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SOIL- WATER -PLANT RELATIONSHIPS DMU, 2019

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CHAPTER –TWO
2. SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
2.1. Introduction
2.2 Soil-Water Relationships

2.3 Basic concepts of soil water dynamics

2.4 Soil Moisture and Plant Growth

2.1. Introduction

Soil-Water-Plant Relationships relate the properties of the soil that affect the movement,
retention and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:
Soil-Water relation
Soil-plant relation
Plant- Water relation
Soil suitability for agricultural practices
Soil: -A three-dimensional body occupying the upper part of the earth’s crust and having
properties differing from the underlying rock material as a result of interactions between
climate, living organism, parent material and relief and which is distinguished from other
soils in terms of differences in internal characteristics and/or in terms of the gradient
slope-complexity, micro topography, stoniness, and rockiness of the surface.
Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air which are necessary for plant growth.
Therefore, plants grow on soils that provide them water and nutrients. The plants need
water, the soil stores the water needed by the plants, and the atmosphere provides the
energy needed by the plant to withdraw water from the soil. The Soil suitability for
agricultural practices may be affected by physical and chemical soil characteristics.
2.1.1. Physical properties of soils
Effective soil depth Soil structure
Water holding capacity Soil consistence
Non-capillary porosity Soil permeability and Hydraulic
Topography conductivity
Texture

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2.1.2 Chemical properties of soils

Salinity (soluble salt content )
Amount of the Exchangeable sodium.
Soil reaction (PH)
In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest.regional watershed etc soils have five key
roles.
 Medium for plant growth  Habitat for soil organisms
 Regulator of water supplies  Engineering medium
 Recycler of raw materials
2.2. Soil-water relationships
2.2.1. Physical properties of soils
Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the earth. Soils have profiles,
constituting of specific kinds and combinations of horizons, as well as specific surfaces
and relief or landscape features. They are formed by a combination of natural processes
under the interrelated influences of climate, vegetation, relief (including hydrology),
parent material, and time. Soil is a three-phase system constituting solid, liquid and
gases. The minerals and organic matters in soil together constitute the solid phase. The
main component of solid phase is the soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise
to pore spaces of different shape and geometry. These pore spaces are filled with water
and air.

Water film
Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section of soil

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i. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil particles in a given soil. According to their
size soils particles are grouped into sand, silt and clay. The percentage content of soil
separates in a soil is determined by mechanical analysis. Based on the percentage content
of sand, silt and clay present, the textural class of a soil is determined by using the
triangular diagram (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

Texture is designated by using the names of the predominant size fractions.

ii. Soil Structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil and
the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates.

The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in terms of its:
• Porosity,
• Aggregation,
• Cohesiveness,
• Permeability for water or air

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A soil structure is important in plant growth as it influences the amount and nature of
porosity and regulates water, air and heat regimes in the soil besides affecting mechanical
properties. Hence, it has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as
• Erodibility, • Infiltration, and
• Porosity, • Water holding capacity
• Hydraulic conductivity,
iii. Volume and mass relationships
Let us consider the volume and mass relationships among the three constituents of soil
(solids, liquid and air), and define some basic parameters which have useful practical
importance in characterizing the physical condition of a soil.

Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Fig. 2.3: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase system

Symbols given in Fig. 2.3 are defined as:

Vt =total soil volume Mt = total soil mass

Vs = volume of soil solids Ms =mass of soil solids

Vw =volume of water Mw =mass of soil water

Va =volume of soil air Ma =mass of soil air which is

Vf =total void volume negligible

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Density, porosity and soil water terms are defined with reference to Fig. 2.3.
Vt  Vs  Vw  Va (2.1)

Mt  Ms  Mw  Ma (2.2)

Most often bulk and particle densities are used to characterize densities of soil. They are
described as follows:
Bulk density (  b )
Mass per unit volume of soil comprising the solid and gaseous phase in exclusion of the
liquid phase is called bulk density. That means it describes the soil as it is in the natural
state including pore spaces. In other words, bulk density is the weight of oven dry soil per
unit total volume. It is sometimes referred to as apparent specific gravity. The mass of the
soil is then obtained by weighing the dried soil. The bulk density is then calculated from
the weight of the soil per unit volume of known core sampler which is expressed as
Ms Ms
b   (2.3)
Vt Vs  Va  Vw 
Particle density (  s )
It denotes the mass of soil solid per unit volume of soil solid and is expressed in gm/cm 3.
It is defined as the mass (weight) per unit volume of soil particles (soil solids).
Ms
s  (2.4)
Vs
Particle density does not change with tillage or cropping practices. In most mineral soils
the s is about 2.2 – 2.7 gm/cm3.
Total pore space and porosity
Total pore space (E) is the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) to the total volume of soil
and is expressed in %. It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water.
To determine porosity, soil samples are taken with core samplers and placed in a pan of
water until completely saturated. Then after saturation the cores are weighed. Then after,

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the saturated samples are oven dried which again weighed. The difference in weight
between saturated and oven dry cores represents a volume of the pore space.
Vf Va  Vw  Vt  Vs  Vs 
E    1   (2.5)
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 
The ratio is then multiplied by 100 to obtain the porosity in percent. Total porosity can
also be calculated from the bulk density and particle density using the following
relationships,
  
E  1  b  (2.6)
 s 
Total porosity is influenced by textural characteristics of soil and ranges from 35 to 50 %
in sandy soils and from 40 to 60 % in clayey soils. It increases with an increase in
fineness, looseness of soils and amount of soil aggregates.
Example:
Soil taken for sample analysis of soil water contents relationship, a bulk density of 1.56
gm/cm3 and particle density of 2.6gm/cm3 was estimated. Determine the volume of solids
and porosity of sample soil.

Soil Water Content

Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume basis. It is measured using
gravimetric, neutron scattering, gamma ray, capacitance method, time domain
reflectrometer.
i. Gravimetric method
A soil sample is weighed, then dried in an oven at 105 0C and weighed again. The
difference in weight is a measure of the initial water content. Samples can be taken on a
mass or on a volume basis. In the first case, we take a disturbed quantity of soil, put it in
a plastic bag, and transport it to the laboratory, where it is weighed, dried, and re-weighed
after drying. We calculate the mass fraction of water with equation 2.7.

Mw
w (2.7)
Ms
. The volume fraction of water can be calculated as

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Vw Vw
 
Vt Vs  V f  (2.9)

The relationship between the mass wetness and volume wetness is given by
b
v  w (2.10)
w
Example:
A 100.0 cm3 soil sample taken from the field was weighed 174 gm during sampling time.
The oven dry weight of the sample was found to be 155 gm. Assume density of water
(ρw) to be 1.0 gm/cm3 and particle density of the soil as ρs = 2.65 gm/cm3. Calculate
A. Water content on mass basis D. Soil porosity
B. Volumetric water content E. Air filled pores
C. Bulk density
Types of soil water (Classes of soil Water availability)
Soil water has earlier been classified or exists mainly into three heads:
(i) Hygroscopic water,
(ii) Capillary water, and
(iii) Gravitational water.

i, Hygroscopic Water: The water that an oven dry soil absorbs when exposed to air
saturated with vapour is called hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the surface of
soil particles by adsorption forces. It occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil
particles and is at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
It is unavailable to plants & exerted by cohesion & adhesion forces.
ii, Capillary water: is the water remaining after rapid drainage by gravity. It is available
to plants & exerted by only cohesion forces. The soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33
atm. The capillary water supplies the water needed by plants. Hence, it is also designated
as plant available water.
iii, Gravitational water: is rapidally drained from the soil profile by the force of gravity.
When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the pore system expelling air
completely from soil. Water moving downwards through soil under gravity is termed as
gravitational water. The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm or less.

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Fig.2.4 Types of soil - water

Soil Moisture constants
The following soil moisture constants are of significance importance in agriculture and
are termed soil moisture constants.
1. Saturation Capacity: -When all micro and micro pore spaces are filled with
water, the soil is said to have reached its Saturation Capacity. At field capacity
water is held loosely and tensions are almost nill.
2. Field Capacity: -is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained
down. At field capacity, the macro pores are field with air & capillary pores
(micro) pores filled with water. Field capacity is the upper limit of the available
soil moisture.
-Large pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water.
-At FC Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10-1/3atm.
The volumetric moisture content at Fc is given by
 fc   pb  m

3. Permanent Wilting Point:-is the the moisture content beyond which plants can
no longer extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the

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soil. At PWP the plant starts wilting and if no water is given to the plant, and then
it will die.The SMT changes from 7 to 32atm.Hence,15atm is taken as SMT at
PWT
The volumetric moisture content at PWP is given by
 v( pwp)   pb  m( pwp)

Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water
(Plant available
water)

Permanent welting point

Unavailable
water
Hygroscopic coeff.
Hygroscopic Air dry
water
Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

2.3. Basic concepts of soil water dynamics
Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of water present and its energy
state. Soil water is subjected to forces of variable origin and intensity, hereby acquiring
different quantities and forms of energy. The two primary forms of energy recognized are
kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is acquired by virtue of motion and is proportional
to velocity squared. However, because the movement of water in soils is relatively slow
its kinetic energy is considered negligible. Potential energy, which is defined by the
position of soil water within a soil body and by internal conditions, is largely responsible
for determining soil water status under isothermal conditions. Like all other matter, soil
water tends to move from where the potential energy is higher to where it is lower, in
pursuit of equilibrium with its surroundings.
The magnitude of the driving force behind such spontaneous motion is a difference in
potential energy across a distance between two points of interest. At a macroscopic scale,

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we can define potential energy relative to a reference state. The standard state for soil
water is defined as pure and free water (no solutes and no external forces other than
gravity) at a reference pressure, temperature, and elevation, and is arbitrarily given the
value of zero.
2.3.1. Components of forces acting on soil water
Soil water is subject to several force fields, the combined effects of which result in a
deviation in potential energy relative to the reference state, called the ‘total soil water
potential which is defined as “the amount of work that an infinitesimal unit quantity of
water at equilibrium is capable of doing work when it moves (isothermally and
reversibly) to a pool of water at similar standard (reference) state, i.e., similar pressure,
elevation, temperature and chemical composition.’’ It should be emphasized that there
are alternative definitions of soil water potential using concepts of chemical potential or
specific free energy of the chemical species water (which is different from the soil
solution termed ‘soil water’).
The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix under isothermal
conditions can be conveniently grouped as:
 matric forces resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid and
gaseous phases;
 osmotic forces owing to differences in chemical composition of soil solution; and
 Body forces induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force fields.

i. Matric forces
Matric forces consist of a group of forces such as adsorptive forces and capillary forces.
The primary mechanisms for these effects include:
 capillarity caused by liquid–gas interfaces forming and interacting within the
irregular soil-pore geometry;
 adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces due to short-range London–van der
Waals forces and extension of these effects by cohesion through hydrogen bonds
formed in the liquid; and
 ion hydration and water participating in diffuse double layers (particularly near
clay surfaces)

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ii. Osmotic forces:

Soil water contains certain amount of dissolved salts and other solutes and is termed as
soil solution. Presence of solutes in soil water decreases the potential energy of water in
the soil. The potential energy of water in the solution is lower than the reference state
(pure water). When a solution is separated by a semi-permeable membrane from pure
water or form a solution of lower concentration, water tends to diffuse or osmose into the
concentrated solution through the membrane.

Excess gas
pressure

Salt Pure water

solution

Semi-permeable
membrane

Fig. 2.6: Illustration of the concept of osmotic pressure

The osmotic pressure can be illustrated by Fig. 2.6. A container, divided in to parts by
semi-permeable membrane, hold salt solution at one side of the membrane and pure water
at the other side. Both sides are at atmospheric pressure. Because the concentration of
water molecules is higher in the pure water than in the solution, more water molecules
will move in the direction of the solution than in the other direction. As the result, the
surface of the soil solution will rise slowly and that of the pure water will drop. One can
prevent this flow of water across the membrane and maintain static equilibrium by
exerting on the salt solution a gas pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure. The excess
gas pressure needed to maintain equilibrium is equal to the osmotic pressure,, of the
solution. Then the osmotic potential can be written as:
1
O   
w
Because membranes do not generally separate soil zones, the osmotic potential has little
effect on the mass movement of water in soil. Its major effect is on the uptake of water by

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plant root cells that are isolated from the soil solution by their semi-permeable cell
membranes.
iii. Gravitational force
Every body on the earth’s surface is attracted toward the earth’s centre by a gravitational
force equal to the weight of the body, that weight being the product of mass of the body
and the gravitational acceleration. To raise a body against this attraction, work must be
expended, and this work is stored by the raised body in the form of gravitational
potential energy. The amount of this energy depends on the body’s position in the
gravitational force field.
As long as the gravity is lesser in magnitude than the matric and osmotic suctions
(suction or tension is used to indicate the negative force) together, there is no downward
movement of water. When the soil gets wet after irrigation or rain, the combined matric
and osmotic suctions decrease greatly and become lower in magnitude than the gravity.
Consequently, there is a downward movement of water.
2.3.2. Soil water potential concept
The effect of a force on soil water may conveniently be described by potential energy of
soil water in a particular force field. The forces governing soil-water flow can be
described by the energy concept. According to this principle, water moves from points
with higher energy status to points with lower energy status. The energy status of water is
simply called 'water potential'. The relationship between the mechanical- force concept
and the energy-water-potential concept is best illustrated for a situation in which the
distance between two points approximates zero. The forces acting on a mass of water in
any particular direction are then defined as
Fs 
 (2.15)
m s
Where
Fs = total of forces (N)
m = mass of water (kg)
s = distance between points (m)
 = water potential on mass base (J/kg)

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The negative sign (eq. 2.15) shows that the force works in the direction of decreasing
water potential.
The total soil water potential is the sum of potentials resulting from different force fields.
It may be defined as the amount of work done by a unit quantity of water to transport
reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool of pure water at
a specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the point of soil water under
consideration. The total soil water potential can be written as:
t m O  g (2.16)

t =total potential
m =matric potential
O =osmotic potential
g =gravitational potential
In soil physics, water potential can be expressed as energy on a mass basis ( m ), on a
volume basis (v) or on a weight basis (w). As an example, let us take the gravitational
potential, g, with the water-table as reference level. The definition of potential says that
the mechanical work required to raise a mass of water (m = wV) from the water-table to
a height z is equal to mgz or wVgz. Thus the gravitational potential on mass basis (m),
on volume basis (v) or, on weight basis (w) will be
 wV g z
g   gz ( J / kg ) Gravitational potential on mass basis
w V
 wV g z
g   gz ( Pa  pressure) Gravitational potential on volume basis
V

 wV g z
g   z (m  height or in water column)
 w Vg
In hydrology, one prefers to use the potential on a weight basis, and potentials are
referred to as 'heads'. In the following, we shall restrict ourselves to water potentials
based on weight. In analogy to Eq. 2.16, we can write
ht  hm  hO  hg (2.17)

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With the potentials now called 'heads' and the subscripts having the same meaning as in
Eq. 2.16
 The matric head (hm) in unsaturated soil is negative, because work is needed to
withdraw water against the soil-matric forces. At the groundwater level,
atmospheric pressure exists and therefore h, = 0;
 Changes in total water head in the soil may also be caused by changes in the
pressure of the air adjacent to it. In natural soils, however, such changes are fairly
exceptional, so we can assume that he, = 0;
In soil-water studies, we can very often neglect the influence of the osmotic head.
Taking h0 = 0, hg = z and denoting ht as H, we can also write
H = hm + z (2.18)
H = hydraulic head (m)
z = elevation head or gravitational head (m)
According to Equation 2.15, differences in head determine the direction and the
H
magnitude of soil-water flow. When the soil water is in equilibrium,   0 and there
z
is no flow.
2.4. Water extraction by plant (Soil Moisture and Plant Growth)

About 60 – 95% of a physiologically active plant is water. Water is required for such
plant processes as:
 Photosynthesis,
 Transport of minerals and photosynthesis,
 Structural support,
 Growth and
 transpiration
The plant uses water primarily for transpiration. The process of transpiration, defined as
water loss through evaporation of living plants via openings of stomata, usually accounts
for about 99% of the water used by the plants. Transpiration involves the conversion of
water from the liquid to vapor phase within the leaf and its support through stomata of the
leaf into the atmosphere. It occurs when the vapour pressure within the leaf exceeds that
of the surrounding air and stomata are open to allow carbon dioxide into the plant for

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photosynthesis.
The plant extracts water from the soil to replenish water lost by transpiration. Water
moves through the soil into the roots, up the xylem and into the leaves due to a water
potential gradient between the leaf and the soil. The rate of water flow is given by
 leaf  soil
Q 
rplant  rsoil

 leaf   T  O
Where
Q =rate of flow
 leaf = total water potential in the leaf

 soil = total water potential in the soil

T = turgor pressure within the leaf

O =osmotic pressure within the plant

rplant =resistance to water movement into the roots, up the xylem, and into the leaf;

rsoil =resistance to water movement in the soil

The term rsoil can also be written as:

1
rsoil 
K
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Absorption of water occurs mainly through the roots. As the plant removes water from
the soil, the water content of soil decreases and  soil decreases (becomes more negative).

At the same time the conductivity of the soil decreases (hence rsoil increases). Decreasing

 soil and increasing rsoil tends to decrease water flow into the plant.
Water moves in the soil toward a single root along a gradient of decreasing water
potential. If water is to enter the root, the root should be in contact with the soil and at a
lower water potential.

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Fig. 2.7: Soil water extraction pattern

Plants have normally a higher concentration of roots in the upper part of the root zone. In
a normal soil with good aeration and without restrictive layers, a greater portion of roots
of most plants remains within 45 to 60 cm surface soil layers and most the water needs of
plants are met from this zone. As the available water from this zone decreases, plants
extract more water from lower depths. About 40% of the water need is met from the first
25% of the root zone (Fig. 2.7). When the water content of upper soil layers reaches the
wilting point, all the water need of plants are essentially met from lower layers.
In uniform soil profile with moist soil, plants usually extract 40, 30, 20 and 10 percent of
the water needed from respective quarters of the root zone (Fig. 2.7). The extraction
pattern is normally positively correlated with the root distribution pattern.

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