Summary Notes 5

Trigonometric Functions and Their

Inverse Functions

Radian Measure Of An Angle

If the coordinate point (0, 1) starts to travel along the unit circle centered at the origin (0, 0) through a
distance θ in counterclockwise direction, the angle subtended by the corresponding circular arc is said to be
a positive angle with radian measure θ, where the radian value given as the ratio of the circular arc length
and the radius is independent of the length unit. Angles obtained by clockwise rotations are considered as
negative angles.

positive angle

(1,0)
negative angle

Directed angle : angle can be assigned a +ve or -ve sign

Dividing a circle into 360 congruent circular sectors, each part gives rise to an angle with degree mea-
surement 1◦ .

• Recall that the length of a unit circle is 2π. Thus the radian measure of a 360◦ angle is 2π, and −2π
if the angle is −360◦.

• In proportion, the degree measure and radian measure of an angle can be converted to each other
according to
radian measure 2π π
= =
degree measure 360 180
π
In particular, 1◦ = 180 rad., and
π
360◦ = 2π rad., 180◦ = π rad., 45◦ = rad.,
4

π π π
30◦ = rad., 60◦ = rad., −90◦ = − rad.
6 3 2

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5.1. SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

• Since the length and area of a circle of radius r are 2πr and πr2 respectively, the arc length and area
of a circular section subtended by an angle θ in radians can be determined according to the following
proportion:
B
circular sector area θ circular arc length
= =
circle area 2π circle length
θ
circular sector area θ circular arc length
= = A
πr2 2π 2πr O r

and hence we have the following:

Circular sector OAB: Area = 12 r2 θ

Arc length = rθ
where θ is measured in radians.

Example 1.

(i) The degree measure d of an angle of 2 radians is:

d 180  360 ◦
= ⇐⇒ d =
2 π π

(ii) The radian measure θ of an angle of 72◦ is:

72 180 72π 2π
= ⇐⇒ θ = = (in radians.)
θ π 180 5
The arc length and area of a circular section with angle 72◦ and radius 4 are therefore
1 2 2π 16π
area = ·4 · = (sq. unit)
2 5 5
2π 8π
arc length = 4 · = (unit)
5 5
Example 2. If a particle is moving along a unit circle with angular velocity ω radians per second, then
the angle subtended after t seconds is given by θ = ωt radians, and the distance traveled by the particle is
rθ = 1 · θ = θ units.
θ = ωt

(1,0)

If the radius of the circle is R, then the distance traveled by the particle after t seconds is Rωt (units).

5.1 Sine and Cosine Functions

When a point originally at (0, 1) moves along the unit circle through an angle of θ radians, the coordinates
of the position (x, y) reached by the point depend on the value of θ, i.e., they are functions of θ, which are

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5.1. SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

denoted by
y

(x, y)
x = sin θ
1 domain: (−∞, ∞), or − ∞ < θ < ∞
y
and
θ x x
range: [−1, 1], or − 1 ≤ sin θ, cos θ ≤ 1
y = cos θ

As the point is moving along the circle, its coordinates are oscillating between −1 and 1, and it is then
easy to see the shape of the graphs of x = sin θ and y = cos θ from the geometry of the circle, as well as
some basic properties of these two functions.

x y
x = sin θ 2 y = cos θ 2

1 1
θ θ

−2π −π π 2π −2π −π π 2π
−1 −1

−2 −2

• Since θ and 2π + θ give you the same point on the unit circle, we have

sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ, and cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ

i.e., both functions are periodic with period 2π.

• Some function values of sin θ and cos θ can be found from special triangles as given in the following
table:
π π π π 2π 3π 5π
θ 0 6 4 3 2 2 4 6 π π
4 √ π
√ √ √ √ 1 2 1 6 √ 1
1 2 3 3 2 1
sin θ 0 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 2
2
3

√ √ √ √ π π π
3 2 4 √ 3 3
cos θ 1 2 2
1
2 0 − 21 − 22 2
3
−1 2 1 1
2 2 2

Moreover,

(i) sin θ = 0 if and only if θ = nπ for some integer n.

(Points on the unit circle with zero y-coordinates are (±1, 0).)
π
(ii) cos θ = 0 if and only if θ = (2n + 1) = (n + 12 )π. for some integer n.
2
(Points on the unit circle with zero x-coordinates are (0, ±1).)

• Note that we see the following identities by running along the unit circle; i.e., by comparing the
coordinates of the points with angles θ, θ + π2 , and θ − π2 :

(i) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (Pythagoras Theorem!)

(ii) cos θ = sin(θ + π2 ) (Graph shifting!)
(iii) sin θ = cos(θ − π2 ) (Graph shifting!)

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5.1. SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

• Since the angles θ and −θ put two points on the unit circle symmetric with respect to the x-axis, and
θ + π gives a point antipodal to that of θ, it is also to see that (cos θ,sin θ)

sin(−θ) = − sin θ; i.e., sin θ is an odd function

θ
cos(−θ) = cos θ; i.e., cos θ is an even function θ+π

sin(θ + π) = − sin θ; −θ

cos(θ + π) = − cos θ;
(cos θ,− sin θ)
(− cos θ,− sin θ)

Exercise: Work out the following identities by studying points on the unit circle given by the angles θ,
π
2 − θ and π − θ.

π−θ π
sin(π − θ) = sin θ sin(π/2 − θ) = cos θ 2 −θ

cos(π − θ) = − cos θ cos(π/2 − θ) = sin θ −θ −θ

• If (x, y) is a point on the circle of radius R, with equation x2 + y 2 = R2 , we have by proportion that
x = R cos θ, y = R sin θ .
If the point is rotating around the circle with constant angular
y
velocity ω, then at time t, the x and y coordinates of the point
are given by (x,y)

x = R cos ωt, y = R sin ωt . ωt (R cos φ,R sin φ)

φ
If the initial position of the point is the point (R cos φ, R sin φ) (R,0) x
instead of (R, 0), the coordinate functions of the particle are
given by

x = R cos(ωt + φ), y = R sin(ωt + φ) .

The rotation is counterclockwise if ω > 0, and clockwise if ω < 0.

2π
It is clear that these functions are periodic with period . They are often used in describing certain
|ω|
periodic oscillation motion of a particle, namely, simple harmonic motion.
R is called the amplitude, − ωφ the phase shift and ωt + φ the phase or phase angle of the oscillation.
The graphs of these functions can be easily found by performing suitable transformations on the graph
of the sine or cosine function.
y
y=R sin(ωt+φ)

φ φ
−ω −ω + 2π
ω t

Exercise Sketch the graph of the function x = 3 cos(2t + π4 ).

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5.2. MORE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

5.2 More Trigonometric Functions

Four other trigonometric functions, namely, tan θ (tangent), cot θ (cotangent), csc θ (cosecant), and sec θ
(secant) are defined respectively by

sin θ domain = {θ : cos θ 6= 0} 1 domain = {θ : sin θ 6= 0}

tan θ = , csc θ = ,
cos θ range: (−∞, ∞) sin θ range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
cos θ domain = {θ : sin θ 6= 0} 1 domain = {θ : cos θ 6= 0}
cot θ = , sec θ = ,
sin θ range: (−∞, ∞) cos θ range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

• tan θ is a periodic function with period π:

tan(θ + π) = tan θ
The domain of tan θ is θ 6= nπ + π/2, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · , and the range is (−∞, ∞).
y

θ 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

√
1 √1 3
sin θ 0 1
√2 2 2
3 √1 1
cos θ 1 2 0 θ
2 √2
tan θ 0 √1 1 3 −− −5π
2
−2π
−3π
2
−π
−π
2
π
2
π
3π
2
2π
5π
2
3

tan is an odd function: tan(−θ) = − tan θ

• In addition to the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, we have the following identities:

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

For example,
sin2 θ cos2 θ + sin2 θ 1
1 + tan2 θ = 1 + 2
= 2
= = sec2 θ
cos θ cos θ cos2 θ
• Graphs of csc θ, sec θ and cot θ
The graphs of the other three trigonometric functions are as follows :

y y y

t t t
−5π −3π −π π 3π 5π −5π −3π −π π 3π 5π −5π −3π −π π 3π 5π
−2π −π π 2π −2π −π π 2π −2π −π π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

y = csc θ = sin1 θ y = sec θ = cos1 θ y = cot x = cos θ

sin θ
period = 2π period = 2π period = π
domain θ 6= nπ domain θ 6= nπ + π2 domain θ 6= nπ
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · where n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · where n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · ·
range x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 range x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 range (−∞, +∞)

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5.3. MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES MATH1013 Calculus IB

• Graphs of sin θ and csc θ Together:

1
Consider how csc θ = sin θ behaves as sin θ is running from −1 to 1.

2
θ

−π π 2π
−2

−4

−6

5.3 More Trigonometric Identities

Angle addition and subtraction

Product to sum and sum to product
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α
sin α cos β = 12 [sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)]
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − sin β cos α
cos α sin β = 12 [sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)]
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos α cos β = 12 [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)]
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan α + tan β sin α sin β = 12 [cos(α + β) − cos(α − β)]
tan(α + β) = sin α + sin β = 2 sin α+β cos α−β
1 − tan α tan β 2 2
tan α − tan β sin α − sin β = 2 cos 2 sin α−β
α+β
tan(α − β) = 2
1 + tan α tan β cos α + cos β = 2 cos α+β cos α−β
2 2
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α
cos α − cos β = −2 sin α+β 2
sin α−β2
cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 α
All these formulas can be derived from one identity

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

For examples,

cos(α − β) = cos(α + (−β)) = cos α cos(−β) − sin α sin(−β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
π π π
sin(α − β) = cos(( − (α) − β)) = cos( − α) cos β − sin( − α) sin β = sin α cos β − sin β cos α
2 2 2
To derive the angle sum formula cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β, just consider the following figure:

Note that the two triangles △P OR and △SOQ

are congruent, as you can rotate one to the other
by an angle of β. In particular, we have Q:(cos α,sin α)
R:(cos(α+β),sin(α+β))

P R = SQ, or P R2 = SQ2
P :(1,0)
Recall that the distance between two points O

(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by

p
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
S:(cos(−β),sin(−β))

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5.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

The identity follows then from P R2 = SQ2 :

(cos(α + β) − 1)2 + (sin(α + β) − 0)2 = (cos α − cos(−β))2 + (sin α − sin(−β))2

cos (α + β) − 2 cos(α + β) + 1 + sin2 (α + β)
2
= cos2 α − 2 cos α cos β + cos2 β
+ sin2 α + 2 sin α sin β + sin2 β
2 − 2 cos(α + β) = 2 − 2 cos α cos β + 2 sin α sin β
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

Exercise

1. Work out the triple angle formulas for sin 3α, cos 3α.
(Hint: sin 3α = sin(α + 2α))

2. Derive the other trigonometric identities.

3. Can you rewrite functions like y = a sin ωt + b cos ωt into the form y = R sin(ωt + C) for some constants
R, ω, C?

For example, since sin π4 = cos π4 = √1 ,

we have
2
√ π π √ π
y = sin t + cos t = 2(sin t cos + cos t sin ) = 2 sin(t + ) .
4 4 4
Hint: consider
p h a b i
a sin ωt + b cos ωt = a2 + b 2 √ sin ωt + √ cos ωt
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
which can be rewritten as R sin(ωt + C), or R cos(ωt + C) for suitable choice of C.

5.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The horizontal line test shows that sin x, cos x, or tan x have no inverse function in general. For example,
the periodic function sin x is obviously not one-to-one.

y
y = sin x 2

1
x

−2π −π π 2π
−1

−2

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5.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

However, after restricting the domain to [− π2 , π2 ], the function y = sin x is one-to-one, and hence has an
inverse function.

y
y = sin x, 2
where − π2 ≤ x ≤ π
2
1
x

−2π −π π 2π
−1

−2

The inverse function of y = sin x, with x restricted to the interval [− π2 , π2 ], is denoted by y = sin−1 x.
Recall that the graph of the function y = sin−1 x can be found by reflecting the part of the graph of
y = sin x, with 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 , across the line y = x.
Similarly, the inverse trigonometric functions cos−1 x and tan−1 x can also be defined by inverting the
functions cos x with domain restricted to 0 ≤ x ≤ π, and tan x with domain restricted to − π2 < x < π2 , as
shown in the following figures:

Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverse Functions

y y y
3
y = tan x
y = sin x
1 1 2
y = cos x
1
x x x
−π π π −π π
π −π π
2 2 2 2 2
−1

−1
−1 −2

−3

x x x
  
yinverse yinverse yinverse

π y y y
π
2 π
y = tan−1 x
y = sin −1
x
π
2

x π x
2
−2 −1 1 2 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
y = cos−1 x
−π
2
x
−π −2 −1 1 2
2 −π

y = sin−1 x y = cos−1 x y = tan−1 x

domain [−1 : 1] domain [−1 : 1] domain (−∞, +∞)
range [− π2 , π2 ] range [0, π] range (− π2 , π2 )
By inverting the one- By inverting the one- By inverting the one-
to-one function sin x to-one function cos x to-one function tan x
on − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ π on − π2 < x < π2

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5.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

Remark The inverse trigonometric functions sin−1 x, cos−1 x and tan−1 x can also be denoted by arcsin x,
arccos x, and arctan x respectively.
Another way to look at these inverse trigonometric functions is to consider solutions of trigonometric
equations:

• sin−1 x is the unique solution θ (angle in radian measure) of the equation x = sin θ chosen within the
closed interval [− π2 , π2 ]. (Solvable for any −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)

• cos−1 x is the unique solution θ (angle in radian measure) of the equation x = cos θ chosen within the
closed interval [0, π]. (Solvable for any −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)

• tan−1 θ is the unique solution θ (angle in radian measure) of the equation x = tan θ chosen within the
open interval (− π2 , π2 ). (Solvable for any −∞ < x < ∞)

• Graphical view: draw the solution of sin θ = x, cos θ = x or tan θ = x, where θ is chosen from a specific
quadrant according to the sign of x.

1 1 1 x
θ θ
θ x
θ
1
θ x x θ
x x
1

− π2 ≤ θ = sin−1 x ≤ π
2 0 ≤ θ = cos−1 x ≤ π − π2 ≤ θ = tan−1 x ≤ π
2
2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 −∞ < x < ∞
• General Solution of Trigonometric Equations
Using the inverse trigonometric functions, one can express the general solutions of some basic trigono-
metric equations as follows:
(
x = nπ + (−1)n sin−1 a if −1 ≤ a ≤ 1
sin x = a
no solution if |a| > 1
(
x = 2nπ ± cos−1 a if −1 ≤ a ≤ 1
cos x = a
no solution if |a| > 1

tan x = a x = nπ + tan−1 a for any real number a

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · goes through the set of all integers.

These formulas are nothing more than the fact that the general solutions of these trigonometric equa-
tions can be found from one known particular solution and the periodic properties of trigonometric
functions.

Example 3. Find the general solution

√
of the equation:
(i) sin x = − 12 , (ii) cos x = − 23 , (iii) tan x = −1.

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5.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

1 1 4

0.5 0.5 2

0 0 0

-0.5 -0.5 -2

-1 -1 -4

-3π -2π -π 0 π 2π 3π -3π -2π -π 0 π 2π 3π -3π -2π -π 0 π 2π 3π

(i) (ii) (iii)

π
(i) x = nπ +(−1)n sin−1 (− 12 ) = nπ −(−1)n , where sin−1 (− 12 ) = − π6 is a special solution of the equation,
6
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . ..
√ 5π √
(ii) x = 2nπ ± cos−1 (− 23 ) = 2nπ ± , where cos−1 (− 23 ) = 5π
6 is a special solution of the equation,
6
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . ..
π
(iii) x = nπ + tan−1 (−1) = nπ − , where tan−1 (−1) = − π4 is a special solution of the equation, where
4
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . ..

Graphical View
√
(i) sin x = − 12 , (ii) cos x = − 3
2 , (iii) tan x = −1.

sin(sin−1 (− 12 )) = − 12 cos(cos−1 (− 12 )) = − 21 tan(tan−1 (−1)) = −1

1
1
-1/2 -1/2
1 -1
2

π − sin−1 (− 21 ) − cos−1 (− 12 ) π + tan−1 (−1)

Adding integer multiples of the periods to generate all solutions:

General solution of sin x = − 21 :
( (
2nπ + sin−1 (− 21 ) x = nπ + (−1)n sin−1 (− 21 ),
x = ⇐⇒
2nπ + π − sin−1 (− 12 ) n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

General solution of cos x = − 12 :

1
x = 2nπ ± cos−1 (− ), where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
2
General solution of tan x = −1 :

x = nπ + tan−1 (−1), where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

Exercise Draw the horizontal line y = a for −1 ≤ a ≤ 1, and see how it intersects the graphs of y = sin x,
y = cos x and y = tan x.

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