacher. Your outline
will help you organize the information you gathered during your research while you consider which ideas
to include in each paragraph.
Step 4 - Write Your Introduction Paragraph
Your introduction is your chance to engage the reader and get them excited about checking out your
essay. In order to get your reader hooked, try these introduction styles:
● Start with a quote either by or about your subject. Something that really reveals the essence of
who they are/were.
● Include a fascinating story or anecdote about them
● Describe an incredible accomplishment they have achieved.

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Step 5 - Develop Your Thesis Statement
Finally, you'll need to write a thesis statement. Your thesis statement will be the crux on which the rest of
your essay hangs, so pay careful attention to crafting it.

Some example thesis statements:

● Though Marilyn Monroe had fame and fortune, she was a troubled woman whose self-destructive
habits may have ultimately led to her tragic early death.
● Nobel Laureate Gabriel Garcia Marquez invented a new genre of writing called magical realism which
had a powerful impact on the literary world and influenced many writers who came after him.

Step 6 - Body Paragraphs

This is where you'll get to include the information you gathered in your research. Make sure you stick
close to the theme you introduced in your thesis. For example, if you're writing about Marilyn Monroe,
you may want to include facts about her troubled childhood and marriages as well as her substance and
prescription pill abuse. You'll also want to let readers know about her films, interests and lifestyle. Who
were the people that were close to her? What did they have to say? What kind of different opinions did
authors have about her? Include contradictory information to provide a more complete and complex
picture of your subject.

Step 7 - Conclusion
This is where you wrap up the essay and draw your conclusions about your subject. You want to end your
essay with a bang, not a fizzle. Don't simply restate your thesis or the points you made in your body
paragraphs. Instead, reach beyond that by tying their work or legacy into modern life.

Consider addressing the following questions:

● What kind of contribution did they make to their chosen field?
● How is their work relevant today?
● What is their legacy? How are they remembered?
● What or who did they have a major influence on?

The best biography essays not only explore the person's life and work, but offer little-known facts about
them. Don't settle for superficial accounts - dig deeper to discover more about them.

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Autobiography
Definition
An autobiography is considered as a literary device and it is an account of a person's life written by that
person.“Autobiography” is a word that might confuse some people. Biography means the story of
someone’s life. “Auto” means about oneself: so the word means the life story of the person writing the
life story. Only one person can write an autobiography: the person whose story is being told.

General Structure
There is no set pattern or plan to writing an autobiography: the story can take any form, as long as it is
written expressively and in an informative or entertaining way.

Step One - Consider your whole life.

Think about how you have lived it. Try to remember the important times, and the achievements and
adventures or mishaps that shaped it.

Step Two - Make a list of all the events, incidents, and accidents that you would like to mention.
Make a list of people who were—or still are—involved in your life. Add substance to the list by writing a
brief description of each person, event, accident, misfortune, lucky strike, and occasion you can
remember. A plan must be created from the result of this summary.

Step Three - Contact the people you have been around

Hold meetings with relatives and friends, who can remind you of events and people you might have
forgotten.

Step Four - Gather information

Gather as much information as you can in the way of photographs, letters, paintings, mementos,
souvenirs, personal belongings, recordings, and other audio, visual, or personal material. These make for
useful memory triggers, and will elicit stories.

Step Five - Take your time

Reserve a long time to cover all the talking, listening, and reading you might have to do to put together an
account of your whole life. Although you know it well yourself, the aim is to make your knowledge and
interpretation sound fresh and interesting to those who will read it.

Step Six - Plan and prepare

Take plenty of notes and start to draft the story using a fresh perspective for the anecdotes and
narratives you have gathered.

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Step Seven - Draft the introduction and first chapter last
As with other writing, it is always wise to draft the introduction and first chapter last. This method
provides the opportunity to introduce your work in an appropriate way, and devise an absorbing and
well-written autobiography.

Key Points to Consider…

● An autobiography is a personal document to write. The motivation behind it might be to leave your
story to your descendants, to entertain your family, or to put on record some unusual achievement
or escapade.
● It takes months, if not years, to put a whole life into words. It also takes a lot of careful thought and
cautious deliberation. Telling the story as it happened might be the easiest way, but it is also possible
to work in flashbacks or vignettes.
● Places, people, and time are all important to get right in an autobiography. There are also opinions,
attitudes, feelings, decisions, and resolutions that might be difficult to write about without becoming
overly emotional. Taking an occasional break might relieve stress.
● An autobiography cannot avoid the mention of family members and friends. No one lives a life of
complete isolation. It is vital to ask permission to mention incidents, events, cases, and procedures
that involve others.
● It is inevitable that someone is hurt, insulted, or offended by the content you write. Try to lessen the
impact of what you write in two ways: by making the person aware of what you are writing and how
you are framing the context and connections; and the second way is by using the most diplomatic
and tactful explanatory language you can.
● Use your genealogical information to depict your life accurately in the context of who your family and
antecedents were, the locations in which they originated, and information about their lives—since
without them, you would not have a story to write.

Common Mistakes
● Not allowing enough time to remember all your childhood and incidents that happened in your
youth. It might be too late to make additions. Talking to relatives is vital.
● Repetition—if others in your family have written autobiographies, it is inevitable that you will relate
similar stories about the same events. Try to make yours as original as possible.
● Lack of focus. This story is all about you. People rarely live totally isolated lives—but the focus is your
life and how you lived it.
● Forgetting the importance of the task. This piece of work might live on much longer than you will.
Your family might regard it with suspicion, or with great delight. To make sure it is a story everyone
enjoys, you must work hard to get it right and make it pleasant.
● Lack of analysis. Even the story of someone’s life needs some sort of reflection about how it relates
to the world and environment in which it is lived. Try to make the context unusual, thought
provoking, and unforgettable.

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The Do’s and Don’ts

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 4. Blog Post
Structure

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Notes
● Have a clear introduction - Every blog post should have a clear introduction that maps out what your
post is about. Some writers also include an anecdote or explain why they’re an authority on the topic.

● Use headings - Headings allow users to skim your post and refer back to the points they’re most
interested in. They should be enough to whet their appetite, nothing more. The longer you make
your headings, the more difficult you make it for readers to skim read.

● Subheadings can also be good places to fit in related keywords - Your subheadings can also have
subheadings, which can have even more subheadings. You can have a Russian doll of subheadings if
you really want to, just be careful not to get too carried away.
● Keep paragraphs short - The shorter your paragraphs, the easier they are to skim read.

● Write in plain English - Blog posts aren’t the place for purple prose and intricate metaphors. The
longer, more complicated your sentences are, the more difficult it is to retain your readers’ attention.

● Use your voice - It’s your voice, your opinions, and your experiences. Adding those into your content
is what will help it to stand out.

● Let it be the length it needs to be - Whenever people submit guest posts to me, they either ask me
what the maximum word count is, or they apologise for it being too long. The truth is, there’s no such
thing as a post that’s too long. Search engines love longer content because they believe that it’s in
more depth and therefore of more value to the reader.

● Use compelling imagery - Using imagery that ties in with your points breaks up your blog post and
helps to keep your audience’s attention. Pretty images also catch someone’s eye as they scroll
through and give them a reason to pause. However, all images used in your post should relate to the
contents of your post in some way.

● Have a conclusion - Tie things up at the end with a conclusion summing up your points, much like
you would in an essay.

● Have some sort of call to action at the end - Blogging is all very well and good, but why are you doing
it? What do you want your readers to do in exchange for this titbit of information? Sign up to your
mailing list? Leave a comment? Share your post? Make sure the call to action at the end of your post
is clear and direct.

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 5. Book/Movie/Art/Product Review
Pre-Writing
Remember and take notes of the plot of the story. What impression did it produce on you?

Writing
Introduction
Give the title and author of the book, mention the type of the book. If you’re reviewing a film mention the
type of film, the director, and the actors.

Body
● Summarise the plot in a few sentences. ● Say something about the main characters.
● Mention the setting: the place and time of ● Say something about the content.
the plot.

Conclusion
● Comment on the book or film.
● Let others know whether or not you liked the book/film.
● Give your opinion about the acting of the actors, sound track, and special effects.
● Is the author’s style good or bad? Is the book/film interesting or boring?
● Do you want to recommend the book/film?

Post Writing
Edit your writing.
Note - Sustain prose writing (paragraphs).

Useful Expressions to Use When Writing about these Special Components of a Review
Title & Author/Director/Actors
● The film is directed by… ● It is starred by…
● The film is produced by… ● The book is written by…

Setting
● The action takes place in… ● The action of the film is set in…
● The story takes place in…
Characters and Plot
● The main characters are… ● The novel/film begins with…
● The story is about… ● The novel has an unexpected ending.
● The novel tells the story of… ● The ending of…is…
● In the course of the novel the action
develops dramatically.
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Reaction
● I am impressed by ● What surprised me is…
● I think… ● What I liked is…
● The book is terribly/beautifully written. ● What I didn’t like is…
● The film is terrible/exciting. ● I liked/didn’t like the film/novel because…

What Kinds of Films/Movies Do You Like?

1. Action movies have a lot of exciting effects like car chases and gun fights. They usually involve ‘goodies’ and
‘baddies’, so war and crime are common subjects. Action movies usually need very little effort to watch, since
the plot is normally simple.
2. Adventure movies usually involve a hero who sets out on a quest to save the world or loved ones.
3. Animated movies
4. Buddy movies often involve comedy, but there is also some emotion, because of the close friendship between
the 'buddies'.
5. Comedies are funny movies about people being silly or doing unusual things or being in silly or unusual
situations that make the audience laugh.
6. Documentaries are movies that are (or claim to be) about real people and real events. They are nearly always
serious and may involve strongly emotional subjects, for example cruelty.
7. Dramas are serious, and often about people falling in love or needing to make a big decision in their life. They
tell stories about relationships between people. They usually follow a basic plot where one or two main
characters (each actor plays a character) have to 'overcome' (get past) an obstacle (the thing stopping them) to
get what they want.
8. Tragedies are always dramas, and are about people in trouble. For example, a husband and wife who are
divorcing must each try to prove to a court of law that they are the best person to take care of their child.
Emotion (feelings) are a big part of the movie and the audience (people watching the movie) may get upset and
even cry.
9. Family movies are made to be good for the entire family. They are mainly made for children but often
entertaining for adults as well. Disney is famous for their family movies.
10. Horror movies use fear to excite the audience. Music, lighting, and sets (man-made places in movie studios
where the movie is made) are all designed to add to the feeling.
11. Romantic comedies (rom-coms) are usually love stories about two people from different worlds, who must
overcome obstacles to be together. Rom-coms are always light-hearted, but many include some emotion.
12. Science fiction (sci-fi) movies are set in the future or in outer space. Some use their future or alien settings to
ask questions about the meaning of life or how we should think about life. Science fiction movies often use
special effects to create images of alien worlds, outer space, alien creatures, and spaceships.
13. Thrillers are usually about a mystery, strange event, or crime that needs to be solved. The audience is kept
guessing until the final minutes, when there are usually ‘twists’ in the plot (surprises).
14. Western movies tell stories about cowboys in the western United States in the 1800s. They are usually action
movies, but with historical costume. They may or may not involve First Peoples (Native Americans).
15. Fantasy movies include magical and impossibly things that any real human being cannot do.

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 6. Brochures & Pamphlets
Brochure
Definition
A brochure is an informative paper document that can be folded into a template, pamphlet, or leaflet. A
brochure can also be a set of related unfolded papers put into a pocket folder or packet.

General Structure
Brochures vary in content and length, but most follow a standard format. The front panel displays the
company logo and headline. The inner panels make a case for the product/service using supporting facts
and details. The final panel contains contact info and a call-to-action.

Pamphlet
Definition
A pamphlet is an unbound book. Pamphlets may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both
sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths, called a leaflet or it may consist of a few pages that are
folded in half and saddle stapled at the crease to make a simple book.

General Structure
Pamphlets may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in
thirds, or in fourths, called a leaflet or it may consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle
stapled at the crease to make a simple book.

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Steps to Creating a Good Brochure or Pamphlet
Step One - Having a good headline
A good headline is key. The headline on the front of your brochure or pamphlet should always include the interests
and perceived problems of your targeted audience, and be followed by the solutions you can provide. Many
business owners mistakenly lead with their company's basic information. It's imperative, however, to capture your
audience's attention and prompt them to read the rest of the brochure or pamphlet. Why bother taking the time to
create a great brochure if your audience only reads the front and then discards it?

Step Two - Don’t forget the basics

Remember the basics. Don't ignore the basics when creating a brochure or pamphlet; it should include
standard information, such as company name, at least two types of contact information, a logo and
tagline. It should also include a headline on the front and two or three brief items outlining benefits your
organization can provide. All text should be in brief, easy-to-read blocks to provide clarity for the reader.
Add graphic images and photos of your product, services and/or key personnel for an eye-catching touch.

Step Three - Don’t confuse the reader or add unnecessary information

Don't confuse the reader. Avoid the temptation to list too much information on your brochure or
pamphlet. Too many messages will confuse your audience and dilute your main points. Focus on what
interests your target audience in a succinct manner, and they'll come away with an accurate
understanding of what you can offer them and how you'll do it. It's OK to be proud of your business or
cause, but not at the expense of cluttering your brochure with irrelevant information.

Step Four - Avoid using big words

Avoid big words. There's no need to impress your target audience by using hard-to-understand words
that will send the reader scrambling for a dictionary. Your goal is to provide the reader with information
regarding your organization, and triple-word-score Scrabble words and lengthy acronyms are hardly the
best way to accomplish this. Plain speak is the best course of action.

Step Five - Entice your audience

Include a call to action. Don't assume your audience will be moved to contact you or purchase your
product or services after they read your well-crafted brochure or pamphlet. An effective brochure or
pamphlet should include a call to action, such as an offer for a free product sample or a free estimate or
gift. This will entice readers and give them an incentive to act. Sometimes people need that extra
motivation to contact you.

Step Six - Don’t be flimsy with its production

Don't be flimsy. A firm brochure or pamphlet is the equivalent of a firm handshake; it promotes
confidence and competence. The weight, texture and overall feel are some of the first things someone
will notice about your brochure or pamphlet. Use high-quality paper with a glossy finish to create a
brochure that stands out. Handing out or mailing thin, flimsy brochures or pamphlets will signal that you
put little thought and even less effort into developing your marketing materials.
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 7. Creative Writing
Narrative
Definition
A narrative is a form of writing that tells a story. Narratives can be essays, fairy tales, movies, and jokes.
Narratives have five elements: plot, setting, character, conflict, and theme.

Elements of Narratives
To be successful, your narrative must include the following elements...
1. Plot - The main events of a play, novel, film, or similar work, devised and presented by the writer as
an interrelated sequence.
2. Setting - The place or type of surroundings where something is positioned or where an event takes
place.
3. Character - A character is a person or other being in a narrative. The character may be entirely
fictional or based on a real-life person, in which case the distinction of a "fictional" versus "real"
character may be made.
4. Conflict - A conflict is a clash of interest. The basis of conflict may vary but it is always a part of
society. Basis of conflict may be personal, racial, class, caste, political and international. Conflict in
groups often follows a specific course.
5. Theme - A theme is a central topic, subject, or message within a narrative.

Tips for Writing a Narrative

Consider the topic - You should be able to weave your truth into a story that matters. It would not be a
good narrative essay if you are not involved in your writing and don’t want to share your experience with
others.

Start with the draft - It is not easy to write a good story from the beginning to the end without some
planning. That is why you should create a narrative essay outline and draft and then polish it until you
are sure that the result meets all the requirements. This method is used by many people, including
famous writers.

Storyline elements - Most stories contain elements as the description, plot, characters, setting, and
other components. These help each text attract the readers’ attention and make them think about it.
Make sure your narrative story contains all these elements and is written in accordance with all
standards of English grammar and proofreading.

The point of view - Readers and listeners should clearly understand your role in the story, which is why
it is so important to let them know all the details of the described event, as well as the explanation of
your behavior in a particular situation.

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Proving and supporting - You should not only show your opinion but also give arguments that support
it. You can provide readers with any facts and references that showcase your thoughts and the results of
your conclusions.

Do not give details that don’t mean anything to your story - They make your essay too wordy and
can confuse readers. To determine whether specific details are needed, find out if they have significant
roles in the plot.

Clear writing - Use simple words and appropriate language in the text. The clearer your readers
understand what you are telling them, the better their feedback will be and keep in mind that some
things that are clear to you can be ambiguous to your readers so you should check your text before you
hand it in.

Describe events chronologically - As a rule, such papers are created in proper chronological order in
order to avoid confusion and allow everyone who reads it to follow the author’s thoughts easily and with
interest.

Imaginative
Definition
Imaginative writing, also known as creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal
professional, journalistic, academic, or technical forms of literature, typically identified by an emphasis on
narrative craft, character development, and the use of literary tropes or with various traditions of poetry
and poetics.

Types of Imaginative Writing

● Poetry ● Songs
● Plays ● Speeches
● Movie and television scripts ● Memoirs
● Fiction (novels, novellas, and short ● Personal essays
stories)

Techniques used in Imaginative Writing

● Character development ● Anecdotes
● Plot development ● Metaphors and similes
● Vivid setting ● Figures of speech
● Underlying theme ● Imaginative language
● Point of view ● Emotional appeal
● Dialogue ● Heavy description

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Internal Monologue
The Encyclopedia Britannica defines an internal monologue as a ‘narrative technique that exhibits the
thoughts passing through the minds of the protagonist’. A character on stage play may use this
technique as part of a soliloquy or dramatic monologue, which presents to the audience the character’s
innermost thoughts.

These thoughts may be represented in one of two ways:

1. Thoughts that are loosely related, and may not seem to follow on coherently, as the character’s mind
leaps from one thought to another.
2. More rationally structured sequence of thought and emotion.

Notes
1. For the sake of an examination setting, I advise we try the rationally structured sequence. It is the
reason I’ve not shared an example of loosely related thoughts because that can easily affect your
score in criterion B.
2. Opening Sentence - Have an opening that captures interest and raises anticipation.
3. Paragraphing - Suggests nature of thoughts, for example, in this case we can pick the anxiety,
divided nature of the thoughts and feelings.
4. Transitions - Linking of paragraphs should be clear. For example, notice how the speaker uses the
beginning of each paragraph as a reaction to, or reflection on, the previous one. Transition within
paragraphs should be smooth as well.
5. Coherence - Thoughts should build on each other, and build to a climax at the end.
6. Overall Structure - Sequence of thoughts should be relevant, naturalistic “credible”, and
suspenseful.
7. Sentences have a variety of types of sentences and lengths. For example, questions, statements,
short sentences. Make deliberate choices as informed by the effect you desire for your audience.

Descriptive Writing
Definition
Descriptive writing is a literary device in which the author uses details to paint a picture with their words.
This process will provide readers with descriptions of people, places, objects, and events through the use
of suitable details.

Characteristics of Descriptive Writing

1. Good descriptive writing includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and appeals to all of
the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste when appropriate. Descriptive writing
may also paint pictures of the feelings the person, place or thing invokes in the writer. In the video
section below, watch a teacher use a Five Senses Graphic Organizer as a planning strategy for
descriptive writing.

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2. Good descriptive writing often makes use of figurative language such as analogies, similes and
metaphors to help paint the picture in the reader's mind.

3. Good descriptive writing uses precise language. General adjectives, nouns, and passive verbs do not
have a place in good descriptive writing. Use specific adjectives and nouns and strong action verbs to
give life to the picture you are painting in the reader's mind.

4. Good descriptive writing is organized. Some ways to organize descriptive writing include:
chronological (time), spatial (location), and order of importance. When describing a person, you might
begin with a physical description, followed by how that person thinks, feels and acts.

How to Write a Descriptive Essay

1. Choose a specific topic - Strong descriptive essays remain focused at all times. Settle on the
purpose of the essay before you begin outlining or writing. It may be appropriate to summarize your
main idea in a thesis statement. In these types of essays, a good thesis statement is less about your
personal point of view and more about pointing toward the information that should make the
dominant impression in your reader's mind.

2. Compile information - The best descriptive essays are full of detail—names, dates, physical
characteristics, background information, and sensory information that can help implant your main
points in your reader's mind. Collect these details, and then use note cards to group them into
specific categories of information that you can pull up as needed.

3. Make an outline - Your descriptive writing must be organized. Group your main points into
individual body paragraphs, each of which should be a subcategory of your essay's main topic.

4. Write the introductory paragraph - A good introductory paragraph can be a road map for your
entire essay. The best introductions start with a hook like a rhetorical question or a bold statement.
After your hook, provide global context and outline questions that your essay will seek to tackle. Your
thesis statement should come at the end of the introduction.

5. Write body paragraphs - Each body paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that anchors the
reader's attention and tells them what to expect from the paragraph. Parse out details in each body
paragraph. Be as specific as possible without overwhelming your reader with information. Specific
examples always make more of an impression than generalizations.

6. Summarize the essay in the concluding paragraph - Your conclusion is the button on the entire
essay. Use it to reiterate the main ideas you established in the first paragraph, and touch back on key

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 details from body paragraphs. Do not use this paragraph to introduce new ideas for the first time. If
you realize you still have important topics to include, create another body paragraph.

7. Look for ways to enliven your language - Before you consider your essay complete, go through it
and look for places where vivid sensory details might enhance a description. Look for opportunities
to tell a story rather than recite lists. Descriptive language and literary tools will keep your essay in
your reader's mind long after they've finished reading.

Adventure Story
Definition
Adventure fiction is a genre of fiction that usually presents danger, or gives the reader a sense of
excitement.

Characteristics of Adventure Stories

Action and Excitement
Adventure novels typically have fast-paced, action-packed plot lines. Stories about epic journeys or epic
tales -- often involving a mixture of adventure and fantasy -- have slightly slower plot lines that culminate
with a thrilling climax or a series of climactic events. Examples include the "Odyssey" by Homer and "Lord
of the Rings" by J.R.R. Tolkien. The setting of an adventure story often takes place "elsewhere" and might
include maps, intriguing backgrounds and antiquities to help readers understand the tale, says Joyce
Saricks in her book "The Readers' Advisory Guide to Genre Fiction."

Courageous Protagonists
Adventure-genre protagonists are traditionally male, but that trend is changing as writers choose brave,
assertive females to fit the role. Current examples include Katniss Everdeen in "The Hunger Games"
series by Suzanne Collins and Beatrice Prior in the "Divergent" series by Veronica Roth. Heroes in
adventure stories often face life-and-death scenarios that test their willingness to sacrifice their own lives
-- if need be -- for the sake of the greater good. Adventure stories contain a sense of urgency, so
protagonists must accomplish their goals or missions in a short period of time, says Saricks.

Dark Moods
Adventure fiction tends to have a dark, foreboding mood with an expectant tone because readers don't
usually find out if the protagonist survives until the end of the story. Some adventure genre authors
incorporate humor into their stories to soften the mood, such as Mark Twain's use of light-hearted
dialogue in "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer." Military adventures, such as "The Hunt for Red October" by
Tom Clancy, "Flight of the Intruder" by Stephen Coonts or "Ender's Game" by Orson Scott Card, reflect an
especially menacing mood because characters frequently face perilous circumstances and must
constantly guard against intruders, suggests Saricks.

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Evil Adversaries
Antagonists in adventure novels tend to be extremely evil, so readers desperately want the hero or
heroine to defeat them. For example, antagonists in the James Bond series by Ian Fleming typically lack
moral values and deserve punishment for their corrupt behavior. Villains in superhero adventure stories
show little regard for human life and have self-serving interests, such as the unquenchable desire for
power, fame or wealth. Even though heroes in adventure fiction have character flaws and often evolve
during the course of the story, the genre contains clearly defined good and bad guys.

How to Write an Adventure Story

1. Read popular novels with an adventure theme - For first-time adventure writers, start by selecting
a classic adventure book to see how other authors apply the form in their stories. Reading other
adventure authors will help your own writing.

2. Structure your story with the basic adventure framework - The hero’s journey has all of the
elements you need to tell a tall tale of adventure. Follow the step-by-step process to construct your
story, but put your own twist on the basic formula with unique characters, setting, and plot.

3. Create a compelling character - Think about what made Indiana Jones such an engaging
protagonist: He was brave but he had weaknesses, like his paralyzing fear of snakes—an obstacle
when he’s in the middle of the jungle. Create a likeable protagonist but one with flaws that can drum
up internal conflict to parallel the external conflicts they face on their journey. Make them likeable
and relatable, someone readers root for. Reveal why they’ve been chosen for this mission.

4. Introduce a catalyst - Whether it’s a hunt for an artifact or a mystery that needs to be solved,
develop a strong catalyst that ignites the main character’s adventure. This catalyst needs to drive the
plot, create risk, and be strong enough to start the protagonist’s transformation.

5. Have a supporting character - In many adventure stories, the hero is not alone. They have a trusty
sidekick who supports them on their quest. Think of Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger in the
Harry Potter books. They’re a sounding board for Harry during the most dangerous, pivotal moments
throughout the series.

6. Find a setting that elevates the risk - An adventure story takes a character from a familiar setting
to a new environment. If your character lives in a city, send them to a desolate wilderness without a
map. If you’re going to keep them on their home turf, then some force of nature or supernatural
power must turn the environment upside down to make it a perilous landscape.

7. Think about pacing - A great adventure novel should keep the reader on the edge of their seat with
a constant hum of suspense. Keep a story moving, even between dramatic plot points. When you’ve

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 completed your first draft, go back and read it through for pacing and eliminate any descriptive
moments that slow the story down.

8. Increase the risk - Throughout your story, your protagonist must always feel unsettled, like
something is always putting their lives at risk. Whether it’s the antagonist closing in or an
environmental element that creates danger, your character will have many setbacks and obstacles.
Stack the odds against your hero throughout their journey. This will create a bigger payoff at the
climax and make the journey worth the risk.

9. Set a timer - Nothing puts pressure on a protagonist like racing against the clock. Raise the stakes by
giving your character a deadline to reach their goal or something else will happen. One way of
approaching this tactic is to create an antagonist who is also on a quest for the same artifact.

10. Allow your protagonist to transform - From the moment you introduce them through the
denouement, your main character will undergo a transformation and come out a changed person at
the end of the story. Those risks and obstacles they endured will give them a new perspective on the
world.

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 8. Comparative Essay: Compare and Contrast
Possible Clues to Look for When Looking for Differences
1. Divergent view on the same issue - how different is text A from B on treatment of issues raised?
2. Focus on certain techniques and style of writing – text A focuses on…. while B on… (give effect)
3. Dissimilar settings – how does the setting for each affect interpretation of issues raised in either text?
4. Structure (ending, beginning) – there is a deliberate choice in how one ends or begins a story. What
impression does either of the creators make on the audience?

When preparing to write a compare and contrast essay (comparative writing)...

● Make notes on possible themes found in each text
● Find words and/or phrases within the text that support each theme
● How does each text treat the themes you have identified? What similarities or differences can you
identify? For example, what does one author include, when the other does not? What does one
author emphasize, when the other does not? Why?
● How are the similarities or differences presented in each text? How are literary aspects used to put
the themes or messages across?

For example, consider...

➔ Use of narrative voice (1st narrative or 3rd ➔ Use of relationships between characters
narrative voice) ➔ Aspects of style
➔ Use of character

The Block Structure The Alternating Structure

P1 - Introduction
P2 - Text One (Similarity with the other text)
P3 - Text One (Difference with the other text)
P4 - Text Two (Similarity with the other text)
P5 - Text Two (Difference with the other text)
P6 - Conclusion
P1 - Introduction
P2 - Text One (Similarity with the other text)
P3 - Text Two (Similarity with the other text)
P4 - Text One (Difference with the other text)
P5 - Text Two (Difference with the other text)
P6 - Conclusion

The Integrated (Side by Side Analysis) Structure

P1 - Introduction
P2 - One theme in text one and text two; discuss one similarity and difference
P3 - One theme in text one and text two; discuss one similarity and difference
P4 - One theme in text one and text two; discuss one similarity and difference
P5 - Conclusion

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 9. Conversation/Dialogue
Definition
Conversation is a joint activity in which two or more participants use linguistic forms and nonverbal
signals to communicate interactively. Dialogues are conversations between two participants (although
the terms dialogue and conversation are often used interchangeably).

Face-to-face conversation is universal—engaged in by all human cultures, and providing an interactive

context in which children learn their native languages. Conversation may also be mediated, such as when
electronic technology is used for speech or text.

A conversation is not simply a sequence of messages expressed as speaking turns, produced by

speakers, and received and decoded by addressees. Conversations are structured into adjacency pairs,
with first and second parts produced by different speakers.

1. A written composition in which two or more characters are represented as conversing

2. A.) conversation between two or more persons

also : a similar exchange between a person and something else (such as a computer)

B.) an exchange of ideas and opinions

// organized a series of dialogues on human rights

C.) A discussion between representatives of parties to a conflict that is aimed at resolution

// a constructive dialogue between loggers and environmentalists

3. The conversational element of literary or dramatic composition

// very little dialogue in this film
// writes realistic dialogue

4. A musical composition for two or more parts suggestive of a conversation

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Types of Conversations
Based on direction and tone, I grouped conversations into four types: debate, dialogue, discourse, and
diatribe.
1. Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The goal is to win an argument or convince someone,
such as the other participant or third-party observers.
2. Dialogue is a cooperative, two-way conversation. The goal is for participants to exchange
information and build relationships with one another.
3. Discourse is a cooperative, one-way conversation. The goal to deliver information from the
speaker/writer to the listeners/readers.
4. Diatribe is a competitive, one-way conversation. The goal is to express emotions, browbeat those
that disagree with you, and/or inspire those that share the same perspective.

To highlight the differences between these types of conversations, let’s use politics as an example:
1. Debate: two family members from opposite sides of the political spectrum arguing over politics.
2. Dialogue: two undecided voters talking to each other about the candidates, trying to figure out who
they want to vote for.
3. Discourse: a professor giving a lecture on international affairs.
4. Diatribe: a disgruntled voter venting about the election’s outcome.

It is important to know which type of conversation you are in, because that determines the purpose of
that conversation. If you can identify the purpose, you can better speak to the heart of that conversation.
But, if you misidentify the conversation you are in, you can fall into conversational pitfalls.

Features of a Dialogue/Conversation
Real conversation is spontaneous rather than scripted in advance; it is shaped by the coordinated
behavior of speakers and addressees. For these reasons, it differs considerably from edited texts.
Utterances unfold over time; they are both planned and interpreted incrementally.

Conversations do not begin and end abruptly, but with opening and closing routines with which
participants establish that they are willing to begin interacting, or ready to say goodbye.

1. Reveals character and plot in every line.

Write dialogue with purpose. If each line doesn’t move the plot forward or say something about the
character saying it, throw it out!

2. Doesn’t rely on itself as a crutch.

Dialogue shouldn’t be a crutch used in place of quality storytelling. Explain the minimum, draw in the
audience, and trust in their brains’ ability to fill in the rest. Max Max: Fury Road and Interstellar are two
recent great examples.

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 3. Distinguishes each character.
Every character should be recognizable and distinguishable by their dialogue alone, using cadence,
vocabulary, and communication style to make it clear who is speaking without having a character name
attached. When this rule is followed, the reader’s brain will fill in the character names for them, especially
when reading stage and screenplays.

4. Isn’t redundant.
Don’t repeat information we’ve already heard or can see for ourselves. Don’t tell us about the action;
show it to us. Cut down redundant beats and never say the same thing twice unless the tactic, subtext or
context has changed.

5. Is appropriate to tone, setting, and time period.

Comedy dialogue should be funny. Thriller dialogue should be terse. Emotional dialogue should be
heartfelt and passionate. When writing in a certain time period or language, be sure to do thorough
research to ensure the dialogue feels authentic.

6. Don't try to be real conversation.

This is a common mistake. Dialogue is not actual conversation. Dialogue is purposefully written in a way
which reveals character and story, using tactics appropriate to the character to overcome obstacles and
achieve a particular goal. In contrast, real-life conversation is vague and messy, filled with “well” and “um,”
conflicting internal monologues and complex, muddy intentions and psychology, leading to what we hear
on the surface.

7. Avoids hedges and fences.

Well, um, you know? Opening and ending sentences with these little words bog down pacing, takes up
valuable space, and decreases the strength of each line while wearing on the receiver’s nerves. Why?
They’re essentially filler. While people say these things all the time in real life, characters are not real
people and dialogue is not real conversation.

8. Minimizes direct exposition.

If characters stand around and explain the story through direct exposition (which is telling, not showing),
then the audience gets cheated out of sharing the experience of those events with the characters, which
is how we build a relationship with them and grow to like, love, or hate them. Rather than revealing
backstory or thought processes through dialogue, try showing the characters make these decisions and
take action to illustrating the story. Although there are some exceptions in TV writing and lower budget
films, it’s still a standard guideline to follow wherever possible.

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 9. Avoids tired clichés.
Avoid clichés like the plague. Rather, don’t use them at all, unless making a joke (see previous sentence).
They stick out like a sore thumb (sorry), highlight lazy storytelling, and, more than anything, each instance
bumps the audience out of immersion in the story’s world.

10. Doesn’t reveal major story points without evidence or setup.

Building on previous points, avoid advancing the plot through direct exposition via dialogue, especially
when there has been no previous evidence or setup to clue the audience into the characters’ thought
processes or clue-seeking. It cheats the audience out of shared experience with the characters, delivers
exposition clumsily, and leaves the audience out of the loop. Never leave the audience out of the loop.
The story is for them, after all.

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 10. Diary & Journal Entries
Introduction
A personal journal is a private possession. In other words, this diary usually is just for you and it’s not for
public reading, so one can write liberally. But for the benefit of the readers, we’d like to show you all how
a diary entry is generally written. What we are laying down here are good practices that one can inculcate
while writing their diary entry.

A diary is a journal organized by date where you express your thoughts, feelings, opinions, and plans. So,
be as candid as you can. Because this journal is your safe place. If you don’t know where to start, then
start by writing about your day, about yourself, and so on.

Structure

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 11. Film Analysis
Film Analysis vs. Literary Analysis
Film analysis is the process in which film is analysed in terms of semiotics, narrative structure, cultural
context, and mise-en-scene, among other approaches. If these terms are new to you, don’t worry—they’ll
be explained in the next section.

Analysing film, like analysing literature (fiction texts, etc.), is a form of rhetorical analysis—critically
analysing and evaluating discourse, including words, phrases, and images. Having a clear argument and
supporting evidence is every bit as critical to film analysis as to other forms of academic writing.

Unlike literature, film incorporates audio-visual elements and therefore introduces a new dimension to
analysis. Ultimately, however, analysis of film is not too different. Think of all the things that make up a
scene in a film: the actors, the lighting, the angles, the colours. All of these things may be absent in
literature, but they are deliberate choices on the part of the director, producer, or screenwriter—as are
the words chosen by the author of a work of literature.

Furthermore, literature and film incorporate similar elements. They both have plots, characters, dialogue,
settings, symbolism, and, just as the elements of literature can be analysed for their intent and effect,
these elements can be analysed the same way in film.

Types of Film Analysis

Keep in mind that any of the elements of film can be analysed, oftentimes in tandem. A single film
analysis essay may simultaneously include all of the following approaches and more. As Jacques Aumont
and Michel Marie propose in Analysis of Film, there is no correct, universal way to write film analysis.

Semiotic Analysis
Semiotic analysis is the analysis of meaning behind signs and symbols, typically involving metaphors,
analogies, and symbolism.

This doesn’t necessarily need to be something dramatic; think about how you extrapolate information
from the smallest signs in your day to day life. For instance, what characteristics can tell you about
someone’s personality?

Something as simple as someone’s appearance can reveal information about them. Mismatched shoes
and bedhead might be a sign of carelessness (or something crazy happened that morning!), while an
immaculate dress shirt and tie would suggest that the person is prim and proper.

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Continuing in that vein:
● What might you be able to infer about characters from small hints?
● How are these hints (signs) used to construct characters? How do they relate to the relative role of
those characters, or the relationships between multiple characters?

Symbols denote concepts (liberty, peace, etc.) and feelings (hate, love, etc.) that they often have nothing
to do with. They are used liberally in both literature and film, and finding them uses a similar process. Ask
yourself:

What objects or images are repeated in multiple instances?

In Frozen Elsa’s gloves appear in multiple scenes.

In what context do they appear?

Her gloves are first given to her by her father to restrain her magic. She continues to wear them throughout the
coronation scene, before finally, in the Let It Go sequence, she throws them away.

Again, the method of semiotic analysis in film is similar to that of literature. Think about the deeper
meaning behind objects or actions.

What might Elsa’s gloves represent?

Elsa’s gloves represent fear of her magic and, by extension, herself. Though she attempts to contain her magic
by hiding her hands within gloves and denying part of her identity, she eventually abandons the gloves in a
quest for self-acceptance.

Narrative Structure Analysis

Narrative structure analysis is the analysis of the story elements, including plot structure, character
motivations, and theme. Like the dramatic structure of literature (exposition, rising action, climax, falling
action, resolution), film has what is known as the Three-Act Structure: “Act One: Setup, Act Two:
Confrontation, and Act Three: Resolution.”

Narrative structure analysis breaks the story of the film into these three elements and might consider
questions like:
● How does the story follow or deviate from typical structures?
● What is the effect of following or deviating from this structure?
● What is the theme of the film, and how is that theme constructed?

Consider again the example of Frozen. You can use symbolism and narrative structure in conjunction by
placing the symbolic objects/events in the context of the narrative structure.

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For instance, the first appearance of the gloves is in Act One, while their abandoning takes place in Act
Two; thus, the story progresses in such a way that demonstrates Elsa’s personal growth. By the time of
Act Three, the Resolution, her aversion to touch (a product of fearing her own magic) is gone, reflecting a
theme of self-acceptance.

Contextual Analysis
Contextual analysis is analysis of the film as part of a broader context. Think about the culture, time, and
place of the film’s creation.
● What might the film say about the culture that created it?
● What were/are the social and political concerns of the time period?
● Or, like researching the author of a novel, you might consider the director, producer, and other
people vital to the making of the film.
● What is the place of this film in the director’s career?
● Does it align with his usual style of directing, or does it move in a new direction?

Other examples of contextual approaches might be analyzing the film in terms of a civil rights or feminist
movement.

For example, Frozen is often linked to the LGBTQ social movement. You might agree or disagree with this
interpretation, and, using evidence from the film, support your argument.
Some other questions to consider:
● How does the meaning of the film change when seen outside of its culture?
● What characteristics distinguish the film as being of its particular culture?

Mise-En-Scene Analysis
Mise-en-scene analysis is analysis of the arrangement of compositional elements in film—essentially, the
analysis of audiovisual elements that most distinctly separate film analysis from literary analysis.

Remember that the important part of a mise-en-scene analysis is not just identifying the elements of a
scene, but explaining the significance behind them.
● What effects are created in a scene, and what is their purpose?
● How does the film attempt to achieve its goal by the way it looks, and does it succeed?

Audiovisual elements that can be analyzed include (but are not limited to): props and costumes, setting,
lighting, camera angles, frames, special effects, choreography, music, color values, depth, placement of
characters, etc.

Mise-en-scene is typically the most foreign part of writing film analysis because the other components
discussed are common to literary analysis, while mise-en-scene deals with elements unique to film. Using

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specific film terminology bolsters credibility, but you should also consider your audience. If your essay is
meant to be accessible to non-specialist readers, explain what terms mean.

Rewatching the film and creating screen captures (still images) of certain scenes can help with detailed
analysis of colors, positioning of actors, placement of objects, etc. Listening to the soundtrack can also be
helpful, especially when placed in the context of particular scenes.

Some example questions:

● How is the lighting used to construct mood? Does the mood shift at any point during the film, and
how is that shift in mood created?
● What does the setting say about certain characters? How are props used to reveal aspects of their
personality?
● What songs were used, and why were they chosen? Are there any messages in the lyrics that pertain
to the theme?

Characteristics
Films are similar to novels or short stories in that they tell a story. They include the same genres:
romantic, historical, detective, thriller, adventure, horror, and science fiction. However, films may also
include sub-groups such as: action, comedy, tragedy, westerns and war. The methods you use to analyse
a film are closely related to those used to analyse literature; nevertheless, films are multimedial. They are
visual media made for viewers. Films take command of more of our senses to create special
atmospheres, feelings or to bring out emotions.

Along with the literary elements such as plot, setting, characterization, structure, and theme, which make
up the text or screenplay, there are many different film techniques used to tell the story or narrative.
Attention is paid to sound, music, lighting, camera angles, and editing. What is important is to focus on
how all the elements are used together in making a good film.

Below is a list of elements and questions to help you when analysing films.
Film Contents
Film Facts
1. Title of film 3. Nationality 5. Name of director
2. Year film was produced 4. Names of the actors

● When is this video from?

● What was happening at the time in history it was created?
● Who made it? Who do you think is the intended audience?
● How do you think the creator wanted the audience to respond? List evidence from the video or your
knowledge about who made it that led you to your conclusion.

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Genre
● What main genre does the film fall under? – romantic, historical, detective, thriller, adventure, horror,
and science fiction.
● What sub-grouping does the film fall under? – action, comedy, tragedy, war and westerns.

Examples

Animation Propaganda Promotional Training film

Combat film Newsreel News report Informational

Documentary Entertainment Commercial Other

Elements

Music Live action Narration Special effects

Background noise Colour Black and White Animation

Dramatizations

Setting
Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place.
● Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?
● What aspects of setting are we made aware of? – Geography, weather conditions, physical
environment, time of day.
● Where are we in the opening scene?

Plot and Structure

● What are the most important sequences? ● Are there several plots running parallel?
● How is the plot structured? ● How is suspense built up?
● Is it linear, chronological or is it presented ● Do any events foreshadow what is to come?
through flashbacks??

Conflict
Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the film and is related to the main characters.
● How would you describe the main conflict?
● Is it internal where the character suffers inwardly?
● is it external caused by the surroundings or environment the main character finds themselves in?

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Characterization
Characterization deals with how the characters are described.
● through dialogue?
● by the way they speak?
● physical appearance? thoughts and feelings?
● interaction – the way they act towards other characters?

● Are they static characters who do not ● What qualities stand out?
change? ● Are they stereotypes?
● Do they develop by the end of the story? ● Are the characters believable?
● What type of characters are they?

Narrator and Point of View

The narrator is the person telling the story.
● Is there a narrator in the film? Who? ● Is the story told in the first person “I” point of
● Point of view means through whose eyes the view?
story is being told. ● Is the story told through an off-screen
● Through whose eyes does the story unfold? narrator?

Imagery
In films imagery are the elements used to create pictures in our minds. They may include:
● Symbols – when something stands not only for itself ( a literal meaning), but also stands for
something else (a figurative meaning) e.g. The feather in the film Forrest Gump symbolizes his
destiny.
● What images are used in the film? e.g. colour, objects etc.

Theme
● What are the universal ideas that shine through in the film (in other words, what is it about, in
general)?
● What is the mood or tone?

Cinematic Effects
Soundtrack
● includes both dialogue and music, as well as all the other sounds in a film.
● enhances the atmosphere of the film (what effect does the choice of music have? Does it suit the
theme?)
● Are any particular sounds accentuated?

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Use of the Camera
A camera shot is based on the camera’s distance from the object. What camera shots can you identify in the film?
How are they used?

The four basic shots used in films are:

● a close-up – a very close shot where the camera lens focuses on some detail or the actor’s face.
● medium shot – a shot where the camera lens picks up some background or upper half of the actor.
● full shot – a shot where the camera lens has full view of the actor.
● long shot – shot taken at a distance from an object.

A camera angle is how the camera is tilted while filming. Does the way in which the camera is held say anything
about the character?
● straight-on angle – The camera is at the same height as the object.
● high angle – The camera is filming from above the object.
● low angle – The camera is looking up at the object.
● oblique angle – The camera is tilted sideways.

Lighting
Lighting focuses the audience’s attention on the main character or object in a film. It also sets the mood or
atmosphere.

● While high-key lighting is bright and illuminating, low-key lighting is darker with a lot of shadows.
● What special lighting effects are used during the most important scenes?
● Filters are often used to soften and reduce harsh contrasts. They can also be used to eliminate haze, ultraviolet
light or glare from water when shooting outside.
● Using colour like red or orange can be used to enhance the feeling of a sunset.

● Can you find any examples where a filter has been used in the film?
● What effect did using a filter have on the scene?
● What colours are most dominant?

Editing
Editing is the way in which a film editor together with the director cuts and assembles the scenes. The way the
scenes are joined together creates the rhythm of the motion picture. Scenes can be long and drawn out or short
and choppy.

● Can you see a pattern to how the scenes are cut?

● How would you describe the pace/tempo of the film?

Conclusion
When analysing films for school work or projects, you may be asked to use some or all of the characteristics above.
Link those elements together that seem most logical. Try to think of the film as a whole and how the elements
mentioned above work together to bring out the main message of the film.

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 12. Interview
Definition
An interview paper is an essay that provides different views on a topic or selection of subjects using evidence from
interviewing one or more people. The most important distinction of an interview paper is that your sources are
people, preferably authorities on a topic, instead of scholarly works or books on the subject.

Interview papers are common in the journalism industry. They allow readers to get quality information
about important topics from qualified experts in the field. For example, an interview essay where you
interviewed a psychologist specializing in mental health among elite athletes can offer in-depth insights
into the situation of popular sports figures.

A well-written interview paper will speak directly to the reader and make them feel as if they are the one
interviewing the expert. This makes it crucial to craft the interview in an engaging way. You also need to
interview a knowledgeable person who can provide new information about the subject.

How to Write It
1. Identify the purpose of the paper
The purpose of your paper will determine your subject, readers and the topics the essay will cover. If you
are writing about an opinion, it is best to find an authoritative interviewee who can provide valuable
insights for your readers.

Papers on scientific, medical or health topics require the expert knowledge of a professional. If you are
writing about a public subject, you should have more than one person's view to provide your audience
with several perspectives on the issue.

The purpose of the essay can also depend on whether it is an educational or informative piece. If you are
trying to educate readers, you want to choose a subject that resonates with your audience. For example,
you could interview an expert in office politics to discuss how to prevent disagreements between senior
and junior employees.

2. Research the subject

You need to understand the interview subject to produce quality material on it. This makes it crucial to
research the topic to learn about the body of knowledge and gaps your work can fill. Make your essay
captivating by asking questions that help the audience discover new information they can use to solve
problems.

You can read good interviews, books and other materials on the subject to develop interesting angles.
Researching the work of prominent experts in the industry can also provide great subjects for your
interview.

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 3. Prepare your questions
Asking quality questions is an important part of writing a great interview paper. It is easy to develop
powerful questions if your research is thorough. You can use a combination of direct and open-ended
questions to get detailed answers and clarifications from your interviewee.

Open-ended questions work best for in-depth explanations of complex issues because they allow the
interviewee to provide more details for nonprofessionals to understand. Use questions with yes or no
answers to get specific responses.

It is advisable to prepare more questions than you plan to ask. During the interview, you can then choose
the ones you feel are best suited for the interviewee or the situation. Highlight or organize the questions
in order of importance to maximize your time with the interviewed person.

4. Contact the interviewee and prepare for the interview

Once your questions are ready and you understand the subject enough for the interview, contact your
resource persons. It is important to choose people who are an authority on the subject. Explain who you
are and tell the person your reasons for choosing them for the interview. Always have an alternative
source in case the first interviewee refuses or loses interest.

If you intend to record or transcribe the answers, ask the person to provide written permission. Ask for
their consent before the interview if you plan to take photos, and agree on a date, time and venue.

5. Conduct the interview

Choose a quiet location, such as a library, a park or the interviewer's office, and get there on time. If it is
difficult to meet in person, you can interview via telephone, video call or other electronic means.

It is important to take notes even if you record the interview because it helps you highlight important
points during the discussion. You can also listen to the recording to recall the context of points the
interviewee raised. This can help you avoid misrepresenting the person's opinions.

Interviewing requires excellent communication skills. Ask clear, unambiguous questions that will not
confuse the interviewer. Listen actively and wait for the interviewee to finish before asking more
questions. Even if you want the person to clarify a response, try to avoid interrupting them in
mid-sentence. Make them feel relaxed.

You should also note your thoughts and impressions immediately after the interview for better
articulation when you write the essay. Thank the interviewer for taking the time and effort to provide
their professional insight on the topic.

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 6. Format the paper
Your paper's format depends on the interview essay you want to write. There are three main types of
interview papers, including...
● Narrative Essay Interview - This requires a story-like format. It requires writing with a point of
view that can be yours or that of the interviewee.
● Personal Interview - This can also come in a question-and-answer format, but with direct quotes.
The tone can be informal, and you can write in the first and second person.
● Question-Answer - This has a dialogue format. Use this format when you are interviewing one or
more people who are related.

7. Create an outline and write your paper

An interview paper should have an introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion. Your introductory
paragraph should contain information that will capture your reader's attention and motivate them to
continue reading.

The first sentence can be a soft definition that emphasizes the importance of the topic. Build context with
the second sentence by stating how the subject relates to your audience. The third is a thesis statement
that highlights the benefits readers will get from reading the paper. Conclude by mentioning the points
you will cover in the interview.

Body paragraphs provide details on the main points of the interview. Provide facts, interesting details
and insights that make the interviewee an authority on the subject. The body of your interview paper
needs to relate to the ideas in the thesis statement.

You can discuss as many ideas as possible, but it is vital to stay on the topic and keep the information
relevant to the audience. Respect the interviewee's opinions and be careful to clearly express which
thoughts are your own and which are theirs. In the conclusion, summarize the main arguments and end
with a memorable statement.

8. Proofread
Before you submit your essay, proofread the text several times. Remove redundant sentences and
phrases and check the structure, grammar, style, punctuation and overall consistency. You can give the
essay to another person for feedback. When the final draft is ready, it is good to send it to the
interviewee before publishing to confirm that you represented their views correctly.

9. Cite
If you used additional resources for research or in the body of your interview, cite them. Depending on
the requirements, you may need to use both in-text citations and end references or only the former.
Whatever the case, always remember to specify your sources.

40
 13. Instructional Writing
Recipe Writing

41
Directional Writing
What are Directions?
No doubt you have already had to tell someone how to get somewhere many, many times in your life.
You have probably also been annoyed when trying to follow poorly explained directions. Being able to
give accurate and clear directions is a very useful life and language skill. We all need to be able to explain
how to get somewhere.

What are the Features of Writing Directions?

● You use the imperative (or command) form of the verb, as if you are ordering someone to do
something: for example: Go left; turn right; walk one hundred metres.
● You write/speak as briefly and accurately and simply as possible, but take care that no step is left out.
The audience must not be confused or distracted by fancy words or irrelevant descriptions.
● Directions are presented chronologically. That is, one after the other in the order of the parts of the
journey. Imagine the route unfolding. Then describe it each step in logical, chronological order,
without leaving something important out. It is confusing for the listener if you interrupt yourself, as in
this example: “Oh wait, I forgot that there is a Y junction before that.”
● They include the location and/or name or address of the starting point and of the destination.
● Give approximate distances when appropriate (or exact ones if possible). For example, “… about ten
metres later …” or “Drive 25 kilometres.”
● Where possible give useful hints such as how many streets to cross until the destination street or a
turn is arrived at.
● Use landmarks (things that are easy to notice) such as koppies, buildings, trees, unusual objects,
well-known shops, colours of fences. Insert them into the directions as in, “When you get to the
Chicken Licken on the right, you are almost there.”
● Accurately use specific words of direction and location, such as: at the
intersection/T-junction/Y-junction/stop street, turn right/left, head north, go half way across the park,
keeping going straight, follow the curve until…
● Write logically and very concisely. The Grade 12 examination memos currently say that full sentences
are not needed and you can use point form. However, to be safe use short sentences such as, “Turn
right at the intersection. Walk about one hundred metres.”
● This is a shorter transactional text so depending on your grade you will use between 50 – 90 words.
Check the word length required.
● In exams at FET and senior phase you are usually marked out of 20, like this, for directions: Content,
planning and format (12 marks); Language, style and editing (8 marks). These categories tell you what
you need to think about, and for example, that you must show you have planned and edited
properly, using process writing.
● Note that the current FET and Senior Phase curriculum and examination questions say that, “No
marks are awarded for sketches or maps.” Therefore only include these if they are specifically asked
for by your exam question.

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The Layout of Directions
Directions can be in point form or in a paragraph. Check whether your exam question asks for a specific
layout.

Examples of Exam Questions

● You are sick in bed and a friend wants to visit after school. Give him/her directions from your school to
your house. You must include landmarks, distances and specific directions. NOTE: Do NOT include
illustrations or drawings.
● Your school is hosting a debating competition at the town hall. A teacher from another school knows
his/her way only to the museum. He/She needs directions from there to the town hall. Write out the
directions you will send to the teacher. In your response, you must refer to streets, intersections,
turns, buildings and other landmarks on the route.
● Your friend is visiting your home and has run out of airtime. Write down directions to the nearest shop
where they can go to buy more.

How to Plan Writing Directions

● Think about and visualise the route. Jot down short notes.
● Check over the route in your mind again, to make sure your steps are logical and nothing is left out.
● Plan what direction, distance and landmark words to use.
● Remember to include your starting point and destination.

Should You Choose to Write Directions in an Exam?

This is a good choice for an examination if the question suits where you live, or you are very familiar with
the sort of environment described. Look at the sample questions – would you be able to visualise and
write about the one that includes the Town Hall and Museum? Do not choose this type of question if you
struggle to write logically and briefly, or if you know you are bad at giving directions!

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 14. Letter
Formal
Introduction
A formal letter is one written in a formal and ceremonious language and follows a certain stipulated format. Such
letters are written for official purposes to authorities, dignitaries, colleagues, seniors, etc and not to personal
contacts, friends or family. A number of conventions must be adhered to while drafting formal letters. So let us take
a look at a sample format of a formal letter.

Structure
D- 1801, Neptune Society,
DS Marg, Lower Parel,
Mumbai 400 008.
11th June 2018.
To,
The Editor-in-Chief,
Hindustan Times,
Main Street,
Mumbai 400 001.

Sir,
SUBJECT: CONSTRUCTION WORK IN OUR LOCALITY DURING MONSOON SEASON CAUSING US
DIFFICULTIES.
Through the medium of your esteemed and respected daily, I wish to inform the municipal authorities of
the difficulties the residents of my locality are facing due to the construction and repair work currently
happening in our area. Monsoon season started a few days ago and is compounding our problems.

The repair work has been ongoing for five weeks now and is falling way behind schedule. And now with
the current weather conditions, we are having persistent problems of water logging and flooding in our
area. Another worry is about the accidents that may occur due to the debris lying around the road.
Diseases caused due to waterlogging are another one of our concerns.

Therefore, I wish to draw the attention of the concerned authorities with the help of your newspaper.
Hopefully, you will be able to help us in drawing their attention and resolving this matter at the earliest.

Thanking You,

Yours Sincerely,
**signature**
[Mr. XYZ]
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Informal
Introduction
Informal letters are mainly used for personal communication. So they do not have to follow any specific
pattern, format or conventions. They can be written as per the writer’s wishes and the requirement of the
situation. So the letter is written in a personal fashion in casual unassuming language.

Structure

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 15. Manifesto
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/short-manifesto-examples.html

Definition
A manifesto is a publication issued by a political party before a General Election. It contains the set of
policies that the party stands for and would wish to implement if elected to govern.

Simply put, a manifesto is a statement of ideals and intentions. One of the most famous examples is The
Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (the word is right there in the name!), but there
are many others. The Declaration of Independence is a manifesto. So is Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream
Speech.”

According to The Art of Manliness (a site that we promise can be enjoyed by ladies, too), “A manifesto
functions as both a statement of principles and a bold, sometimes rebellious, call to action. By causing
people to evaluate the gap between those principles and their current reality, the manifesto challenges
assumptions, fosters commitment, and provokes change.”
Because of their power to provoke change, manifestos are often embraced by creative and political
types, but you don’t have to be a writer, artist, or revolutionary to draw up your own personal manifesto.

When you are running in the election, your manifesto will be a source of information for potential voters
to see if you are the candidate they want to vote for. It will help convince students that you are the best
candidate by potentially showing them relevant areas that you care about what they want to see
changed. It will also outline the expectations of you should you win the election, outlining what you want
to achieve.

It is useful to know that your manifesto and campaign poster are two different things. The manifesto is
purely text which you upload to the election site. This will be on the website in a text form, with your
photo and included into the manifesto booklet. Your campaign poster can be colourful and designed and
pull key points from your manifesto.

Importance of a Manifesto
A manifesto tells people why you want to represent them and why they should vote for you; it sets out
your ideas and plans. Your manifesto needs to say why you think you would be a good elected
representative and what you would do if elected. it will also be a source of accountability should you be
elected. Students will be able to see your progress in your role in accordance to what you promised to do
in your manifesto.

46
The purpose of an election manifesto is to convey your:
● Intent: What is the purpose of your campaign? What are your aims and policies?
● Views: what are your beliefs?
● Motivation: why are you running for this particular role?

A manifesto will help you spread your message as wide as possible so be clear on your intentions and
ideas. This is your opportunity to inform the voter about you.

Most importantly you should consider the students you represent, after all, this is why you are running
for election. Remember, people’s experiences at university can vary because of social, cultural and other
differences. So think about issues that will be common to everyone regardless of their background.

A good starting point is the one thing you have in common: you are all at university to get a degree and
further your education. You can then start thinking about a broader range of issues that affect different
people so always consider running ideas past specific groups if you’re unsure about something. Avoid
making assumptions about what students are different from what you may need. A great way of doing
this is to take part in student groups meetings, and ask them directly about what they’d like to change.

Structure
Please ensure your manifesto follows this format:
1. Who am I?
2. What do I want to do?
3. Why should you vote for me?
4. Slogan/hashtag

You should ensure that the actual content of your manifesto is SMART:
● Specific: What do you want to do?
● Measurable: How will you know when you've achieved it?
● Achievable: Is it in your power to accomplish it?
● Realistic: Can you realistically achieve it?
● Time-bound: When exactly do you want to accomplish it?

Using this approach means you are setting out your ideas and intentions in a well-presented clear
manner, and students voting in the election will be more interested in how you will actually do and
achieve the goals you are setting. Down the line, students will be able to hold you to account much easier
as well.

The more non-specific you are, the lesser voters will make a connection with you and your ideas
Also ensure that what you write is factually correct and uses information you have been able to obtain in
a legitimate way. Basing your ideas on hearsay will not help you further down the line.

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Equally, be creative! A manifesto can take the shape of many formats. Be bold yet be balanced. Using way
too many words on your manifesto (or other campaign materials) may confuse voters.

Ensuring your manifesto is inclusive

Language matters so don't overcomplicate any marketing materials you produce. We have students from
all over the world, make sure everyone can read and understand what your aims are. Ask peers to read
over your manifesto to see if it makes sense to them, ask them to critique it. Be careful in using slang,
colloquial language or specific proverbs. Everyone interprets words differently.

Consider the following when writing and distributing your manifesto:

● Aim for simple, concise and straightforward language
● Ensure the size of your font is adequate
● Consider colour schemes and palettes
● Break up text into paragraphs

Introduce yourself
You need to think about why you are running in the election, and why you feel you are the best person
for this position. Draft something to get you started, using the pointers below and just get words on
paper, it doesn’t matter if your first draft is bad as you will have time to improve this. It is useful to get
feedback from your friends, course-mates, other students and constantly pull their advice and guidance
as feedback. You can also contact current officers and/or staff about specific ideas, to see what has
already been done or what is currently going on at UEASU

Use concise, straightforward language, and keep things brief

Your manifesto is your opportunity to tell your peers why they should vote for you. It should outline who
you are, what you will use your role to achieve, and the changes you aim to bring to UEASU. Think about
where your manifesto will be displayed; would you stop to read it while walking by or scrolling through
Facebook?

Do your research
Do the changes you pledge to make appeal to a diverse range of voters, or just your social circle?

Be realistic and precise

Your term in office will last for 1 year are your manifesto pledges achievable in this timeframe? What
steps will you take towards your goals?

Communicate your skills, experience, and personality

Show voters who you are! What roles have you held before? How has your previous experience made
you the best candidate?

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Proofread
Make sure your manifesto reads well and is free from spelling mistakes. Use the spell check function on
Word, ask a friend.

Keep the focus on you

You have a limited number of words; use them to promote yourself rather than discrediting other
candidates.

More tips...
1. Start with what you want to change. 7. Be creative.
2. Think SMART (specific, measurable, 8. Don’t get carried away or waffle to fill space.
achievable, relevant, time-bound). 9. It’s about you and your relevant experience
3. Describe the benefits of your ideas not your opponents.
4. Talk to current Officers and students. 10. Repeat your name and ask for their vote.
5. Include something for everyone.
6. Use clear language and
grammar/spell-check.

1. Get Inspired
Read what others have written. Check out this list of ten great modern manifestos to get you started, but
don’t feel that you have to conform to any of these examples. This is your personal manifesto, so copying
someone else kind of defeats the purpose.

2. Make Notes
Your manifesto has three basic components: beliefs, goals, and wisdom. Grab a notebook and write “I
believe...” at the top of a blank page, then think of five or ten ways to complete the statement. On the
next page, write “I want to...” and fill in the blanks with ways that you’d change the world. Finally, write “I
know this to be true...” and record words of wisdom. These can be things you’ve learned from your own
experience, wisdom passed down from your family, or even inspirational quotes.

3. Write a Rough Draft

Using the notes you made, create a rough draft of your manifesto. It can be as long or as short as it
needs to be. You can write in long, flowing paragraphs, or you can make a bulleted list like architect Frank
Lloyd Wright’s manifesto for his apprentices. You could even create an infographic-style manifesto if
you’re a visually inclined person. Don’t worry about impressing your significant other, your parents, your
best friend, or the fourth grade teacher who criticized your penmanship.

4. Put It Away, Then Proofread

Once you’ve written the draft version, set it aside for a day or two. Resist the urge to tinker with it! When
you come back to it with fresh eyes, you may find that some of the statements don’t ring quite true. Cut

49
out any instances of the word “try”: As Yoda told Luke in The Empire Strikes Back, “Do or do not. There is
no try.” While you’re rereading, you’ll probably also find some typos. If proofreading isn’t your forte, try
using an automated proofreader.

5. Live It
A personal manifesto is a declaration of your core values. It’s like a mission statement and owner’s
manual for your life, so don’t let it sit in a drawer or a file you never open on your computer. Hang it over
your workspace, put it on the fridge, make it your desktop background, or print it on a laminated card
you keep in your wallet: the idea is to read your manifesto regularly to reaffirm those values and remind
you of your goals.

Keep in mind that your priorities and goals will change over time. Like the U.S. Constitution, your
manifesto is a living document. Let it grow along with you as you go forth to follow your dreams!

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 16. Memo/Notices/Posters/Adverts
Memos
Definition
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies,
procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all
perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a
one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given
project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

Purpose
A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to
action.

Format
A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay
particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present,
followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these
are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a
declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points
associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary.

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Tips for Effective Business Memos
Audience Orientation
Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that
is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is
to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all
levels with no ambiguity.

Professional, Formal Tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the
organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the
organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or
procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.

Subject Emphasis
The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is
announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject
line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance”.

Direct Format
Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but
memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Objectivity
Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias,
preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

Notices
Definition
A notice is a formal means of communication. The purpose of a notice is to announce or display
information to a specific group of people. Notices Are generally meant to be pinned up on specific display
boards whether in schools or in public places. Notices issued by the government appear in newspapers.
Since a notice contains a formal announcement or information, its tone and style is formal and factual. Its
language should be simple and formal. Notice is always brief and to the point.

Format for Notice Writing

A notice should contain all the necessary details such as:
1. Name of the issuing agency (school, etc)
2. NOTICE should be written
3. Date of issue/release of the notice

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4. Title/Subject of the Event (what?)
5. BODY-Date/time/duration/Place/Venue (when and where?)
6. Authorized signatory: Name and signature (contact details)

Reasons for Writing Notices

A notice can be written for various reasons. The format of notice writing remains the same in all cases.

A notice can be written for the following reasons…

1. A competition
2. An excursion trip
3. A lost and found notice
4. An inauguration to take place
5. An exhibition
6. A blood donation camp to be held

Or any such type of event or information to be issued in public interest.

Posters
Definition
A poster is a temporary promotion of an idea, product, or an event put up in a public space to reach a
specific target audience (the target audience can be of a specific socio-economic background).

Features of a Poster
Layout
1. Catchy title: the title can be in the form of a slogan or rhyming words. E.g. speed thrills but kills.
2. Aesthetic illustration: this involves a pictorial representation of the purpose of the poster. They also
include images related to the poster.
3. Letters of different size and shapes.
4. Proportionate spacing.
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Contents
1. The theme or subject of the poster should be clear and not vague.
2. Description or details associated with the theme
3. Special attractions: This is optional but it can include an important person such as a guest speaker
attending an event.
4. Date, time or venue (for an event)
5. Name (s) of issuing authority/organization: this includes information by whom or by which
organisation the poster is being published.
6. Contact information: in case of any queries, the target audience should have someone to contact to

Types of Posters
➔ Informative posters inform or educate people about a specific topic.
➔ Advertising posters inform us about or promote a specific service or product being offered.
➔ Subject posters usually have a specific subject at the centerpiece of their design and are used to
display a particular subject. They are often used to advertise events in the entertainment industry
but in general can be used to showcase any type of subject.
➔ Affirmation posters feature inspiring or motivational sayings and they can feature Bible verses or
beautiful pictures as well as an affirming slogan to keep people motivated, cheered up or comforted.

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Adverts
Definition
An advertisement is a notice or announcement in a public medium promoting a product, service, or event
or publicizing a job vacancy.

Features of an Advertisement
1. It Should Be Simple
The first important ingredient of an advertisement is that it should be written in simple language. It
should be capable of proper understanding. It should not use ornamental and tough words rather short,
simple and properly understandable words.

2. It Should Be Capable Of Holding The Reader’s Attention

An advertisement should be capable of holding the attention of the reader. It should be presented in
such a manner which attracts the consumer immediately.

The following methods may be undertaken to hold the attention of the reader...
A. Headlines should be properly worded and attractive. It should be short and easy for the reader to
remember.
B. Use of pictures and sketches should be in direct relation to the product to be advertised. A good
sketch and drawing will be greatly helpful in explaining the product.
C. An attractive border may be inserted around the advertisement copy in order to distinguish it
from other advertisements. Underlining the key words and leaving blank space at the bottom of
the copy are also helpful in drawing the reader’s attention.
D. Quoting the price of the product in the advertisement copy is also helpful in holding the attention
of a reader. This would be more helpful if the price of the commodity is low.
E. The insertion of reply coupons in the advertisement copy is also helpful in attracting the people.

3. It must be suggestive
The advertisement should be capable of suggesting the reader about the utility and use of the product.
Effective slogans can be used to give suggestions to the people. Suggestions may also be given with the
help of certain pictures in the advertisement copy.

4. It should have conviction value

The advertisement should be able to have an everlasting impression on the reader, if the suggestions are
backed by convincing arguments. The reader should not have any doubt on the quality of the product. He
should be fully convinced and satisfied. Exaggeration in explaining the qualities’ of a product must be
checked. An appeal with regard to outstanding features of the product must be made. It should be stated
in simple language so that the reader could understand easily.

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 5. It should educate the people
The advertisement should tell the people about the use and operation of a product. It should also impart
new uses of a product with which the people are not familiar. An advertisement copy containing
information with regard to use, sources from where the product can be obtained, price and services
available along with the product is greatly helpful in enhancing the demand and enlarging the sales.

6. It should have memorising value

The advertisement should be prepared in such a manner that a reader gets an everlasting impression
about the product. It can be successfully created by repeating the advertisement time and again.
Repetition projects the permanent image about the product on the reader’s mind.
Trademarks and brand names can be used successfully for achieving this end.

7. It should be true
An advertisement should be truthful. It should not misrepresent and conceal the true facts about the
product. Rather it should clearly lay down the limitations in the product. For example, a cloth merchant
should clearly specify the fading of colour and shrinkage of yarn, if it is so.
If these limitations are not brought to light, the buyer eventually comes to know about them after using
the product. This will definitely shatter the confidence of the buyer in the product and the very aim of the
advertisement is defeated.

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 17. Notes
Thank You Note
Who
Make a list of everyone you need to thank. If your thank-yous are the result of a party in your honor, write down the
names of those who sent or brought a gift, whether it came by mail, email, carrier pigeon or in person. Then add in
the friends who did anything to help out with the get-together—planning, decorating, running errands and so on.

What
Here’s the basic template for a good thank-you note along with a few sample phrases to get you started.

1. Greeting. Don’t forget to make sure you’re using the correct form and spelling of the person’s name, as well as
anyone else’s mentioned in the note.
● Dear Aunt Sharon and Uncle Bob,

2. Express your thanks. Begin with the two most important words: Thank you.
● Thank you so much for… ● It made my day when I opened…
● I’m so grateful you were there when…

3. Add specific details. Tell them how you plan to use or display their gift. It shows them that you really
appreciate the thought that went into it. Even if it’s cold hard cash, describe how you’ll spend the stuff.
● Here’s a picture of me with my new briefcase. I look so professional!
● I can’t wait to use the birthday money you sent to decorate my dorm room.
● The going-away party meant so much to me. Having all my friends and family in one place was something I’ll
never forget.

4. Look ahead. Mention the next time you might see them, or just let them know you’re thinking of them.
● We look forward to seeing you next month at Lucy’s party.

5. Restate your thanks. Add details to thank them in a different way.

● Again, thank you for your generosity. I’m so excited about college. I’ll let you know all about it when I get
settled.
● We felt so blessed that you made the trip to be with us on our wedding day. We can’t wait to see you again
soon!

6. End with your regards. “Sincerely” is a safe standby, but for closer relationships, you might choose a warmer
option.
● With love, ● Many thanks, ● Yours truly,

When
Try to send your thank-you notes out quickly. For events such as parties and showers, a good rule of thumb is to
send your cards out within a month after the event. If it’s later than that, start your note with a brief apology. “I’ve
been meaning to tell you…”

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Condolence Note
Structure
1. The Introduction
The first part of your condolence message should start with a brief introduction. Start your condolence
message by acknowledging the loss and that you were deeply sorry to learn of the news. There are many
different ways to say this.

Below are a couple examples of phrases you can use.

● “I was filled with sadness when I learned about your father’s passing”
● “I am so sorry to hear that your sister has passed away.”
● “I was so sorry to learn of the passing of …”

2. The Middle Section

In the middle section of your condolence message, you can talk about the qualities of the deceased and
share some memories. Reminiscing over memories you shared with the deceased can be comforting to
the recipient of your condolence message. Just make sure that the memories you share are appropriate.
The last thing you want is to upset someone by sharing a story about their loved one that angers or
upsets them.

In this section of your condolence message, you can say something along the lines of:
● “She always had a smile on her face. That’s what I’m going to miss the most about Cheryl.”
● “Dylan was always willing to lend a hand. Even if he was busy, he always made time to help others
when he could.”
● “I’ll never forget Doug’s infectious laugh. He was always the life of the party.”

3. The Closing Section

In the final section of your condolence message, you can offer support to the bereaved. Instead of saying
something generic like “if there’s anything you need…” make your offer specific. The coming weeks will
likely be quite difficult for the bereaved. So, if you would like to help in some way, now is the time.

There are many ways to offer assistance, so get creative. A few different examples include, offering to
babysit the kids so they can have a night out. Or asking if you can drive them to any upcoming
appointments.

The closing section of your condolence message is also where you should mention the funeral service or
RSVP. If the bereaved will be receiving your condolence message before the service, now is the time to
confirm your attendance. If you plan to send the letter after the service, you can mention something
about the service or apologize for being unable to attend.

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If you and the recipient were close, you can end the condolence message with something along the lines
of:
● “Lots of love” ● “With all my love”

However, if you were not that close to the recipient, something more appropriate could be:
● “My sincere sympathy” ● “You’re in my prayers”

Offering Help
If you wish to offer your help in your letter, it's best if you can mention this in specific ways. For example,
you might write, "Can I bring dinner over next Wednesday," or "I'd love to mow your lawn next week."
Too often, people simply say "call me if you need me."

Offering help in this way puts the burden of calling on the one who is grieving. Offering specific help also
conveys a more personal message.

Continuing Contact
Before you begin writing, you may also wish to write your friend's name down on your calendar, say 3
months and 6 months from now, so you can make contact.

Many people find that they are surrounded by love in the days surrounding their loss, but find
themselves grieving and feeling very alone weeks and months down the road when everyone else seems
to have forgotten.

Caveat
One caveat is worth mentioning before going into the guidelines for writing your letter. Condolence
letters can be a great comfort to loved ones. If you are only distantly acquainted with the person you plan
to write to, however, a condolence letter may not be the best way to show your concern.

A study looking at people who died in the intensive care unit found that sympathy letters written by a
physician or nurse in charge did not reduce grief, and actually aggravated depression symptoms.1
Certainly, every situation is different, but take just a moment to consider whether writing your letter is
wise. Most of the time it will be gratefully welcomed by the grieving person.

Format
Navigate the when, where, and how of writing and delivering a condolence letter.

When
First of all, try to write and send or deliver your sympathy letter or note promptly. It's best to do so within
the first two weeks following the loss.

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If you've passed that time period, by all means, still write your note. Earlier is better, but your letter might
just arrive when your loved one is feeling the world has moved on without her.

Delivery
Funeral or burial services typically occur within this timeframe. If you will be attending, it's perfectly
acceptable to place your condolence letter in the basket or collection box for sympathy cards if you don't
wish to mail it. These are typically provided at the services.

Besides, because there are many tasks involved immediately following a death, the recipient might not
open the mail promptly anyway.

How
If possible, you should handwrite your condolence letter or note on stationery or nice paper rather than
typing it from a computer. Personally written notes are increasingly rare in today's world of emails and
texts, so a handwritten note will carry greater meaning at this difficult time.

If you want to use a store-bought card, tuck your letter inside the card, or write it on the card itself if
space allows.

Try to write your sympathy letter in your own voice, just as you would normally speak to the person.
Don't feel that you need to get too fancy or try to come up with a poem or verse on your own.

Simply think of the one thing you'd like to say most to the recipient that expresses how you feel. It may
be about the loss or how much you care about the surviving person. If you're having difficulty, reading a
few quotations about grief, loss, or mourning might inspire you and help you find your own words.

Components of a Condolence Letter

The difference between a condolence letter and a sympathy note is purely the length of each. A note
might be a few sentences while letters may be a few paragraphs.
It's entirely your choice which you choose to write and depends on how much you wish to express. It's
also very common to start writing a note and soon find you've written several paragraphs.

Regardless of your choice, condolence letters or notes generally use some or all of the following seven
components.
1. Acknowledge the loss and refer to the deceased by name. Don't try to dance around or avoid the fact
that somebody has died—the recipient knows. Moreover, there are many reasons why you should
use the name of the deceased that will help the bereaved during this difficult time. Also, try not to
use a euphemism for death because, again, you won't fool anyone.
2. Express your sympathy.
3. Note one or more of the deceased's special qualities that come to mind.

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4. Include your favorite memory of the deceased.
5. Remind the bereaved of his or her loved one's personal strengths and/or special qualities.
6. Offer to help the survivor in a specific way. "Let me know if I can help" is one of the several things
people should never say at a funeral, but it's often heard anyway. Unfortunately, this merely helps
you feel better while placing a burden on the mourner to think of something particular and then
contact you. Instead, offer a practical and specific thing you can do.
7. End with a thoughtful hope, wish, or sympathy expression. For example, you might include "You are
in my thoughts'' or "I will always be here to support you." Avoid using the usual one-word endings,
such as "Sincerely," "Love," or "Fondly," which aren't quite as personal. Instead, you may want to end
with active thoughts such as "with you in prayer each moment" or something else that depicts how
you continue to be involved in the bereaved life. Remember, your letter is for the living, not the dead.
End your letter in a way that reflects this is not the end of your involvement as well.

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Examples
Here is an outline of a condolence letter that uses the seven components shown above. You do not need
to follow this template exactly, and may only want to use small portions of our example; it's merely here
to help you organize your thoughts. Feel free to reorganize, add, or delete these steps as you write your
letter. Write from your heart and trust that whatever you include will be worth your time and effort to
help the bereaved.

Dear _____________,
Acknowledge the loss and refer to the deceased by name.

I was deeply saddened to hear about the death of _____________.

Express your sympathy.

I cannot imagine how difficult this must be for you now, but please trust that I care about you. (Keep in
mind, you really have no idea how the person is feeling, and they will find comfort in being aware that
you know that).
Note one or more of the deceased's special qualities.
____________ was such a kind, gentle soul. He would do anything to help improve the life of a child.
Include your favorite memory.
I remember the time that _________________.
Remind the bereaved of their personal strengths and/or special qualities.

I cannot imagine how much you will miss _______________ and you've always seen the best in everyone you
know because of your generous heart.
Offer to help the survivor in a specific way.

Perhaps you could use your scrapbooking talent to make a lasting memory book of _________________? If
you would like, I can come over on Tuesday evening to help you make the scrapbook. I have some
wonderful pictures of _______________ that I'd love to share with you, as well as several personal memories
of how he helped children.
End with a thoughtful hope, wish, or sympathy expression.

I will always be here to support you,

[Sign your name] _____________________

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Dear Troy,
I was overcome with sadness when I learned of Wendy’s passing. I just wanted to reach out and let you
know how much she will be missed by everyone at the curling club.

Wendy was special and someone I always enjoyed chatting with. Hearing her stories from her travels
around the world always captivated me. She accomplished a lot in her life and I’ve always admired her
passion for exploration.

Thank you for inviting us to the funeral service. It was a truly beautiful ceremony and I was pleased to
meet with so many wonderful people sharing laughs and stories from Wendy’s life.

Please know that Kevin and myself will be here if you need us. Kevin has said, he’d be more than happy
to help out around the farm for the next few weeks. I’ll make sure to have him give you call in the next
few days to set something up.

If you ever need to talk, we’re just a phone call away.

With all our love,

Cindy and Kevin

Congratulatory Note
Definition
A congratulation letter is a document one sends to an individual, group, or organization to pass your
regards following their achievement of a particular milestone either in career, life, or business. For
example, you can congratulate someone on their promotion, retirement, graduation, engagement, etc.
Advertisements

Structure
● Pass your regards. A congratulations letter can never be complete without passing your congrats to the
individual for their achievement or handwork.
● Mention the achievement. In your letter, ensure you’ve highlighted why you’re congratulating the individual.
● Express your delight for the individual. When writing your letter, it’s essential to let the recipient know that
you’re proud of them for their accomplishment.
● Wish them well. As you congratulate the individual for the achievement, it’s also important to wish them well in
their future. Please specify that you wish them a great future.
● Close the letter warmly. As you terminate the congratulatory letter, sign off warmly.
● Adopt a celebratory tone. The letter should adopt a tone that conforms to the occasion as well as your
relationship with the recipient. For example, a professional congratulatory letter should differ from a personal
letter in both format and tone.

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Tips
● Keep the language clear and precise.
● Praise the person or appreciate the person on the achievement.
● In the case of marriage and other functions, wish the person luck in their future life.
● Do not make grammatical mistakes.
● The letter must be written in a happy tone.
● Keep the flow of the letter standard and do not deviate from the topic midway.
● End the letter by giving your best wishes and congratulations.

Examples
New Job
Dear Amelia,
Congratulations on your new position as the new Sales Manager at Parson Technologies. I believe this is such an
incredible achievement for you. Although we will miss you at Amaze Features, we are happy for you, and we are
fully confident that you will do an incredible job there.

We will miss your leadership and encouragement as our manager, but I’m sure that you are on the right path to
your career goals.

Pleased keep in touch; I was delighted to hear the news about your new achievement.
Wishing you the best,
Angela

Achievement
Dear Perris,
Congratulations on your incredible career achievement. Although your journey form a junior sales representative
hasn’t been smooth, you have made great strides to get you where you are today. The company sales have grown
significantly in the last five years due to your hard work and resilience. You are truly and a great asset to the
Madison Group of Companies.

Due to your exceptional services and dedication to marketing, you received the “Employee of the year award” for
two consecutive years, and now you’ve been promoted to be the company’s sales manager. I must say I’m proud to
work under you. I ‘m confident we will achieve astounding results in the coming years under your able leadership.

I thank you for your commitment to exemplary work and hope you’ll continue in the same spirit.
Congratulations & all the best!!

Sincerely,
Jefferson White
Assistant Sales Manager
Madison Group of Companies

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 18. Official Email
Definition
A formal email is typically sent to someone you don’t know well or to someone who’s in authority.
Examples of someone who you might send a formal email to include your professor, a public official, or
even a company you’re doing business with.

If your workplace has a formal environment, use formal emails with your boss and colleagues unless
you’re told to do otherwise. Many workplaces are moving towards a more casual environment and this
often carries over to email communications. If you’re not sure what’s right for your workplace, ask.

Official Email vs. Casual Email

A formal email differs from a casual email. A casual email usually goes to a person you know well—often
it’s someone you’re on good terms with such as a friend or family member. When sending a casual email,
you don’t need to worry as much about structure and tone.

In fact, part of what makes a formal email different from a casual email is the structure. A formal email
has a very defined structure, with a definite salutation (the opening part of the email), signature section,
opening sentence, and body.

You also use language differently in a formal email than in a casual email. Avoid using abbreviations,
contractions, slang, emoticons, and other informal terminology. The tone of a formal email is different as
well. An informal email may not even use complete sentences or proper grammar, but a formal email
always does.

Here’s an example of formal email language:

The meeting is scheduled for December 5th at 9:30 a.m. All students must attend. Your project updates are
needed.

Compare the formal language with the informal email language in this email:
Required meeting—Dec 5, 9:30 a.m. Updates needed. See ya there. :)

Both statements share the same information. But the tone of the first is much more formal. Notice the
incomplete sentence, slang, and emoticon in the informal example.
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Features
While an informal email can often be sent quickly, writing a formal email typically takes a bit more
thought and a bit more time. Careful consideration needs to be given to each email element.

Subject Line
The subject line is what the reader sees in their inbox. If the subject line is misleading or missing
information, your email may not get read. The message may even be sent to spam. The more formal your
email is, the more detailed your subject line should be. But beware of making your subject line too long.

Here’s an example of a formal email subject line:

Required Student Meeting: December 5th, 9:30 a.m.

Compare that subject line with this informal email subject line:
Upcoming Meeting

Notice that the first subject line is more informative and complete. The informal subject line, sent to
someone you know well, just barely touches on the topic.

Salutation
The salutation directly addresses the person you’re sending the email to. It’s always used in formal email
messages, but sometimes skipped in informal messages. Here are some examples of formal and
informal salutations:

If you’re sending the email to a group, address the entire group. Here’s an example:
Dear Students,

If you’ve got the person’s name you want to send the email too, it’s proper to use their name along with
any title the person has. Here’s a sample formal salutation for an individual:
Dear Professor Smith,

If you don’t know the name of the person you’re trying to reach, you should make every effort to discover
that information. As a last resort, it’s okay (but less effective) to address the email to the title of the
person you hope to reach.

Here’s an example of a formal salutation without a name:

Dear Human Resources Director,

In rare instances where you don’t know a person’s name or title, it’s okay to use this salutation:
To whom it may concern,

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Contrast the formal salutation examples with the following informal salutations:
Informal Salutation for a Group Informal Salutation for an Individual
Hey Class! Hello Taylor,

As you can see, the formal and informal salutations are very different.

Introduction
The opening of a formal email often requires the sender to introduce themselves. In contrast, informal
emails are sent to someone you know and the introduction isn’t needed.

Here’s an example of an opening in a formal email:

My name is Jordan Smith. I am the professor of Statistics for XYZ University. This message is for all current
students.

Body
The body of a formal email typically elaborates on the purpose of the email. Elaboration may not be
needed in an informal email. Although the body contains detailed information, it’s important to write
clearly and concisely in a formal email. Remember your reader isn’t familiar with you and may not be
familiar with your topic. You don’t want your email recipient to misunderstand an important point.

Closing
How you end a formal email is equally important. Since the email closing is the last thing your recipient
looks at, your email closing can leave a lasting impression.

A good formal email closing also reminds the reader who you are since it should include your full name,
contact information, and title (if appropriate). If you can, use a professional signature template for added
impact.

In contrast, an email closing may be extremely casual for an informal email. In some instances where the
recipient is well known to you, you may even omit the email closing.

The most common way to start a formal email closing is with the word "Sincerely." It may be a common
closing, but it’s also a safe closing.

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Here’s an example of a formal email closing:
Sincerely,
Jordan Smith
Professor of Statistics, XYZ College
[Email address goes here]
[Phone number goes here]

You now have the information you need to write each section of a formal email. Formal emails are very
similar to professional emails, since professional emails are often written in a formal style. The principles
that apply to professional emails are also useful for formal emails. Learn how to write an effective
professional email in this tutorial:

Format and Structure

While many informal emails are unstructured, how you format and structure your formal email is
important. At a minimum, a formal email should contain all of the following elements:

● Subject line. Be specific, but concise. Many experts agree that the ideal subject line is six to ten
words long.
● Salutation. Address the recipient by name, if possible. Use honorifics, as appropriate. For example,
write Dear Professor Smith, not Hey.
● Body text. This section explains the main message of the email. For a formal email, use proper
grammar and complete sentences.
● Signature. Your email closing should be formal, not informal. Use your first and last name. If you’re
writing on behalf of an organization and you know the title of the person you’re sending the email to,
use it.

Your email font choice is also important when you’re formatting a formal email. Although many modern
email platforms allow you to use many different fonts, it’s best to stick with a common, readable font like
Verdana, Calibri, Times New Roman or Georgia. Helvetica and Arial are common sans-serif fonts you
could use as well.

Avoid novelty fonts like Comic Sans, handwriting fonts like Bradley Hand, and script fonts like Brush
Script. Remember that if you choose an unusual font for your formal email, that font may not be
supported by some email platforms.

Also, stick to one or two fonts in your formal email. Using too many different fonts can make your email
look too casual. Too many fonts may even make your formal email less readable.

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 19. Proposal
Structure

69
Notes
As you can see, a proposal generally consists of...
● Introduction: A brief overview of the problem, solution, costs, and benefits.
● Issue: The main definition of the issue, including subject, purpose, main argument, background
information and importance.
● Solution: The main definition of the solution, including your step-by-step plan, the benefits, and how
potential obstacles will be overcome.
● Qualifications: Overview of the personnel required, experience.
● Conclusion of the costs and benefits, and wrap-up: Balance the cost against the benefit, reinforce
your point one last time.

1. Identify and define your reader.

Just like with any kind of persuasion, it helps if you understand how to appeal to your audience.
➔ Who will be reading your proposal and deciding if it’s accepted or rejected?
➔ What do they care about?
➔ What kind of language and benefits would resonate with them?

This is the first step because it’s an important thing to keep in mind as you go along and as information
that informs the way you write from here on.

2. Define the problem your proposal will solve.

Who - Who will the proposal affect?
What - What’s the reason for you to write the proposal in the first place? Explain the current situation and
the problems that come with it.

3. Define the solution.

How - How are you going to solve the problem? Explain step-by-step in detail.
Who - Identify the personnel you need, along with their prior experience to add persuasion to the
proposal

4. Conclusion: costs, benefits and wrap-up.

Reiterate - The purpose and main argument
Costs - Break down the projected costs involved for different elements of the project
Benefits - Break down the benefits to the organization, monetary and non-monetary, to persuade the
reader there’ll be a return on investment
Thanks - Thank the reader for their time.
Contact information - Where can the reader get in touch with you? Make sure to be crystal clear to make
the details easily discoverable.

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 20. Plot Outline & Storylines
https://www.nownovel.com/blog/7-ways-write-plot-outline/
https://www.novel-software.com/genrestorytemplates

Definition
A novel outline is a document that includes important planning information about your novel’s structure,
plot, characters, scenes, and more. It is the skeleton of your novel.

An outline can be anything from a one-page written document to a comprehensive visual mind map that
uses diagrams to represent the link between information and ideas. If you have the space, you can write
your sentences on index cards and post them on a wall to make it easier to view and manipulate the
parts. Each event should be a single, short sentence (e.g. Danny gets shot in the leg).

Besides listing characters and plot points for story structure, your outline should give you a general sense
of the direction of your story as well as the primary conflicts and tensions that will make it intriguing for
readers. Keep the following questions in mind while creating your outline:
1. What is the main contract of the story? You must resolve the promises you made to your reader by
the end of the novel.
2. What sort of time pressure is working on your characters?
3. What is at stake for the protagonist of the novel? Does the pressure on the main characters grow
more intense as the story progresses?

Structure

1. Understand the purpose of your outline 5. Integrate your characters

2. Start with a barebones outline 6. Complete your outline
3. Add a midpoint 7. Work in circles
4. Have a firm sense of purpose

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Understand the Purpose of Your Outline
At its simplest, a plot outline can be defined as a very simple, barebones summary of your story. It could
be as short as a single page outline. Or it might run to as many as ten or twenty pages.

Either way, it’s important to realise that you’re not telling the story, you’re summarising it. So if your
outline feels flat and unengaging, that’s fine. Your story itself can’t be either of those things, but your
outline just needs to be functional, clear – and brief. The outline is for you, and for you only. It’s not for a
reader either now or in the future.

Start with a Barebones Outline

It’s commonly said that there are only seven plots in the world. We’re not totally sure about that, in fact,
but it’s certainly true that pretty much every novel will adopt the same rough shape.

That shape, at its simplest, is as follows:

1. Status Quo
This is the situation at the start of the book. So, for example, if we were dealing with a Lee Child / Jack
Reacher novel, the status quo might be “Jack Reacher is travelling through rural Montana, wanting to heal
after a particularly bruising recent adventure.” At this point, nothing has happened. The situation is
stable.

2. Inciting Incident
The inciting incident is whatever happens to disturb that status quo. It could be an apparently small
thing, or an obviously big one. So in Twilight, for example, the inciting incident is simply that Bella Swan’s
attention is caught by an attractive – but odd – boy at school. In our Reacher story, it could be that an
unseen sniper kills the bus driver dead and seems intent on killing everyone else on the bus too. Either
way, the important issue is that the status quo has been disrupted. The reader already feels that a story
has been set in motion.

3. Developments
This is the big middle chunk of your book. This is the part that probably occupies you from (say) 15,000
words into your book right up to 10 or 15,000 words before the end. It’s the scariest part of your outline,
whether you’re a new novelist, or a seasoned scriptwriter, or anything in between. We’ll talk more about
this element of your plot later in the post, but for now just bear in mind that your character will
encounter obstacles, victories and reversals – but the victories won’t be permanent and the reversals
won’t be lethal. Everything is still in play … but the stakes will gradually rise.

4. Climax
We said that the stakes gradually rise and, by the end of the book, the stakes feel like life and death. In a
romance story, your protagonist will feel that she has to get this guy, because he is going to be her
forever one. In a thriller, it’s not just that your protagonist’s life is in danger, it’s that some vast other risks

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are in play as well (a bomb in New York, a high school massacre, or whatever.) It’s not too much to say
that the success of your book really stands and falls by how profound and engaging this climax moment
feels.

5. Resolution
Then your story needs to resolve. It could be a triumphant resolution: Jack Reacher wrestles the bad guy
on the lip of a gigantic dam and ends up hurling him over the edge to his destruction. Or it could be a
bitter failure: The guy your romantic protagonist really, really wanted rejects her, or dies, or otherwise
becomes unavailable. Or you could have some bittersweet ending. So in The Fault In Our Stars, the two
romantic protagonists are truly in love (yay!), but their sickness takes its inevitable and tragic course.

I strongly recommend that, for the first draft of your plot outline, you simply use those five headings.
Quite likely, you have a pretty clear idea in your head of the first two of those stages, and a fairly clear
idea of the last two as well. So just write down whatever you know under those headings. If you don’t
have a clear idea, just leave a blank or a write question to yourself. (For example: “Jack Reacher has to
find a way to escape the prison. But how?”)

Most likely, the area where you’ll struggle most is the Developments section – but don’t worry. Just write
what you know. We’re about to move to the next stage. Before that though, let me offer one more
heading, which is kind of optional … and kind of doesn’t fit into a post on plot outline … except that it
really, really does as well.

So especially if you are writing a book with an interesting or complicated character, I suggest you make
notes on:
1. Main Character(s) - A paragraph or two of notes on each of the main characters in your novel will
help inform the work you do on plot – and vice versa. Your plotting insights will also enrich your main
character. And because you want to think of character as fluid rather than static, you should also
consider making some short notes on …
2. Character Arc/Character Development - You want to sketch – in broad, simple terms only – how your
main character changes or develops through the course of the book.

Add a Midpoint
We just said that the developments section is the one you’re going to struggle with the most – and that’s
fine. That’s just part of the joy of writing. But we can make your job a bit easier.

The single hardest thing about that development part of your book is that it feels very long and
unstructured. So the simplest way to navigate it is to give yourself a solid anchor in the middle.

That anchor is typically a piece of major drama in a particular scene (read more about how to perfect that
dramatic scene, here). Sometimes it’ll look as though the protagonist has ‘won’. Sometimes it’ll look like

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he/she has ‘lost’. But either way, because we’re not yet at the true climax of the book the defeat or victory
will be a false or temporary one.

The actual type of drama involved will depend on your book. In a crime thriller (like the ones I write, for
example) there will typically be an episode of action/adventure that also does something to change the
complexion of the case being investigated. So I’ve had my protagonist get involved in hostage situations.
I’ve had her be abducted. I’ve had her investigate a major unexplored cave system. And so on. They’re the
sort of extended, memorable sequences that should echo long after the reader has finished the book.

A romantic story needs the same kind of major twists. So it could be that your happy couple go away on
what should be the holiday of their dreams, only for things to go terribly wrong. Or an
ex-boyfriend/girlfriend comes along to mess things up. Or something else.

If you can determine what your midpoint is, you’ll find your whole plot feels more manageable. Imagine
your plot as a bridge. In the first ‘barebones’ version of your plot outline, we just had a major support at
the Inciting Incident point and then again at the Climax/Resolution one. The rest of your plot was just a
long stretch over the void.

By introducing a midpoint, you give yourself another major support element. So it’s like you only have to
manage the span from the Inciting Incident to the Midpoint , then from the Midpoint to the Climax. By
breaking that developments section into two, you’ll find it much, much easier to navigate.

Have a Firm Sense of Purpose

No plot will cohere or feel compelling unless your protagonist has a really clear sense of purpose. That
purpose can morph a little through the book, but it can’t change its essential nature.

So a Jack Reacher novel, for example, might start with Reacher trying to protect the bus passengers from
the sniper … but as the narrative evolves, he might end battling a plot to – I don’t know – swamp Great
Falls in drugs, or plant a bomb under the state Capitol, or whatever it is. But there has to be a solid
continuity in what drives him throughout the book. He can’t start off chasing bad guys in Montana, then
zoom off somewhere else and start some totally different story.

The way to be sure that your outline is staying on track is to define, upfront, what your character’s
motivation is. You may also want to state explicitly what his/her antagonist is and what the obstacles in
the way of success are. (That approach works better for some books than others, so if it doesn’t quite
make sense to you, you can just ignore it. What’s the antagonist in Twilight, for example? There isn’t really
a great answer to that question.)

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Integrate Your Characters
So far, we’ve spoken of a plot outline as something almost mechanical – like a piece of clockwork you just
have to wind up and set in motion. But of course your plot is propelled by its characters and the best
stories aren’t character-led or plot-led, but led equally and powerfully by both.

To take an example, think of John Le Carre’s The Spy Who Came In From The Cold. The twisty,
double-crossing plot needed a suspicious and experienced spy at its heart. And if that sounds cold, then
the spy, Alec Leamas, also had a desperate desire to find love, to be able to trust again after his years of
secret service. That character – cynical, but with that hopeless dab of longing – turned an efficient spy
story into a twentieth century masterpiece.
The best way to bring your characters and plot into perfect synchrony is to develop them both together.
So you probably want to work on your character worksheets (more here) at the same time as you’re
developing your story outline.

So you might fill out your developments section with a new idea you had for a scene there. That might
trigger an insight into your character, so you’d go and add something to your character worksheet. Then
back again.

You’ll find you don’t even need to work too hard on the integration. If you develop your story and your
characters alongside each other, each element will bleed into and influence the next. The process will
happen automatically and in a beautifully seamless way.

Complete Your Outline

How far you take your outline is very much up to you. Some writers like to plan very intensively. Some
like to use the Snowflake method. I know writers who will write a detailed 30 page synopsis of their novel
before they proceed. I know others (like me!) who do the absolute bare minimum. Who just trust their
instincts to be able to create on the run, if you like.

So I’m not going to tell you how far you need to take your outline. What I will say is that if you want a
detailed plot outline template to follow, then you may well want to use Blake Snyder’s famous beat sheet
from his ‘Save the Cat’ book. That book was written for screenwriters and doesn’t have universal
applicability to novelists, but a lot of people find it helpful all the same.

So if you are detailed and you want a roadmap, then here it is:
1. Opening Image. This is like a touchstone for where your protagonist is at the very opening of the book.
2. Theme Stated. All decent books (or films) should have some underlying theme or debate. You want some
statement of that theme – possibly playful; you don’t have to be too heavy – in the opening couple of chapters
of the book.
3. Set-Up. This corresponds roughly to our Status Quo section
4. Catalyst. This corresponds roughly to our Initiating Incident section.

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5. Debate. Is the hero going to rise to the challenge posed by the Initiating Incident? Quite often there’s a refusal
or reluctance, before something tips the hero into changing their mind.
6. Break into Two. That’s the moment that launches the story from the opening set-up into the excitement of the
Developments section. It’s where your character decides to accept the adventure being offered and launches
off into the guts of your story itself.
7. B Story. A really good tip. Very often, there’ll be some secondary story to accompany your main one. So if you
are writing a broadly action-themed novel, the secondary story might be a romantic one. Introducing that that
secondary tale right after the opening section is done and dusted feels just about right in terms of timing.
8. Fun and Games. This is Snyder-speak for the opening round of action, where your premise really starts to make
itself felt. So if you were writing (let’s say) an ‘action’ film set in an old folks home, this is where you’d really start
to have fun with the premise. Yes, things are at stake here, but this is still the lower stakes portion of the book.
Things seem to matter, but they’re not that consequential compared with what follows.
9. Midpoint. As discussed above. The quivering dagger at the dead centre of your book.
10. Bad Guys Close In. After the midpoint, things feel more consequential. Yes, your character may notch up some
‘wins’, but the mood, broadly, will be one of increasing seriousness as you move towards the climax of your
story.
11. All is Lost. It looks like everything is lost. Bond is captured and the villain is going to detonate his bomb. Or
Lizzy’s Bennett’s silly sister has gone and destroyed her hopes of happiness with Darcy.
12. Dark Night of the Soul. This is the interior / emotional counterpart of the ‘all is lost’ moment. It’s how the
character reflects to themselves after the disaster that’s just happened.
13. Break into Three. This is the moment where the character bursts out of their despair. Where they come up with
one last desperate stratagem, or some last effort of will.
14. Finale. This is the climax and resolution elements we’ve already spoken of.
15. Closing Image. This is the image that shows where we are now – and is often a mirror image, in some way, of
where we were.

Work in Circles
In most things we do, we want to work in a logical, disciplined way. Start at the beginning. Follow a plan.
Complete the task. Done. Outlining a novel is not like that. It’s the opposite.

I’ve already mentioned that you’ll probably be developing plot as you develop character. So you’ll dive
from one thing to another and back again.

Good. That’s not indiscipline at work. That’s creativity. But also – You’ll make mistakes. You’ll screw up.
You’ll have ideas, you’ll write them down – then you’ll figure out they’re bad and you’ll delete them again.
Good. That’s not incompetence at work, it’s creativity.

A cyclical, repetitive, trial-and-error type process is exactly what you’re after. That also means you’re not
going to be able to sit down and develop a decent plot on a weekend. That’s not how it works (or almost
never anyway.) So give yourself time. Forgive yourself for your errors. And have fun.

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 21. Reports
https://grimsby.ac.uk/documents/highereducation/skills/Structure-of-Reports-Learnhigher.pdf
https://www.openpolytechnic.ac.nz/current-students/study-tips-and-techniques/assignments/how-to-write-a-rep
ort/

Definition
A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and
purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always in
the form of written documents.

Note: The first thing you need to do is identify your audience and what they need to know. Then think
through what the report is about, what information needs to be in it, and what information is best left
out?

Title Page: The title page should relate to what you’re going to discuss in the report

Table of Contents: This is optional depending on the length of the report - a 2 to 3 page report probably
wouldn't have a table of contents, but a 10 to 20 page report would.

Executive Summary: An executive summary is a brief overview of a report that is designed to give the
reader a quick preview of the report's contents. Its purpose is to present the key points of a report in one
place. Remember that the purpose of an executive summary is to provide an overview or preview to an
audience who may not have time to read the whole report carefully.

Introduction:
The introduction should...
● Briefly describe the context and background to the research
● Describe the change, problem or issue to be reported on
● Define the specific objectives and purpose of the report
● State the overall answer to the problem explored in the report
● Outline the report's scope (the extent of the investigation, also known as its terms of reference or
brief)
● Preview the report structure

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Discussion:
This is the main body of the report and it has two key purposes...
1. To explain the conclusions 2. To justify the recommendations

Key points to remember when you are writing the discussion include the following...
● Present the analysis in a logical and systematic way that the readers will be able to follow and
understand.
● If necessary, divide the material with appropriate headings to improve the readers' understanding
● Support your evidence, and explain your findings
● Persuade readers of the validity of your points.

Conclusion:
The conclusion should...
● Be arranged so that the major conclusions come first
● Identify the major issues relating to the case and give your interpretation of them
● Relate specifically to the objectives of the report as set out in the introduction
● Be a list of numbered points
● Follow logically from the facts in the discussion
● Be clean-cut and specific
● Be brief

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 22. Script Writing
Definition
A screenplay, also called a script, is a written document that includes everything that is seen or heard on
screen: locations, character dialogue, and action. From the first draft to its final incarnation, a screenplay
tells a story. However, it is also a technical document that contains all the information needed to film a
movie.

Structure
While the exact story specifics of your favorite Hollywood movies vary, they mostly follow a similar basic
plot structure that includes a beginning, a middle, and an end, shaped and paced by key elements or
moments…

1. The Setup
The beginning of your first act contains the opening image of your film, an introduction to the main
characters, the theme of the film, and the overall point of the story. The setup takes place in the first 10
pages of a screenplay, and should be both visually and emotionally stimulating enough to keep the
reader invested. For example, the opening scene of The Truman Show (1998) shows us the key players
and what the film will be about by using interview footage of the director and actors as they describe
Truman’s unique circumstance and how they feel about the role they play in his staged living
environment. Although the audience doesn’t know what twists and turns await, they have an
understanding of the kind of story they’re going to see.

2. The Catalyst
Also known as the “inciting incident,” the catalyst is a call to action—the circumstance that thrusts your
protagonist into the story. The catalyst can be a piece of information or a small event that pushes the
lead character into setting the rest of the story events in motion. In Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), the
catalyst is when the two Army Intelligence agents inform Indiana Jones that the Nazis are working with his
old mentor, spurring him into action.

3. Plot Point One

In screenwriting, the end of act one is where the hero reaches their first major turning point, ushering
viewers into the second act. At this point, the protagonist decides to leave their “normal world” behind
and commits to the new story world. Once the protagonist answers this call to action, their journey truly
begins, and they cannot go back to the life they once had. In Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (2001),
act two starts when Harry Potter enters Hogwarts and discovers a new environment full of people just
like him. The beginning of the second act is where elements of the B-story (sub-plot) are usually
introduced, like the potential love interest or other secondary storylines that will come into play.

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 4. The Midpoint
The middle of your screenplay is where the stakes are raised and the audience finds out the true
capability of the characters and the potential drama that awaits. Obstacles, subplots, and other
conflicting events threatening the hero’s overall goal begin to unfold, giving the audience plenty to root
for (or against). In the first Harry Potter film, the midpoint is when Harry’s broom loses control during the
Quidditch match, and Hermione, believing Snape is trying to hurt Harry, sets his cloak on fire. This
moment shows the possible foe these young characters are up against, and what they’re willing to do to
save one another.

5. The Despair
At this point in the screenplay, the world has gotten the best of the heroes and all hope is lost. Both internal and
external conflicts are heightened towards the end of act two, and the main characters have reached a low point.
The characters believe they have truly lost, and there is no hope for redemption. The end of the second act is where
the heroes feel defeat, and perhaps will not succeed in their endeavors.

6. Redemption
By act three, the characters conceive of a winning plan, or at the very least, the hero is reinvigorated enough to
attempt to solve the story’s conflict once and for all. The hero is no longer hopeless, they are going to fight for their
cause—to save the people, the city, the school, etc. During the redemption, the hero pushes forward with an
attempt that may save the day.

7. The End
The story wraps up by the end of the third act. While your story should have reached a resolution, it does not
necessarily mean your screenplay has to have a neat, button-ending, or a happy resolution. The story outlined by
your premise has its own conclusion or sense of closure, even if there is an overarching plot that continues beyond
this film’s story for future sequels.

Format
Screenplay format is relatively simple, but it’s one of those things that can seem a bit daunting until you’ve actually
learned how to do it.

The basics of script formatting are as follows:

● 12-point Courier font size
● 1.5 inch margin on the left of the page
● 1 inch margin on the right of the page
● 1 inch on the of the top and bottom of the page
● Each page should have approximately 55 lines
● The dialogue block starts 2.5 inches from the left side of the page
● Character names must have uppercase letters and be positioned starting 3.7 inches from the left side of the
page
● Page numbers are positioned in the top right corner with a 0.5 inch margin from the top of the page. The
first page shall not be numbered, and each number is followed by a period.

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Many scripts begin with a transition, which may include FADE IN: or BLACK SCREEN. Some place this in
the top left, others in the top right of the page where many transitions live. Other scripts will begin with
scene headings, or even subheadings of imagery they want to front load.

Scene Heading
The scene heading is there to help break up physical spaces and give the reader and production team an
idea of the story’s geography.

You will either choose INT. for interior spaces or EXT. for exterior spaces. Then a description of the
setting, and then the time of day.

There are rare cases where the scene begins inside and goes outside, or vice versa, and in these
situations you may write INT/EXT. or EXT/INT.

Some scripts take place all around the world, so often screenwriters will use multiple hyphens to give the
scene headings even more detail:

This helps the screenwriter avoid having to point out the geographical location in the action lines, saving
space to write more about the actual story and keep readers engaged in the story… not the formatting.

Subheading
Often, writers will use subheadings to show a change in location without breaking the scene, even if the
scene has shifted from INT. to EXT.

It is assumed that readers will understand the change in space while retaining the idea that the time of
day is the same - even continuous.

The reason many writers do this is to avoid the notion that we’ve entered an entirely new scene, though
you could always include CONTINUOUS in place of DAY or NIGHT by creating an entirely new scene
heading. It’s a matter of personal style and rhythm vs. production considerations.

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Transitions
In the bottom right of the page you will place transitions, but in modern screenwriting these seem to be
used less and less. The transitions that seems to have really stood the test of time are CUT TO: and FADE
OUT.

You may also include something like DISSOLVE TO:, but these are used less and less, probably for the
same reason you avoid camera shots.

Character Introductions
When you introduce a character in a screenplay, you want to use all-capital letters for the name of the
character, then a reference to their age, and finally some information about their traits and personality.

Again, screenwriters have found other ways to do this, but this is the most common and production
friendly way to introduce a character.

Action
Action lines are where you describe the visual and audible actions that take place on screen. You want to
write in third person in present tense.

Often, you can make your script a better read by eliminating redundant pronouns and conjunctions. Big
sounds and important objects can be written out in ALL CAPS to emphasize their effect on the story.

Dialogue
Your lines of dialogue will be set underneath the character to which they are assigned. Dialogue is pretty
straightforward from a formatting standpoint, but it is the most difficult part of screenwriting.

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Extensions
These occur when a character says something off-screen (O.S.), or if dialogue is voice-over (V.O.). You will
see extensions when a character ends a block of dialogue, performs an action, and speaks more.

This takes the form of continued (CONT’D). Professional script writing software will help you with this, but
it will not be able to predict when you want something said off screen or in voice-over.

Parenthetical
You can use a parenthetical inside your dialogue to show small actions, or even a change in mood
without having to jump out to an action line.

Parentheticals are really good for directing actors, and adding sarcasm and nuance to performances on
the page, but you may want to be cautious about adding them too much. Actors are professionals, and if
Al Pacino finds parentheticals in a script, he may get his feelings hurt.

Camera Shots
The best professional screenwriters know how to suggest shots without actually writing in shots, but if
you really insist on describing a particular shot in your screenplay you can format it like a subheading.

This lets us know that the shot is supposed to be set so that we see things from Filbert’s perspective.
Writing out shots is often frowned upon, but if you’re directing the film, maybe do it sparingly.

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Examples

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85
 23. Speech
Definition
A speech is simply an official verbal presentation that is meant to achieve a certain goal. The aim of
making a speech or even writing one, is to convince your audience to buy into your idea or pay attention
to your subject of discussion.

Structure

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Notes
1. Introduce yourself
The first thing to do in any speech you write, is to introduce yourself. If you’ve seen footage of historic
speeches, the speaker might skip over the formality of introducing themselves, or they might be
introduced by someone before they take the stage.

For instance; “Hello, and thank you for taking the time to listen. My name is Lawrence Smart, and I’m here
today to talk to you about…”

2. Make a great opening statement

Now the audience knows who you are, it’s time to make them pay attention. You should always begin
writing your speech in a way that is catchy. You want to craft an introduction that will captivate your
target audience. A good opening statement is fairly brief, but uses language techniques to make an
immediate impact.

To begin your speech, try using some of the following language techniques…

A Rhetorical Question
Rhetorical questions are questions that you don’t expect your audience to answer. So why use them?
Because they make your audience think.

When you ask a question that your audience wants to know the answer to, they will pay attention. If you
then provide an answer to your own question, your audience will be hooked.

Example
“I’m here to talk to you about what ordinary people can do to fight against climate change. Why? Because
we’re running out of time to act.”

A Surprising Statement
Surprise is a powerful tool in any speech. It makes your audience sit up and pay attention.

Think of the most surprising opinion or fact you want to convey in your speech. Now, use it right at the
beginning.

A Famous Quote
Before your exam, take a look at a list of famous quotes.

Don’t worry about revising famous quotes before your exam: the quote itself won’t get you marks. But, if
you can remember one which is relevant to your speech topic, use it. It will demonstrate your creativity
and flair.
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Example
“As a wiser woman than me once wrote: ‘It is our choices, that show what we truly are, far more than our
abilities.’”

3. Structure your speech

To structure your speech and make it easy for your audience to understand your point, split it into three
sections: Introduction, main body, and conclusion. In each section you’re trying to achieve a different aim:
● In the introduction, your aim is to tell your audience who you are and what you’re talking about.
Then, you want to grab their attention.
● The main body of your speech is where you make your arguments. Divide this main body into 2-3
points, and separate each point into different paragraphs.
● At the end, comes the conclusion. A good conclusion takes everything you said and sums it up.

4. Begin every paragraph with a topic sentence

Because you’re dividing your speech into separate paragraphs, it’s important to make it clear what each
section is about. To do that, ensure that you have topic sentences for each paragraph.

For example: “Jellyfish are the second thing I want to put into Room 101, and for good reason.”

5. Use very good English

Good English is essential for your examiner to give you good marks. But don’t worry, if you’re not
confident, there are a couple of tricks you can use to avoid making mistakes….
● Avoid long sentences - Write short sentences instead. By keeping things short, you limit the amount of
complex punctuation you need to use. However, bear in mind that for the top marks, examiners are
looking for a range of sentence structures and punctuation.
● Practice - It’s a simple tip but it’s the best one I can give you. Trying anything for the first time takes
your attention away from your grammar and spelling, and that can lead to mistakes. Practice makes
perfect, and it also makes you more confident.

6. Express your opinion

The most common mistake students make when writing a speech is that they don’t express an opinion.
Opinions are the element that make a speech interesting. Whatever you are writing a speech about,
express yourself. Don’t just write about your topic, write what you think about it.

What if you don’t have a strong opinion on the subject? Imagine you do, and write from that perspective.
The examiner won’t care about your opinion, or whether they agree with it. What they will care about is
that you are expressing an opinion in a persuasive, engaging way.

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 7. Write from the 1st person and engage your audience
When writing your speech, always ensure that you write using the 1st person. This means, use “I” as you
write. By doing this, your audience will recognise that what you’re saying is your opinion.

You should also address your audience directly as if you were actually talking to them. Use “we” and “you”
in your writing. For example: “I’m sure you’d all agree that...”, or “As a community, we need to…”.

Using the 3rd person makes each of your audience members sit up and listen. It makes them think about
how your topic and argument applies to them.

8. Use personal details and anecdotes

Every good speech writer aims to make the audience relate to them. If your audience relates to you, they
are far more likely to agree with what you’re saying.

One of the best ways to do that is to tell a short story about yourself, or provide short personal details.
You don’t want to spend too much time talking about yourself and not about your argument, but small
details will bring your speech to life.

Here’s some examples:

● In a speech about bullying, you might say: “Like it is for so many young people, bullying is a subject
that is close to my heart. When I was at primary school, I was bullied and I now know how harmful it
can be.”
● For a speech about music, you could say: “Ever since the day I first heard Kanye West’s Runaway, I
knew I’d be a lifelong fan.”
● If you were talking about sport, you might say: “I was never a good rugby player. But, football? My
school’s muddy, overgrown football field is where I found my true calling.”

9. Use rhetorical questions

Use rhetorical questions throughout your speech, just like I suggested you should do in your opening.
Remember: rhetorical questions grab your audience’s (and your examiner’s) attention.

But, don’t use too many questions, or you’ll begin to sound like you don’t know what you’re talking about!
A good rule of thumb is to use 2-3 rhetorical questions throughout your speech, each in different
paragraphs.

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 10. Use emotive language
Emotive language is one of the most basic, but most effective tools a speech writer can use.
In your speech, things shouldn’t simply be described just as “good” or “bad”. They should be “fantastic” or
“horrible”, “pure” or “corrupted”, “exciting” or “disappointing”. Notice how these example words express
more than just “good” or “bad”, they also add other flavours to your description.

But, be careful not to over-use emotive language. If you go over the top it can reduce the effectiveness of
all of your words. Use emotive words sparingly throughout your speech.

11. Use figurative language

As with emotive language, this shouldn’t be over-used. But, used sparingly, figurative language creates
powerful images in your audience’s mind.

There are many types of figurative language, but these are the main ones you should focus on using in
your speech...
● Simile - Describing something to be like something else. For instance, “She has eyes like a hawk”,
“He’s thin as a twig”, or “They’re fighting like cats and dogs”.
● Metaphor - Describing something by using a word that isn’t literally relevant. For example, “It’s raining
men”, “I’m feeling blue”, or “The weather was bitterly cold”.
● Imagery - Using words to make you imagine how they would affect your senses. For example; “A
sweet apple”, “A sharp pin”, or “The lion roared”.

12. Use contrast

Contrast is a powerful technique. It highlights your point because of the clash of imagery it creates in the
audience’s mind.

You can exploit this by using contrasting words and phrases in your sentences. For instance; “I love
writing, but I hate writing essays”.

You can also bring added flavour to your figurative language, by using contrasting imagery. For example,
you could describe one person as “fiery and passionate” and another as “cold-hearted”.

13. Use repetition

Repetition is for emphasis. Repetition is memorable. Repetition is one of many persuasive techniques
which will help you get a good grade. As I’ve just done, starting consecutive sentences with the same
word is a very effective technique.

Repetition can also be used for key phrases in your introduction and conclusion to bring your speech full
circle. For instance, if you started your speech by saying “The pen is mightier than the sword”, repeat that
phrase in the conclusion to your speech.

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 14. Use the list of three
We don’t know exactly why, but the human brain easily remembers things in threes. Use this to your
advantage. When you’re using a list of adjectives to describe something, use three.

A very common technique is to combine repetition with the list of three. By repeating a word three times
in consecutive sentences, you can make a very compelling point.

15. Focus on the topic

When writing a speech in an English exam, always stay focused on the topic you have been asked to write
about. Never derail from the subject of the speech you are writing. This will make you lose marks.

This is why it is so important to plan your speech before you begin writing it. Think through the structure
you are going to use and stick to it. That way, you’ll stay on topic and your argument will be focused.

Personal anecdotes to bring your speech to life

Emotive language to persuade your audience.
Rhetorical questions to make your audience listen.
Figurative language such as metaphors and similes.
Emphasis through repetition and the rule of three.
Comparison and contrast to make your points clear.
Tone of voice that is relevant and persuasive for your specific audience.

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