Mobile App Development

Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangotri, Mysore-570006
M.Sc. Computer Science

First Semester
MOBILE APP DEVELOPMENT
COURSE – ELMCS-01-Interdisciplinary Elective

CREDIT PAGE
Programme Name: MSc-Computer Science Year/Semester: I Semester Block No:1-2
Course Name: Mobile APP Development Credit: 2 Unit No: 1-8
Course Design Expert Committee

Dr. Vidyashankar S. Chairman
Vice Chancellor,
Karnataka State Open University,
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570006.
Dr. Ashok Kamble Member

Dean (Academic),
Mukthagangotri, Mysuru-570 006.
Editorial Committee
Dr. D M Mahesha MCA.,PhD Chairman
BOS Chairman,
Assistant Professor & Programme co-ordinator(PG)
DoS&R in Computer Science,
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru-570 006.
Smt, Suneetha MSc.,(PhD) Member Convener

Dept Chairperson & Programme co-ordinator (UG)
Dr Bhavya D.N., MTech., PhD Member

Assistant Professor & Programme co-ordinator(UG)
Dr. Ashoka S B., MSc.PhD Member

External Subject Expert,
Assistant Professor,
Maharani’s Cluster University, palace Road Bangalore-01
Course Writer Course Editor

Dr. D M Mahesha. MCA.,PhD. Smt. Suneetha MSc.,(PhD)
Assistant Professor Chairperson and Asst. Professor
DoS&R in Computer Science, Dos in Computer Science
Karnataka State Open University, Mysuru-06
Muktha Gangothri, Mysuru -06
Dr. Vinaykumar V Dr. Sharthkumar Y.H., MSc.PhD
Teaching Faculty Professor IS
UOM Mysore-06 MIT Belawadi Srirangapatna tq
Mandya District -571477
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Registrar,
Mukthagantoghri, Mysore 570 006.
Developed by the Department of Studies and Research in Computer Science, under

the guidance of Dean (Academic), KSOU, Mysuru.
Karnataka State Open University, February-2022.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Karnataka State Open University.
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from the University’s Office at Mukthagangotri, Mysore – 570 006.
Printed and Published on behalf of Karnataka State Open University, Mysore-570 006 by
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING PAGE NO.

Introduction to mobile computing: applications, a simplified 1-21
UNIT- 1 reference model, wireless transmission:
Frequencies of radio transmission, signals, antennas, signal

22-53
UNIT-2 propagation, multiplexing, modulation, spread spectrum, cellular
system.
Media access control: motivation for a specialized MAC, SDMA, 54-68

UNIT-3
FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, AND comparisons.
GSM, DECT, wireless LAN: infrared vs. Radio transmission,
69-97
infrastructure and ad-hoc networks, IEEE 802.11, hperlan,
UNIT-4
bluetooth.
BLOCK 1I MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile network layer: mobile ip, dynamic host configuration 98-108
UNIT-5
protocol
Ad-hoc networks. Mobile transport layer: traditional TCP, 109-128
UNIT-6
classical TCP improvements,
UNIT-7 TCP over 2.5/3g wireless networks. File systems, world wide web 129-144
UNIT-8 Wireless application protocol (WAP) and WAP 2.0. 145-157
Preface
Design of mobile computing and its applications is very much essential to build efficiently
using computers. Selection of applications and its reference model of critical importance to
design efficient app. In other words, good app design must go hand in hand with appropriate
design for efficient program design to solve a problem irrespective of the discipline or
application.
This material is prepared to give an overview of the fundamentals of basic applications and
their importance in solving problems. The concept of various mobile computing applications
is dealt independently develop an application. The whole material is organized into two
modules each with four units. Each unit lists the objectives of study along with the relevant
questions and suggested reading to better understand the concepts.
Block-1 introduces the mobile computing applications and their technique and the
development of efficient applications for solving problems to design mobile app. It also gives
an overview of the classification of mobile computing reference model, types of wireless
transmission and their representation followed by a frequencies of radio transmission as well
as antennas and cellular system. Implementation of media access control and motivation for a
specialized MAC, SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA and its comparisons, GSM, DECT and
wireless LAN are also discussed. Infrastructure and Ad-hoc networks IEEE302.11,
HEPERLAN, the concept of BLUETOOTH and its applications are also demonstrated.
Block-2 introduces the mobile computing Network Layer and their different layers and the
mobile IP as well as dynamic host configuration protocol are also discussed. It also ad-hoc
networks, mobile transport layer, types of TCP and their networks followed by a file system
and world wide web. Implementation of wireless application protocol(WAP) AND WAP 2.0
UNIT – 1
MOBILE APP DEVELOPMENT
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A simplified reference model
1.3 Wireless transmission
1.4 Summary
1.5 Keywords
1.6 Questions for self-study
1.7 Reference
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 Define mobile computing

 A simplified reference model
 Wireless transmission
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mobile app development is the creation of software intended to run on mobile devices and
optimized to take advantage of those products' unique features and hardware.
 The types of mobile apps that developers create include native apps, hybrid apps and
HTML5 apps.
 The mobile app development business is set to grow to nearly $600 billion in 2020.
Due to the exploding popularity of smartphones and tablets, mobile application development
is an increasingly popular medium of software creation. In fact, mobile apps have become an
essential element of most businesses, and revenues are projected to hit nearly $600 billion in
2020. This prolific and growing industry has attracted businesses from every corner of the
marketplace as consumers detach themselves from desktop computing and turn to their
mobile devices.
The creation of mobile applications has much of its roots in traditional software development.
The end result, however, is software intended to utilize the unique features and hardware of
mobile devices. Modern smartphones are equipped with Bluetooth, NFC, gyroscopic sensors,
GPS and cameras. They can be used for virtual or augmented reality, barcode scanning, and
more. Mobile apps should utilize the full range of smartphone features, which is easier said
than done.
With desktop PC software development, programmers must create an application that can
operate on a minimum set of hardware. The same goes for mobile applications, though the
hardware variances in this instance are much more minimal. At the same time, the hardware
in smartphones and tablets doesn't quite match that in laptops and desktop computers, which
means mobile apps must be designed to show optimal performance
For example, a gaming app would be limited in its graphical elements because of the less
powerful graphics processors in mobile devices. With that said, cloud computing is making it
easier than ever to accomplish mobile gaming. Popular games such as Fortnight, Hearthstone
and PUBG connect players across computers, phones and even consoles.
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 Mobile app development considerations
Solving the issue of performance on any given device ultimately depends on developing an
app natively on that device. This means designing the code specifically for the hardware on a
particular device. In the instance of iOS devices, this proves quite easy, as mobile developers
only need versions of the app for the iPhone and iPad to achieve universal usability. For
Android devices, however, each smartphone or tablet runs on different hardware and varying
versions of the operating system.
 Types of mobile apps and programming languages
Like desktop software, mobile apps are designed using a wide range of programming
languages and frameworks. While the most popular operating systems, iOS and Android,
have done an excellent job of standardizing the types of mobile app development available to
programmers, apps can still vary. Here are some mobile app types:
 Native apps
These are apps created for a specific platform (iOS or Android) using the software
development tools and languages supported by those operating systems. iOS uses Xcode and
Objective-C, whereas Android uses Eclipse and Java. Developers often prefer native apps
because of their ability to utilize a device's full potential. With smart home devices becoming
more common, developers are creating unique applications that integrate things like
wearables, Internet of Things sensors and smart screens for personalized experiences. Of
course, development for each platform is a costly and time-consuming process that doesn't
work for all businesses.
 HTML5 apps
Based on the near-universal standards of web technologies – HTML5, JavaScript and CSS –
this type of mobile app takes a write-once-run-anywhere approach to mobile development.
Apps developed in this framework are compatible with many platforms and require only
minimal changes to ensure complete functionality on each operating system. HTML5 apps
can still send desktop notifications and trigger interactions through email and other avenues.
Don't discount web apps' usability, but keep in mind that consumers are more likely to use a
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native app. A study from Oracle found that millennials spend 90% of their mobile time in
apps and 10% in web browsers.
 Hybrid apps
These apps entail the creation of a container developed in the native system that makes it
possible to embed an HTML5 app within it. This allows apps to make use of the diverse and
unique elements of each native system. Before creating your own branded app, consider
utilizing existing apps for greater impact. For example, by using mobile-focused marketing
on services such as help, Facebook and Google Maps, you can drive traffic to both your
website and brick-and-mortar location.
 Software development kits
Mobile app development requires access to software development kits (SDKs) that provide a
simulated mobile environment for programmers to design and test code. However, creating
an app does not require full use of these kits. For example, developers can create mobile
games using Unity and then use the Android SDK to ensure its deliverability on mobile
devices. Developing apps for iOS requires a paid iOS developer license, whereas the Android
SDK is freely available to users. iOS and Android have similar mobile market shares (47%
and 52% respectively), but developing for Apple is somewhat easier in that you don't need to
worry about a wide range of devices from different manufacturers. Whichever operating
system you choose, however, there are barriers to entry.
 Mobile app development requirements
Mobile app development is changing constantly. Typically, every six months or so, a new
version of an operating system rolls out with unique features that mobile apps can utilize.
Developing for a specific version of the operating system, or even for a native operating
system, usually requires developers to try multiple solutions to find the one that suits their
development needs.
Failure to keep up with development updates could cause catastrophic cyber security issues.
Consider the costs of developing an app, which can range from $5,000 to $15,000 to start,
plus the costs for continued development and maintenance. If Android or iOS releases a new
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OS update, you can be delisted quickly for being incompatible. Developing an app is only
worthwhile if it's a great app. A poor user experience will drive customers away. Be mindful
of the user experience and realistic about your budget.
 App development process
Regardless of the type of project you want to bring to life, the app development process has
six key steps. Breaking the project down into these simple steps will help you develop your
app quickly and efficiently.
1. Idea: When brainstorming app ideas, put some research into answering a few
questions about it. What problem does this app solve? Who is the target audience?
Why are these features important? Do your competitors have similar apps.
2. Design: Next you'll design a user interface (UI) and to navigate the user through the
app and make it easy to follow.
3. Development: During this stage you'll write the code for your app, develop the code
and start preliminary testing.
4. Testing: By testing your app, you'll determine its quality, any malfunctions and what
you can improve.
5. Launch: Once your app is bug-free and ready to go, you can publish it on
marketplaces like the Apple App Store and Google Play.
6. Marketing: Create a marketing strategy to get users to download your app and give
you feedback on how to improve user engagement.
 Best platforms for building a mobile app
Just a few short years ago, if you wanted to develop an app, you had to either know how to
code or pay someone to develop the app for you. Fortunately, low-code and no-code apps and
services have appeared over the past several years to help you bring your vision to fruition.
Here are five platforms to help you build a mobile app:
1. Appery.io: Appery is a mobile app builder that entirely runs in the cloud, meaning
there is no software to install or download. The platform offers a visual editor where
you can drag and drop new components into your app and auto-generates code for
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these components.
2. Mobile Roadie: For brands looking to build a very visual app, Mobile Roadie is a
platform that works with various media, including RSS feeds, Twitter and Google
News. The builder allows you to send out push notifications and pulls data from a
variety of sources, such as XML, JSON, PHP, CSV and HTML.
3. GoodBarber: If you want to control every aspect of your app but don't have much
code-writing experience, GoodBarber is a great platform for you. You can build an
app for either an iPhone or Android device and even use the app to replace your
current website, as the apps can be optimized for desktop and tablets.
4. Appy Pie: As a cloud-based DIY app builder, Appy Pie allows you to create and
publish an app for any platform without any programming skills. Since the platform is
based in the cloud, you can drag and drop all the elements online. Once your HTML5
app is complete, you can send it to be used on iOS, Android, Windows and even
Progressive platforms.
5. AppMachine: Another easy-to-use platform with a drag-and-drop

interface, AppMachine allows you to easily build an app while adding your own
unique style to it. You can choose your own fonts, pictures, colors, and paths and be
in complete control of your layout. It also offers in-service app testing abilities, so you
can see how it'll work on computers and mobile devices and note what changes need
to be made.
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1.2 A SIMPLIFIED REFERENCE MODEL
The above figure shows a personal digital assistant (PDA) which provides an example for a
wireless and portable device. This Personal digital assistant communicates with a base
station in the middle of the picture. The base station consists of a radio transceiver (receiver
and sender) and an interworking unit connecting the wireless link with the fixed link. The
communication partner of the Personal Digital Assistant, a conventional computer, is shown
on the right hand side. Under earth each network element (such as PDA, interworking unit,
computer), the figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the
reference model.
 End-systems
such as PDA and computer in the example, need a full protocol stack comprising the
application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other using the services of the lower
layer.
 Intermediate systems
such as interworking unit; do not necessarily need all of the layers. Above figure shows the
network, data link and physical layers. As (according to the reference model) only entities at
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the same level communicate with each other (i.e. transport with transport, network with
network).
Influence of mobile communication to the layer model
Layers Key points
Application layer o service location

o new applications, multimedia
o adaptive applications
Transport layer o congestion and flow control

o quality of service
Network layer o addressing, routing, device location

o hand-over
Data link layer o authentication

o media access
o multiplexing
o media access control
Physical layer o encryption

o modulation
o interference
o attenuation
o frequency
 Physical layer
This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for the conversion of a
stream of bits into signals that are transmitted on the sender side. The physical layer of the
receiver transforms the signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the
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physical layer is responsible for generation of the carrier frequency, frequency selection,
signal detection (although heavy interference may disturb the signal), modulation of data into
a carrier frequency and encryption.
 Data link layer
The main tasks of the data link layer include accessing the medium, multiplexing of different
data streams, correction of transmission errors and synchronization (i.e. detection of a data
frame). In short, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point to point connection
between two devices or a point to multipoint connection between one sender and several
receivers.
 Network layer
The third layer which is called network layer is responsible for routing packets through
network or establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate
systems. Some topics are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between
different networks. The several solutions for the network layer protocol of the internet (the
Internet Protocol IP).
 Transport layer
Transport layer is used in the reference model to establish an end to end connection. Topics
like quality of service, flow and congestion control are relevant, especially if the transport
protocols known from the internet, TCP and UDP, are to be used over a wireless link.
 Application layer
The applications (complemented by additional layers that can support applications) are
situated on top of all transmission oriented layers. Some context on this layer are service
location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications that can handle the
variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the World Wide Web using a
portable device. Most demanding applications are video (high data rate) and interactive
gaming (low jitter, low latency).
1.3 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
The term wireless communication was introduced in the 19th century and wireless
communication technology has developed over the subsequent years. It is one of the most
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important mediums of transmission of information from one device to another devices. In this
technology, the information can be transmitted through the air without requiring any cable or
wires or other electronic conductors, by using electromagnetic waves like IR, RF, satellite,
etc. In the present day, wireless communication technology refers to a variety of wireless
communication devices and technologies ranging from smartphones to computers, tabs,
laptops, Bluetooth Technology, printers. This article gives an overview of wireless
communication and types of wireless communication.
 Introduction to Types of Wireless Communication
In the present days, the wireless communication system has become an essential part of
various types of wireless communication devices, that permits the user to communicate even
from remote operated areas. There are different types of wireless communication devices like
mobiles. Cordless telephones, Zigbee wireless technology, GPS, Wi-Fi, satellite television,
and wireless computer parts. Current wireless phones include 3 and 4G networks, Bluetooth,
and Wi-Fi technologies.
Types of Wireless Communication

 History
The history of wireless communication is discussed below.
o The first telegraph was invented (1600 – 1833)
o The invention of the radio from the telegraph (1867-1896)
o The birth of radio (1897 – 898)
o Transoceanic Communication (1901 –1909)
o Voice over Radio and the First Television Transmissions (1914 – 1940)
o Commercial Television and the Birth of Mobile Telephony (1946 – 1976)
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o Cellular Mobile Telephony and Steps towards Wireless Internet (1979 – 1994)
o The Wireless Data Era (1997 – 2009)
o PCS (1995-2008)
 Wireless Communication.
We know that communication using wires can do most of the tasks like wireless
communication, so what is the main use of wireless communication? The main advantage of
wireless communication is mobility. This kind of communication provides flexibility and
very easy to use excepting mobility. For instance, mobile telephony can be implemented
anytime and anyplace through significantly high throughput performance.
One more point is its infrastructure because, for the wired communication systems, the fitting
of infrastructure is a costly & time taking task whereas the installation of wireless
communication infrastructure is very simple and less cost. From the above information,
finally, we can conclude that in remote areas as well as emergency situations, the wired
communication setup is not easy but wireless communication is a possible choice. There are
many reasons to employ wireless communication like liberty from wires, global coverage,
flexibility & stay connected.
 Types of Wireless Communication

At present, the usage of mobiles has been increased for different requirements like the
internet, talking, multimedia, gaming, photos, video capturing, etc. All these services are
available on mobile. Using wireless communication services, we can transfer data, voice,
images, videos, and many more.
The different services provided by the wireless communication system is a cellular telephone,
Radio¸ paging, TV, video conferencing, etc use different communication services, there are
different wireless communications systems are developed based on the application. Some of
them are discussed below. A wireless Communication system is classified into Simplex, Half
Duplex & Full Duplex. The simple wireless communication system is one-way
communication. In this type, the communication can be done in one direction only. The best
example is the radio broadcast system.
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The half Duplex communication system is two-way communication, however, it is not
simultaneous. The best example of this type of communication is walkie – talkie.
The full Duplex communication system is also two-way communication & it is simultaneous.
The best example of this communication system is the mobile phone. In wireless
communication, the devices which are used for communication may change from one service
to others because these are available in different shape, size & data throughput. The region
enclosed through this type of communication system is an essential factor. Here, some of the
most essential wireless communication systems are discussed like IR wireless
communication, satellite communication, broadcast radio, Microwave radio, Bluetooth,
ZigBee, etc.
 Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is one type of self-contained wireless communication technology; it
is widely spread all over the world to allow users to stay connected almost anywhere on the
earth. When the signal (a beam of modulated microwave) is sent near the satellite then, the
satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the antenna receiver which is located on the
surface of the earth. Satellite communication contains two main components like the space
segment and the ground segment. The ground segment consists of fixed or mobile
transmission, reception, and ancillary equipment and the space segment, which mainly is the
satellite itself. Please refer to this link to know more about the Satellite Communication
System
Satellite Communication
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 Infrared Communication
Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a device or system through IR
radiation. IR is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer than that of red light. It
is used for security control, TV remote control, and short-range communications. In the
electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiation lies between microwaves and visible light. So, they
can be used as a source of communication.
Infrared Communication
For successful infrared communication, a photo LED transmitter and a photodiode receptor
are required. The LED transmitter transmits the IR signal in the form of nonvisible light, that
is captured and saved by the photoreceptor. So the information between the source and the
target is transferred in this way. The source and destination can be mobile phones, TVs,
security systems, laptops, etc support wireless communication.
 Broadcast Radio
The first wireless communication technology is open radio communication to seek out
widespread use, and it still serves a purpose nowadays. Handy multichannel radios permit a
user to speak over short distances, whereas citizen’s band and maritime radios offer
communication services for sailors. Ham radio enthusiasts share data and function emergency
communication aids throughout disasters with their powerful broadcasting gear, and can even
communicate digital information over the radio frequency spectrum.
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Broadcast Radio
Mostly an audio broadcasting service, radio broadcasts sound through the air as radio waves.
The radio uses a transmitter that is used to transmit the data in the form of radio waves to a
receiving antenna(Different Types of Antennas). To broadcast common programming,
stations are associated with the radio N/W’s. The broadcast happens either in simulcast or
syndication or both. Radio broadcasting may be done via cable FM, the net, and satellites. A
broadcast sends information over long distances at up to two megabits/Sec (AM/FM Radio).
Radio waves are electromagnetic signals, that are transmitted by an antenna. These waves
have completely different frequency segments, and you will be ready to obtain an audio
signal by changing into a frequency segment.
Radio Communication
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For example, you can take a radio station. When the RJ says you are listening to 92.7 BIG
FM, what he really means is that signals are being broadcasted at a frequency of
92.7megahertz, which successively means the transmitter at the station is periodic at a
frequency of 92.700,000 cycles/second.When you would like to listen to 92.7 BIG FM, all
you have to do is tune the radio to just accept that specific frequency and you will receive
perfect audio reception.
 Microwave Communication
Microwave wireless communication is an effective type of communication, mainly this
transmission uses radio waves, and the wavelengths of radio waves are measured in
centimetres. In this communication, the data or information can be transfers using two
methods. One is the satellite method and another one is a terrestrial method.
Microwave Communication
Wherein satellite method, the data can be transmitted through a satellite, that orbit 22,300
miles above the earth. Stations on the earth send and receive data signals from the satellite
with a frequency ranging from 11GHz-14GHz and with a transmission speed of 1Mbps to
10Mbps.In the terrestrial method, in which two microwave towers with a clear line of sight
between them are used, ensuring no obstacles to disrupt the line of sight. So it is used often
for the purpose of privacy. The frequency range of the terrestrial system is typically 4GHz-
6GHz and with a transmission speed is usually 1Mbps to 10Mbps. The main disadvantage of
microwave signals is, they can be affected by bad weather, especially rain.
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 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a low power wireless communication, that is used by various electronic devices like
smartphones, laptops, etc. In this setup, a router works as a communication hub wirelessly.
These networks allow users to connect only within close proximity to a router. Wi-Fi is very
common in networking applications which affords portability wirelessly. These networks
need to be protected with passwords for the purpose of security, otherwise, it will access by
others
Wi-Fi Communication
 Mobile Communication Systems
The advancement of mobile networks is enumerated by generations. Many users
communicate across a single frequency band through mobile phones. Cellular and cordless
phones are two examples of devices that make use of wireless signals. Typically, cell phones
have a larger range of networks to provide coverage. But, Cordless phones have a limited
range. Similar to GPS devices, some phones make use of signals from satellites to
communicate.
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 Bluetooth Technology
The main function of Bluetooth technology is that permits you to connect various electronic
devices wirelessly to a system for the transferring of data. Cell phones are connected to
hands-free earphones, mouse, wireless keyboard. By using the Bluetooth device, the
information from one device to another device. This technology has various functions and it
is used commonly in the wireless communication market.
Bluetooth Wireless Communication Technology

 Global Positioning System (GPS)
In satellite communication, GPS or global positioning system is a subcategory. This kind of
system is used to help by providing different wireless services such as speed, location,
navigation, positioning using satellites, and GPS receiver.
 Paging
A paging system allows one-way communication to a huge audience. Apart from the
broadcast source, this kind of paging system allows the speaker to give clear, amplified
commands throughout a capacity. When the employee of paging communicates through a
telephone then the message will be broadcasted throughout the speakers of the system. After
that, messages can also be recorded.
There are many benefits by using this type of communication system like the following.
 E-mails are frequently ignored otherwise recorded through spam blockers.
 Mass texts mostly lie on a telephone network.
 This system is wired into the infrastructure of the building that allows consistent mass
communication.
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 Systems of speakers make sure that a message converses with each region of a building
concurrently. It’s also achievable to transmit pages to exact building “zones” if required.
 Another advantage of this paging system is that no dedicated broadcast device is
necessary. An employee can just lift the phone, choose the paging system & broadcast the
whole building.
 Radar
Radar is an electromagnetic sensor or detection system used to track, locate, detect & and
identify objects of different types at significant distances. The operation of this detection
system can be done by sending electromagnetic energy in the direction of objects, usually
called targets, which observes the echoes. Here the targets may be ships, astronomical bodies,
aircraft, spacecraft, automotive vehicles, insects, etc.
 Radio Frequency Identification

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is one kind of wireless communication that uses
electrostatic coupling otherwise electromagnetic in the RF portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum to exclusively identify a person, object & animal. It is used in manufacturing,
healthcare, shipping, home use, retail sales, inventory management, etc.RFID & barcode
technology is used in related methods to track inventory, however, three significant
differences will make everyone a better choice in certain circumstances. In real-time, the data
which is stored within the RFID tag can be updated. Indifference, the data in the bar code is
read-only & cannot be altered. RFID tags need a power source whereas the bar codes simply
need the technology to read the bar code to include a power source.
 Advantages
As compared with wired systems, wireless communication systems have several benefits.
The advantages of wireless communication include the following.
 Price
The price of fixing cables, wires & other communications can be reduced within wireless
communication. Therefore, the total cost of the system can be reduced as evaluated with
wired communication. Fixing a wired network within a building, digging up the soil to place
the cables to run those wires across the roads is a very hard, expensive, and time taking task.
In old constructions, making holes to fix the cables is not a good idea because it demolishes
the integrity as well as the significance of the building. In addition, in older constructions
with no committed shape for communication, Wi-Fi otherwise WLAN is the single option.
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 Mobility
As previously mentioned, mobility is the major benefit of this communication system. It
gives the liberty to go around when it is still connected to the system.
 Simple Installation
The system & fitting of equipment in wireless communication network & communications is
extremely simple because we shouldn’t be anxious regarding the irritate of cables. In
addition, the time necessary to connect a wireless system very less as compared with a full
cable-based network.
 Consistency
In wireless communication, there is no involvement of wires and cables so communication
failure is not happened because of the harm of these cables which may be caused based on
the ecological conditions, normal reduction of metallic conductors, and splice of cable.
 Tragedy Recovery
When fire accidents, disasters, or floods occur, then the loss of communication in the system
can be negligible.
 Any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a high speed
 Maintenance and installation is less cost for these networks.
 The internet can be accessed from anywhere wirelessly
 It is very helpful for workers, doctors working in remote areas as they can be in touch with
medical centres.
 Disadvantages
Wireless communication has some drawbacks as compared with wired communication.
The disadvantages of wireless communication include health, security, and interference.
 Interference
In a wireless communication system, the signals can be transmitted by using open space like
the medium. So, there is a chance of interfacing the radio signals from one network to other
networks like Bluetooth and WLAN. These technologies utilize the 2.4GHz frequency to
communicate when they are active as well as; there is a chance of intrusion.
 Safety
Security is the main concern in the wireless communication system because when the signals
are broadcasted within open space, then there is a chance of interrupting the signals & copy
sensitive data.
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 Health Concerns
Exposure to any kind of radiation continuously can cause health issues. Although, the RF
energy range can cause injure are not exactly recognized, it is informed to keep away from
RF radiation to the most.
 An unauthorized person can easily capture the wireless signals which spread through the
air.
 It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the information cannot be
misused by unauthorized users
Generation of Wireless Communication
The different generations of wireless communication include the following.
 1st Generation (1G)
 2nd Generation (2G)
 3rd Generation (3G)
 4th Generation (4G)
 5th Generation (5G)
 Applications of Wireless Communication

Applications of wireless communication involve security systems, television remote control,
Wi-Fi, Cell phones, wireless power transfer, computer interface devices, and various
Wireless Communication Based Projects, Wireless communication-based projects mainly
include different types of wireless communication technologies like Bluetooth, GPS, GSM,
RFID, and Zigbee projects.
Wireless Communication Based Projects
20
1.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about introduction of mobile computing and its role of
applications. The a well simplified reference model briefly explained in detail, therefore
finally the different and highly advanced wireless transmission explained.
1.5 KEYWORDS
Interface devices
Wireless
Tragedy
Radar
1.6 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. What is mobile computing and its application? Explain
2. write a neat diagram and explain a simplified mobile reference model.
3. Briefly explain wireless communication in mobile computing.
4. what are the advantages and disadvantages of mobile computing? Explain
5. Differentiate between Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
6. Explain Microwave Communication.
1.7 REFERENCES
1. Raj Kamal, Mobile Computing

2. Asoke K. Talukder, Roopa R. Yavagal, Mobile Computing
3. Mazliza Othman,Principles of Mobile Computing and Communications
4. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall, Fundamentals of Mobile Computing
5. Ivan Stojmenovic,Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computer
6. David Taniar, Mobile Computing Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications
21
UNIT – 2
RADIO TRANSMISSION
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 frequencies of radio transmission
2.3 signals
2.4 Antennas
2.5 Signal Propagation
2.6 Multiplexing
2.7 Modulation
2.8 Spread spectrum
2.9 Cellular system
2.10 Summary
2.11 Keywords
2.13 Reference
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define radio transmission

 Signal Propagation
 Spread spectrum
 Cellular system
22
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the electromagnetic spectrum, all omnidirectional waves in the frequencies 3KHz to 1GHz
are called radio waves. They are widely used for communications since they are easy to
generate, can travel long distances and can penetrate buildings. Radio waves have
omnidirectional antennas, i.e. antennas that can send signals in all directions.
The properties of radios wave vary according to their frequencies. However, radio waves at
all frequencies are prone to interference from electrical equipment like motors etc.
 Low and Medium Frequency Radio Waves
Low and medium frequency radio waves can pass through obstacles and have ground
propagation. However, the power diminishes rapidly depending upon the distance from the
source. This attenuation in power is called the path loss. AM radio uses LF and MF bands.
 High Frequency Radio Waves
High frequency radio waves travel in straight lines and have sky propagation. However, they
are affected by interferences and are affected by rains. The military communicates in the HF
and VHF bands. They are also used for long distance broadcasting and FM radio.
 Applications
Some of the areas of applications of radio waves are −
 Broadcasting and multicasting

 Fixed and mobile radio communications
 AM and FM radio
 Television
 Marine communication
 Wireless computer networks
 Cordless phones
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2.2 FREQUENCIES OF RADIO TRANSMISSION
Different radio signals have different frequencies, which is why it is possible to tune in just
one transmission. The tuning dial on a radio or the channel selector on a television changes
the frequency that the device will pick up. Other devices, such as a cellular phone, do not
have a tuning knob, but they are pre-tuned at the factory to pick up just one frequency or just
a few frequencies. This is why your phone is able to pick up just the signal of a cellular
tower, without being overwhelmed by the radio transmissions being sent on millions of other
frequencies.
Different kinds of radio transmissions have different frequencies. For example, radio stations
use frequencies of 540 - 1700 kHz for AM signals and 88 - 108 MHz for FM signals. A Hertz
(abbreviated Hz) means one cycle per second. So an AM radio station with a frequency of
540 kHz is sending out radio transmissions that are vibrating at 540,000 times per second. An
FM station with a frequency of 88 would be sending out transmissions that are vibrating
88,000,000 times per second. Most cellular phones use frequencies of either 800 or 1900
MHz Computers with a Wi-Fi connection use either 2.4 or 5 GHz. GHz stands for
"Gigahertz" and means one billion cycles per second. So your Wi-Fi connection is sending
out radio transmissions vibrating billions of times per second.
What is modulation?
24
Of course, just sending out radio waves doesn't accomplish anything. A radio transmission
needs to have some kind of purpose, and that purpose is almost always sending some kind of
information. In the case of a radio or TV station, the information is contained in the sound or
picture. For a cellular phone, the information is the sound of the telephone call. For a
computer connected to Wi-Fi, the information is the data that you are sending. The process of
adding this information to the radio wave is called modulation. The process of getting the
information after the signal is received is called demodulation or detection.
Every radio receiver contains a part called the detector which performs the function of
extracting the information from the radio signal. The picture shown here is one of the earliest
types of detector, known as the "cat's whisker." It is made up of a thin piece of wire which
contacts a piece of mineral (usually galena). When a radio signal goes in, this simple detector
is able to remove the sound that has been modulated onto the radio wave. Most modern radio
receivers use a part called a diode, which is the modern equivalent of the cat's whisker.
2.3 SIGNALS
Radio signals are used for a huge variety of tasks. Radio signals are used to carry radio
broadcasts, they are used to send signals to astronauts, establish wi-fi connections, for cellular
communications and many, many more applications. Radio signals are essential to enable
today's technology to function.
At the core of radio technology are the radio signals themselves. These radio waves have a
variety of properties that we will investigate:
 About radio waves
Radio signals or radio waves are a form of electromagnetic wave. Although this may sound
complicated, it is possibly sufficient to say that these waves have both electric and magnetic
components. They are the same as light rays, ultra-violet and infra-red. The only difference is
in the wavelength of the waves.To gain more of an idea of how the wave travels it can be
likened to the surface of a pond when a stone is dropped into the water. Ripples spread out all
around, decreasing in amplitude as they travel outwards. So it is with an electromagnetic
wave although its action is somewhat more complicated.
25
Radio signal analogy with ripples on a pond
 Frequency and wavelength

There are a number of properties of the radio wave that can be measured. One of the first to
be measured was the wavelength. Radio stations originally used to have their position on a
radio dial determined by the wavelength. For example, the BBC used to have one of their
transmitters broadcasting on a wavelength of 1500 metres. The wavelength of a radio wave is
the distance between a point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most
obvious points to choose as a reference is the peak as this can be easily identified although
any point is equally valid, provided the same point on each wave is taken.
The wavelength of a radio signal
The frequency can be explained using the pond analogy. It is the number of times the wave
goes up and down in a given time and at a particular point in the pond. The unit used for
frequency is the Hertz and this corresponds to one cycle or wave per second. As frequencies
which are encountered can be very high the standard prefixes of kilo (kiloHertz, kHz) for a
26
thousand Hertz, Mega (MegaHertz, MHz) for a million Hertz, and Giga (GigaHertz, GHz) for
a thousand million Hertz are commonly used.
 Speed of a radio signal
Another feature which can be noted about an electromagnetic wave is its speed. As it is the
same as a light wave it has the same speed. Normally this is taken to be 3 x 10 8metres a
second but a more exact figure is 299 792 500 metres a second in a vacuum.
 Wavelength and frequency conversion

The speed, frequency and wavelength of a radio wave are all related to one another. As the
speed is virtually the same whether the signal is travelling in free space, or in the atmosphere,
it is very easy to work out the wavelength of a signal if its frequency is known. Conversely
the frequency can be calculated if the wavelength is known. The formula is very simply:
v=lxf
where
v =the velocity of the radio wave in metres per second (normally taken as 3 x 10 8m/s
l =the wavelength in metres
f =the frequency in Hertz
For example, a signal with a frequency of 1 MHz will have a wavelength of 300 metres.
2.4 ANTENNAS
A person, who needs to convey a thought, an idea or a doubt, can do so by voice

communication. The following illustration shows two individuals communicating with each
other. Here, communication takes place through sound waves. However, if two people want
to communicate who are at longer distances, then we have to convert these sound waves
into electromagnetic waves. The device, which converts the required information signal into
electromagnetic waves, is known as an Antenna.
27
 What is an Antenna?
An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power into electromagnetic waves and
vice versa.
An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.
 A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into

electromagnetic waves and radiates them.
 A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the

received beam into electrical signals.
 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission and
reception.
Antenna can also be termed as an Aerial. Plural of it is, antennae or antennas. Now-
advanced antennas have undergone many changes, in accordance with their size and shape.
There are many types of antennas depending upon their wide variety of applications.
Following pictures are examples of different types of Antennas.
28
In this chapter, you are going to learn the basic concepts of antenna, specifications and
different types of antennas.
 Need of Antenna
In the field of communication systems, whenever the need for wireless communication
arises, there occurs the necessity of an antenna. Antenna has the capability of sending or
receiving the electromagnetic waves for the sake of communication, where you cannot
expect to lay down a wiring system. The following scenario explains this.
 Scenario
In order to contact a remote area, the wiring has to be laid down throughout the whole route
along the valleys, the mountains, the tedious paths, the tunnels etc., to reach the remote
location. The evolution of wireless technology has made this whole process very simple.
Antenna is the key element of this wireless technology.
29
In the above image, the antennas help the communication to be established in the whole
area, including the valleys and mountains. This process would obviously be easier than
laying a wiring system throughout the area.
 Radiation Mechanism
The sole functionality of an antenna is power radiation or reception. Antenna (whether it

transmits or receives or does both) can be connected to the circuitry at the station through a
transmission line. The functioning of an antenna depends upon the radiation mechanism of a
transmission line.
A conductor, which is designed to carry current over large distances with minimum losses,
is termed as a transmission line. For example, a wire, which is connected to an antenna. A
transmission line conducting current with uniform velocity, and the line being a straight one
with infinite extent, radiates no power.
For a transmission line, to become a waveguide or to radiate power, has to be processed as

such.
 If the power has to be radiated, though the current conduction is with uniform
velocity, the wire or transmission line should be bent, truncated or terminated.
 If this transmission line has current, which accelerates or decelerates with a time
varying constant, then it radiates the power even though the wire is straight.
 The device or tube, if bent or terminated to radiate energy, then it is called

as waveguide. These are especially used for the microwave transmission or
reception.
This can be well understood by observing the following diagram
30
The above diagram represents a waveguide, which acts as an antenna. The power from the
transmission line travels through the waveguide which has an aperture, to radiate the energy.
 Basic Types of Antennas
Antennas may be divided into various types depending upon
 The physical structure of the antenna.
 The frequency ranges of operation.
 The mode of applications etc.

 Physical structure
Following are the types of antennas according to the physical structure.
 Wire antennas
 Aperture antennas
 Reflector antennas
 Lens antennas
 Micro strip antennas
 Array antennas
 Frequency of operation
Following are the types of antennas according to the frequency of operation.
 Very Low Frequency (VLF)

 Low Frequency (LF)
 Medium Frequency (MF)
 High Frequency (HF)
 Very High Frequency (VHF)
 Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
 Super High Frequency (SHF)
 Micro wave
 Radio wave
 Mode of Applications
Following are the types of antennas according to the modes of applications −
 Point-to-point communications
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 Broadcasting applications
 Radar communications
 Satellite communications
2.5 SIGNAL PROPAGATION
Antenna and Wave propagation plays a vital role in wireless communication networks. An
antenna is an electrical conductor or a system of conductors that radiates/collects (transmits
or receives) electromagnetic energy into/from space. An idealized isotropic antenna radiates
equally in all directions.
 Propagation Mechanisms
Wireless transmissions propagate in three modes. They are −
 Ground-wave propagation
 Sky-wave propagation
 Line-of-sight propagation
Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth, while sky wave propagation uses
reflection by both earth and ionosphere.
Line of sight propagation requires the transmitting and receiving antennas to be within the
line of sight of each other. Depending upon the frequency of the underlying signal, the
particular mode of propagation is followed.
Examples of ground wave and sky wave communication are AM radio and international
broadcasts such as BBC. Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation
operates and the communication is through line of sight.
 Transmission Limitations
In this section, we will discuss the various limitations that affect electromagnetic wave
transmissions. Let us start with attenuation.
 Attenuation
The strength of signal falls with distance over transmission medium. The extent of
attenuation is a function of distance, transmission medium, as well as the frequency of the
underlying transmission.
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 Distortion
Since signals at different frequencies attenuate to different extents, a signal comprising of

components over a range of frequencies gets distorted, i.e., the shape of the received signal
changes.
A standard method of resolving this problem (and recovering the original shape) is to
amplify higher frequencies and thus equalize attenuation over a band of frequencies.
 Dispersion
Dispersion is the phenomenon of spreading of a burst of electromagnetic energy during

propagation. Bursts of data sent in rapid succession tend to merge due to dispersion.
 Noise
The most pervasive form of noise is thermal noise, which is often modelled using an
additive Gaussian model. Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons and is
uniformly distributed across the frequency spectrum.
 Other forms of noise include
 Inter modulation noise (caused by signals produced at frequencies that are sums or
differences of carrier frequencies)
 Crosstalk (interference between two signals)
 Impulse noise (irregular pulses of high energy caused by external electromagnetic

disturbances).
While an impulse noise may not have a significant impact on analog data, it has a noticeable
effect on digital data, causing burst errors.
33
The above figure clearly illustrates how the noise signal overlaps the original signal and tries
to change its characteristics.
 Fading
Fading refers to the variation of the signal strength with respect to time/distance and is
widely prevalent in wireless transmissions. The most common causes of fading in the
wireless environment are multipath propagation and mobility (of objects as well as the
communicating devices).
 Multipath propagation
In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are reflection, scattering,
and diffraction.
 Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size is
much larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.
 Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size is
larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.
 Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size smaller than the
wavelength of the signal.
One consequence of multipath propagation is that multiple copies of a signal propagation

along multiple different paths, arrive at any point at different times. So the signal received at
a point is not only affected by the inherent noise, distortion, attenuation, and dispersion in
the channel but also the interaction of signals propagated along multiple paths.
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 Delay spread
Suppose we transmit a probing pulse from a location and measure the received signal at the
recipient location as a function of time. The signal power of the received signal spreads over
time due to multipath propagation.
The delay spread is determined by the density function of the resulting spread of the delay
over time. Average delay spread and root mean square delay spread are the two parameters
that can be calculated.
 Doppler spread
This is a measure of spectral broadening caused by the rate of change of the mobile radio
channel. It is caused by either relative motion between the mobile and base station or by the
movement of objects in the channel.
When the velocity of the mobile is high, the Doppler spread is high, and the resulting
channel variations are faster than that of the baseband signal, this is referred to as fast
fading. When channel variations are slower than the baseband signal variations, then the
resulting fading is referred to as slow fading.
2.6 MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission

can be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity
medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable),
and light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides
the physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-
multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides
the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
35
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are
separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.
 Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In
TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can
transmit data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames,
equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time
slot.
TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are
timely synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.
When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to
channel A on the other end.As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches
to channel B. On the other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and
provides media to channel B. Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved
manner.
36
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals
are multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog
multiplexing technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light
as signals.
Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to

accommodate more data signals.
 Code Division Multiplexing
Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to
full bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal
codes to spread signals.
Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes
independently, inside the whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code
signal it has to receive.
2.7 MODULATION
A signal can be anything like a sound wave which comes out when you shout. This shout
can be heard only up to a certain distance. But for the same wave to travel over a long
distance, you’ll need a technique which adds strength to this signal, without disturbing the
parameters of the original signal.
37
 What is Signal Modulation?
A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a distance and for it to establish a
reliable communication; it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which should
not affect the original characteristics of the message signal.
The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the message contained in it also alters.
Hence it is a must to take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal can travel up
to a longer distance, without getting affected by external disturbances. We take the help of
such high frequency signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our message signal.
Such a process is simply called as Modulation.
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
 Need for Modulation
The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel
longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier
wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
 Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced.
The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without
getting distorted.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.
 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.
 Communication range increases.
 Multiplexing of signals occur.
 Adjustments in the bandwidth are allowed.
 Reception quality improves.
Signals in the Modulation Process
Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.
38
 Message or Modulating Signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a

baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence,
it is also called as the modulating signal.
 Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude but contains
no information, is called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used to carry the
signal to the receiver after modulation.
 Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as the modulated signal. This
signal is a combination of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
 Types of Modulation
There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they
are classified as shown in the following figure.
The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse
modulation.
39
 Continuous-wave Modulation
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave.
This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called
as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value
of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation.
The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase

modulation.
o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the

instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called
as Frequency Modulation.
o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation.
 Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave.

This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width
Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation

(PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is
a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation
(DM), which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence, PCM is a technique where the
analog signals are converted into a digital form.
40
2.8 SPREAD SPECTRUM
A collective class of signalling techniques are employed before transmitting a signal to

provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main
advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent “interference” whether
it is intentional or unintentional.
The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot be jammed. An
intruder with no official access is never allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are
used for military purposes. These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and
has a wide spread of signals.
 Pseudo-Noise Sequence
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called as Pseudo-

Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length
sequence, which is a type of cyclic code.
 Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals
Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood easily by observing
their frequency spectrum as shown in the following figures.
 Narrow-band Signals
The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in the following
frequency spectrum figure.
41
 Following are some of its features
 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

 Power density is high.
 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.
 Spread Spectrum Signals
The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown in the following
frequency spectrum figure.
 Following are some of its features

 Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.
 Power density is very low.
 Energy is wide spread.
With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or
jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access techniques.
 FHSS and DSSS / CDMA
Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
42
 These are of two types.
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSSFHSS
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSSDSSS
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSSFHSS
This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after
a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which
was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSSDSSS
Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the
user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is
nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and
transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.
 Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA
Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a clear
understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.
FHSS DSSS / CDMA
Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used
Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of time User frequency, once allotted
is always the same
Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not

allowed
43
Sender has to wait if the
Sender need not wait
spectrum is busy
Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is

low
Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to

FHSS
It is never affected by interference It can be affected by

interference
It is cheaper It is expensive
This is the commonly used technique This technique is not

frequently used
 Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −
 Cross-talk elimination
 Better output with data integrity
 Reduced effect of multipath fading
 Better security
 Reduction in noise
 Co-existence with other systems
 Longer operative distances
 Hard to detect
 Not easy to demodulate/decode
 Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military uses, they are
now being used widely for commercial purpose.
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2.9 CELLULAR SYSTEM
The immense potential of conventional telephone cannot be exploited to its maximum due to
the limitation imposed by the connecting wires. But this restriction has been removed with
the advent of the cellular radio.
 Frequency Scarcity Problem
If we use dedicated RF loop for every subscriber, we need larger bandwidth to serve even a
limited number of subsc in a single city.
 Example
A single RF loop requires 50 kHz B/W; then for one lakh subscribers we need 1,00,000 x 50
kHz = 5 GHz.
To overcome this B/W problem, subscribers have to share the RF channels on need basis,
instead of dedicated RF loops. This can be achieved by using multiple access methods
FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA. Even then the number of RF channels required to serve the
subscribers, works out to be impracticable.
Consider a subs density of 30Sq.Km., Grade of service as 1%, Traffic offered per mobile
sub as 30m E. Then number of RF channels required are −
Radius(km) Area in Sq.km Subs RF Channels
1 3.14 100 8
3 28.03 900 38
10 314 10000 360
For 10,000 subs to allot 360 radio channels we need a B/Wof 360 × 50 KHz = 18 MHz. This
is practically not feasible.
45
 Cellular Approach
With limited frequency resource, cellular principle can serve thousands of subscribers at an
affordable cost. In a cellular network, total area is subdivided into smaller areas called
“cells”. Each cell can cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within its boundaries.
Each cell can have a base station with a number of RF channels.
Frequencies used in a given cell area will be simultaneously reused at a different cell which
is geographically separated. For example, a typical seven-cell pattern can be considered.
Total available frequency resources are divided into seven parts, each part consisting of a
number of radio channels and allocated to a cell site. In a group of 7 cells, available
frequency spectrum is consumed totally. The same seven sets of frequency can be used after
certain distance. The group of cells where the available frequency spectrum is totally
consumed is called a cluster of cells.
Two cells having the same number in the adjacent cluster, use the same set of RF channels
and hence are termed as “Co-channel cells”. The distance between the cells using the same
frequency should be sufficient to keep the co-channel (co-chl) interference to an acceptable
level. Hence, the cellular systems are limited by Co-channel interference.
 Hence a cellular principle enables the following.
 More efficient usage of available limited RF source.
 Manufacturing of every piece of subscriber's terminal within a region with the

same set of channels so that any mobile can be used anywhere within the region.
 Shape of Cells
For analytical purposes a “Hexagon” cell is preferred to other shapes on paper due to the
following reasons.
46
 A hexagon layout requires fewer cells to cover a given area. Hence, it envisages
fewer base stations and minimum capital investment.
 Other geometrical shapes cannot effectively do this. For example, if circular shaped
cells are there, then there will be overlapping of cells.
 Also for a given area, among square, triangle and hexagon, radius of a hexagon will
be the maximum which is needed for weaker mobiles.
In reality cells are not hexagonal but irregular in shape, determined by factors like
propagation of radio waves over the terrain, obstacles, and other geographical constraints.
Complex computer programs are required to divide an area into cells. One such program is
“Tornado” from Siemens.
 Operating Environment
Due to mobility, the radio signals between a base station and mobile terminals undergo a
variety of alterations as they travel from transmitter to receiver, even within the same cell.
These changes are due to
 Physical separation of transmitter and receiver.

 Physical environment of the path i.e. terrain, buildings, and other obstacles.
 Slow Fading
 In free space conditions (or) LOS, RF signal propagation constant is considered as

two i.e. r = 2. This is applicable for static radio systems.
 In mobile environment, these variations are appreciable and normally ‘r’ is taken as 3
to 4.
 Rayleigh Fading
The direct line of sight in mobile environment, between base station and the mobile is not
ensured and the signal received at the receiver is the sum of a number of signals reaching
through different paths (multipath). Multipath propagation of RF waves is due to the
reflection of RF energy from a hill, building, truck, or aero plane etc.; the reflected energy
undergoes a phase change also.
If there are 180 out-of phase with direct path signals, they tend to cancel out each other. So
the multipath signals tend to reduce the signal strength. Depending upon the location of the
47
transmitter and receiver and various reflecting obstacles along the path length, signal
fluctuates. The fluctuations occur fast and it is known as “Rayleigh fading”.
In addition, multipath propagation leads to “pulse widening” and “Inter symbol

Interference”.
 Doppler Effect
Due to the mobility of the subscriber, a change occurs in the frequency of the received RF
signals. Cellular mobile systems use following techniques to counter these problems.
 Channel coding
 Interleaving
 Equalization
 Rake receivers
 Slow frequency hopping
 Antennae diversity
 Co-Channel Interference and Cell Separation
We assume a cellular system having a cell radius “R” and Co-channel distance “D” and the
cluster size “N”. Since the cell size is fixed, co-channel interference will be independent of
power.
Co-chl interference is a function of “q” = D/R.
Q = Co-chl interference reduction factor.
Higher value of “q” means less interference.
Lower value of “q” means high interference.
“q” is also related to cluster size (N) as q = 3N
q = 3N = D/R
For different values of N, q is −

N = 1 3 4 7 9 12
Q = 1.73 3 3.46 4.58 5.20 6.00
Higher values of “q”
 Reduces co-channel interference,

 Leads to higher value of “N” more cells/cluster,
48
 Less number of channels/cells,
 Less traffic handling capacity.
Lower values of “q”
 Increases co-channel interference,

 Leads to lower value of “n” fewer cells / cluster,
 More number of channels / cells,
 More traffic handling capacity.
Generally, N = 4, 7, 12.
 C/I Calculations and ‘q’
The value of “q” also depends on C/I. “C” is the received carrier power from the desired
transmitter and “I” is the co-channel interference received from all the interfering cells. For
a seven-cell reuse pattern, the number of co-channel interfering cells shall be six in number.
I = m2b ∑ Mz1 Im
Loss of signal is proportional to (distance) –r
R – Propagation constant.
c α R-r
R = Radius of cell.
I α 6 D-r
D= Co-channel separation distance
C/I = R – r / 6D –r = 1/6 × Dr / Rr = 1/6 (D/R) r
C/I = 1/6 q r since q = D/R and q r = 6 C/I
Q = [6 × C/I]1/r
Based upon the acceptable voice quality, the value of C/I has been found to be equal to 18
dB.
Assuming,
 A seven-cell reuse pattern

 Omni directional antennae
Value of ‘q’ can be typically around 4.6.
49
Value r is taken as 3.
This is an ideal condition, considering the distance of the mobile units from the interfering
cells to be uniformly equal to ‘D’ in all cases. But practically mobile moves and distance ‘D’
reduces to ‘D-R’ when it reaches the boundary of the cell, and C/I drops to 14.47 dB.
Hence ‘freq’ reuse pattern of 7 is not meeting C/I criteria with omni directional antennae.
If N = 9 (or) 12,
N = 9q = 5.2C/I = 19.78 dB
N = 12q = 6.0C/I = 22.54 dB
Hence, either 9 or 12 cell pattern is to be with omni directional antennae, but traffic handling
capacity is reduced. Hence they are not preferred.
In order to use N = 7 (or lower), directional antennas are used in every cell site. A cell
having 3 sectors is very popular and will be like the figure shown below.
Antenna’s font – back coupling phenomenon reduces number of potential interferers.
For example if N = 7.
With omni directional antennae, number of interfering cells shall be six. With directional
antennae & 3 sectors the same is reduced to two. For N = 7 and three sectors, the C/I
improves from 14.47 dB to 24.5 dB even in worst conditions. Then C/I meet the requirement
of 18dB. For N = 7 and six sectors, the C/I improves to 29 dB.
For Urban applications, N = 4 and a three sector cell is used so that more number of carriers
per cell are obtained than N = 7. Also the C/I become 20 dB in worst cases.
DAMPS Uses 7/21 cell pattern
GSM Uses 4/21 cell pattern

Advantages of sectoring
 Decrease co-channel interference
50
 Increase system capacity
 Disadvantages of sectoring
 Large number of antennas at the base station.

 Increase in the number of sectors/cell reduces the trunking efficiency
 Sectoring reduces the coverage area, for a particular group of channels.
 Number of ‘Hand offs’ increases.
 Hand Off
When the mobile unit travels along a path it crosses different cells. Each time it enters into a
different cell associated with f = different frequency, control of the mobile is taken over by
the other base station. This is known as ‘Hand off’.
Hand off is decided based on −
 Received signal strength information if it is below a threshold value.

 Carrier to interference ratio is less than 18 dB.
 Adjacent Channel Interference
A given cell/sector uses a number of RF channels. Because of imperfect receiver filters,

which allow nearby frequencies to leak into pass band, adjacent channel interference takes
place.
It can be reduced by keeping the frequency separations between each RF channel in a given
cell as large as possible. When the reuse factor is small, this separation may not be
sufficient.
A channel separation, by selecting RF frequencies, which are more than 6 channels apart, is
sufficient to keep adjacent channel interferences within limits.
For example, in GSM which follows 4/12 pattern, N = 4
Sectors = 3/cell
51
IA will use RF Carr. 1, 13, 25,………..
IB will use RF Carr 5, 17, 29,…………
IC will use RF Carr. 9, 21, 33,……….. and so on.

 Trunking
Cellular radios rely on trunking to accommodate a large number of users in a limited radio
spectrum. Each user is allocated a channel on need/per call basis and on termination of the
cell, the channel is returned to the common pool of RF channels.
 Grade of Service (GOS)
Because of trunking, there is a likelihood that a call is blocked if all the RF channels are
engaged. This is called ‘Grade of Service’ “GOS”.
Cellular designer estimates the maximum required capacity and allocates the proper number
of RF channels, in order to meet the GOS. For these calculations, ‘ERLANG B’ table is
used.
 Cell Splitting
When the number of users reaches a saturation in a start-up cell (initial design) and no more
spare frequency is available, then the start-up cell is split, usually in four smaller cells and
traffic increases by four and more number of subscribers can be served.
After ‘n’ splits, the traffic will be −
T2 = T0 × 42
Power will be reduced −
52
P2 = P0 – n × 12 db
Hence cell splitting improves the capacity and lowers the transmission power.
2.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about the frequencies of radio transmission, meanwhile how
the signals and antennas will work efficiently. Finally, we have to check it spread spectrum
and cellular system.
2.11 KEYWORDS
spread spectrum
signals
antennas
transmission
2.12 QUESTION FOR SELF STUDY

1. What is Radio transmission? Explain
2. Explain frequencies of radio transmission in detail
3. What is Signals?
4. Explain antennas in detail.
5. What is signal propagation? Explain
6. Briefly Explain multiplexing.
7. What is modulation?
8. Explain Spread Spectrum in detail.
9. What is Cellular system? Explain
2.13 REFERENCES

53
UNIT – 3
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Media Access Control
3.3 Motivation for a specialized MAC
3.4 SDMA
3.5 FDMA
3.6 TDMA
3.7 CDMA and Comparisons
3.8 Summary
3.9 Keywords
3.11 Reference
3.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define Media Access Control

 Motivation for a specialized MAC
 SDMA
 CDMA and Comparisons
54
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The rapid technological advances and innovations of the past few decades have pushed
wireless communication from concept to reality. Advances in chip design have dramatically
reduced the size and energy requirements of wireless devices, increasing their portability and
convenience. This, combined with the freedom of movement, are among the driving forces
behind the vast popularity of wireless communication. This situation in unlikely to change,
especially when one considers the current push towards wireless broadband access to the
Internet and multimedia content.
With predictions of near exponential growth in the number of wireless subscribers in the
coming decades, pressure is mounting on government regulatory agencies to free up RF
spectrum to satisfy the growing bandwidth demands. This is especially true with regard to the
next generation (3G) cellular systems that integrate voice and high speed data access services.
Given the slow reaction time of government bureaucracy and the high cost of licensing,
wireless operators are typically forced to make due with limited bandwidth resources. The
aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with a comprehensive view of the role and details
of the protocols that define and control the access to the wireless channel, i.e., of wireless
Media Access Protocols (MAC) protocols.
3.2 MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open system
interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is responsible for flow
control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the transmission of data
packets via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network interface card.
MAC Layer in the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The
data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers.
 The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
 The medium access control (MAC) sublayer
The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer
55
 Functions of MAC Layer
o It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.
o It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via
the physical medium.
o It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups
of destination stations.
o It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be
transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
o It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
o It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.
 MAC Addresses
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a network
interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data transmission
within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is hardwired

or hard-coded in the network interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises of six groups
56
of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a
MAC address is 00:0A: 89:5B: F0:11.
3.3 MOTIVATION FOR A SPECIALIZED MAC

Medium Access Control (MAC) address is a hardware address use to uniquely identify each
node of a network. It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms to enable
the several terminals or network nodes to communicate in a specified network. Medium
Access Control of data communication protocol is also named as Media Access Control. In
IEEE 802 OSI Reference model of computer networking, the Data Link Control (DLC) layer
is subdivided into two sub-layers:
o The Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and
o The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer

The MAC sublayer acts as a direct interface between the logical link control (LLC) Ethernet
sublayer and the physical layer of reference model. Consequently, each different type of
network medium requires a different MAC layer. On networks that don’t conform they are
part of IEEE 802 standards but they do conform that they participate OSI Reference Model
then the node address is named the Data Link Control (DLC) address. The MAC sublayer
emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multipoint network system. These
communication channels may provide unicast, multicast and/or broadcast communication
services.
LLC and MAC Sublayer
57
MAC address is suitable when multiple devices are connected with same physical link then to
prevent from collisions system uniquely identify the devices one another at the data link
layer, by using the MAC addresses that are assigned to all ports on a switch. The MAC
sublayer uses MAC protocols to prevent collisions and MAC protocols uses MAC algorithm
that accepts as input a secret key and an arbitrary-length message to be authenticated, and
outputs a MAC address.
 Functions performed in the MAC sublayer:
The primary functions performed by the MAC layer as per the IEEE Std 802-2001 section
6.2.3 are as follows:
1. Frame delimiting and recognition: This function is responsible to creates and

recognizes frame boundaries.
2. Addressing: MAC sublayer performs the addressing of destination stations (both

as individual stations and as groups of stations) and conveyance of source-station
addressing information as well.
3. Transparent data transfer: It performs the data transparency over data transfer
of LLC, PDUs, or of equivalent information in the Ethernet sublayer.
4. Protection: MAC sublayer function is to protect the data against errors, generally
by means of generating and checking frame check sequences.
5. Access control: Control of access to the physical transmission medium form

unauthorized medium access.
One of the most commonly used of MAC sublayer for wired networks i.e. Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Through MAC schema, a sender
senses the medium (a wire or coaxial cable) before transmission of data to check whether the
medium is free or not. If MAC senses that the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is
free. When medium becomes free, the sender starts transmitting of data and continues to
listen into the medium. If any kind of collision detected by sender while sending data, it stops
at once and sends a jamming signal. But this scheme doest work well with wireless networks.
Some of the problems that occur when it uses to transfer data through wireless networks are
as follow;
58
 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
 The sender would apply Carrier Sense (CS) and Collision Detection (CD), but the
collisions happen at the receiver
 It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
 Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., the terminals are “hidden”.
3.4 SDMA
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.
 All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
 SDMA is completely free from interference.
 A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
 The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can
track a moving user.
 Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth
whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual
users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is
broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
59
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is
multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word which is
orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the receiver must know
the code word used by the transmitter. The combinational sequences called as hybrid are
also used as another type of spread spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is
rarely mentioned. Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a
multiple user environment.
Satellite communications have revolutionised the world we live in. Fixed and mobile
telephone services, television broadcast, internet access, and a large number of applications
have changed the way people all over the globe interact. With the continuing increase in
traffic demand, satellite communication technology continuously evolves and move towards
greater capacity, higher flexibility, and better service to the end-users. Spatial Division
Multiple Access (SDMA) appears to be an alternative to achieve these requirements
simultaneously. The technology employs antenna arrays and multi-dimensional non-linear
signal processing techniques to provide significant increases in capacity and quality of many
wireless communication systems. The technology is not restricted to any particular
modulation format or air-interface protocol, and is compatible with all currently deployed air-
interfaces. An SDMA satellite equips with multi-spot-beam antenna that transmit signals to
numerous zones on the Earth’s surface. The antennas are highly directional, allowing the
same frequency to be reused in other surface zones where the frequency separation is
sufficiently large. To support a large number of users, frequency selection should be
performed carefully. The frequency assignment strategy thus plays an important role in the
system performance. This class of problem is well-known as Frequency Assignment Problem
(FAP). The satellite communication system that we study in this paper aims at establishing
bi-directional communications to stationary user terminals located in a service area. We
propose Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulations and greedy algorithm for solving the
problem and then we use beam decentring algorithm to improve the solutions.
 System description
In general, a satellite communications system consists of a satellite, a gateway, and a number
of users within a service area. The satellite provides bi-directional communication links
towards users and acts as a relay point between them and a gateway, the node that connects
60
the satellite system to the terrestrial network. In this study, we consider only the satellite, the
users, and communication links between them, see Figure 1. To simulate the system, actual
parameters are used in conjunction with randomly generated and uniformly distributed user
positions. Satellite antenna uses SDMA technology to form dedicated beams and centre them
over the users. Satellite’s antenna gain (simplified) is determined by radiation pattern of the
antenna and distance between each user and the satellite
, i.e., GSat(u,v,u0,v0) = G1 · G2(u,v,u0,v0)· G3(u,v),
3.5 FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple
access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that
each conversation is carried on a different frequency (as shown in the figure below).
 FDMA Overview
In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize
crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will
have received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in
the first generation of analog mobile phone.
 Advantages of FDMA
As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay spread,
it offers the following advantages −
61
 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases
the capacity.
 It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Equalization is not necessary.
 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily
incorporated.
 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.
 Disadvantages of FDMA
Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are listed
below
 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends
on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and therefore
increases the cost.
3.6 TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication

technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its
technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.
 TDMA Overview
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an
accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.
In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The
mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.
62
In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after
user ‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and
larger by the burst communication.
 FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-carrier TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency range holds 124 single chains
(carrier frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; each of these frequency channels contains
8 TDMA conversation channels. Thus, the sequence of timeslots and frequencies assigned to
a mobile station is the physical channels of a TDMA system. In each timeslot, the mobile
station transmits a data packet.
The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a mobile station also determines the number of
TDMA channels on a carrier frequency. The period of timeslots are combined in a so-called
TDMA frame. TDMA signal transmitted on a carrier frequency usually requires more
bandwidth than FDMA signal. Due to the use of multiple times, the gross data rate should be
even higher.
 Advantages of TDMA
Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA
o Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each
time interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
63
o Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user
can be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in
the frame 2, one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
o No guard band required for the wideband system.
o No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
 Disadvantages of TDMA
The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −
o High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
o Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for
synchronization and supervision.
o Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock
instability).
o Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
o Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.
3.7 CDMA AND COMPARISONS
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various
signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth.
The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems,
bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
 CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among
the different users.Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum
modulation (DS-CDMA), frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here,
a signal is generated which extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is
used to perform this action. Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is
possible to select a signal with a given code in the presence of many other signals with
different orthogonal codes.
64
 How Does CDMA Work?
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each voice
packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate between calls
and theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the maximum
number of calls somewhat lower than this value.In fact, many different "signals" baseband
with different spreading codes can be modulated on the same carrier to allow many different
users to be supported. Using different orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is
minimal. Conversely, when signals are received from several mobile stations, the base
station is capable of isolating each as they have different orthogonal spreading codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the propagation,
we mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same code as the code that was
used at the time of sending the receiving side. You can take out only the signal of each user.
 CDMA Capacity
The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are
o Processing Gain
o Signal to Noise Ratio
o Voice Activity Factor
o Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are separated
by code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference.
65
In addition, neighbouring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So,
CDMA capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied by
no cell. But it is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may not be
possible to use a single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same.
 Centralized Methods
o The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation).
o Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
o 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.
 Processing Gain
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique. Each data bit is spread by a code sequence. This
means, energy per bit is also increased. This means that we get a gain of this.
P (gain) = 10log (W/R)
W is Spread Rate
R is Data Rate
For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB
This is a gain factor and the actual data propagation rate. On an average, a typical
transmission condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the adequate quality of
voice.
Translated into a ratio, signal must be five times stronger than noise.
Actual processing gain = P (gain) - SNR
= 21 – 7 = 14dB
CDMA uses variable rate coder
The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.
Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding cells
causes some additional interference.
In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB
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 Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users.
It has the following advantages −
o CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other
words, a user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the
signal latter. All signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
o Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a
chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make
decisions at the bit level.
o Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals
from the two base stations.
o Transmission Burst − reduces interference.
 Disadvantages of CDMA
The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −
o The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or
may cause interference.
o Time synchronization is required.
o Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
o As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant
tight power control. This can result in several handovers.
67
3.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit we have discussed the Media access control as well as motivation for a
specialized MAC, therefore we have checked the functions of SDMA, FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA and Comparisons in detail.
3.9 KEYWORDS
SDMA
FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
1. What is Media Access control? explain

2. Explain motivation for a specialized MAC.
3. Explain SDMA in detail.
4. Explain FDMA in detail.
5. What is TDMA? Explain in detail
6. Briefly explain CDMA and Comparisons.
3.11 REFERENCES

68
UNIT – 4
WIRELESS NETWORKS
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 GSM
4.3 DECT
4.4 Wireless LAN
4.5 Infrared vs radio transmission
4.6 Infrastructure and ad –hoc networks
4.7 IEEE 802.11
4.8 HPERLAN
4.9 Bluetooth
4.10 Summary
4.11 Keywords
4.13 Reference
4.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define GSM
 DECT
 Wireless LAN
 Bluetooth
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the GSM are
given below
o The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
o GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
o GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.
o GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and
1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850
MHz and 1900 MHz
o GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
o GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
for transmitting signals.
o GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to
120 Mbps of data rates.
o Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
o GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
o GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two
other streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.
 Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
o Improved spectrum efficiency
o International roaming
o Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
o High-quality speech
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o Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services
o Support for new services
 GSM History
The following table shows some of the important events in the rollout of the GSM system.
Years Events
1982 Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a GSM group
to widen the standards for a pan-European cellular mobile system.
1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is accepted.
1986 Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques recommended for the
air interface.
1987 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access method (with
Frequency Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The initial Memorandum of
Understanding (MoU) is signed by telecommunication operators representing 12
countries.
1988 GSM system is validated.
1989 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was given the
responsibility of the GSM specifications.
1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.
1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800 specifications are
finalized.
1992 The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place. Coverage
spreads to larger cities and airports.
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1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.
1994 Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks rises to 69 in

43 countries by the end of 1994.
1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended to rural areas.
1996 June− 133 network in 81 countries operational.
1997 July− 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44 million subscribers
worldwide.
1999 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and became
operational in 130 countries with 260 million subscribers.
2000 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.
2001 As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to mobile
telecommunications.
4.2 GSM
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are
explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −
o The Mobile Station (MS)
o The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
o The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
o The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
 GSM - The Mobile Station
The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital
signal processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM
networks. As such, other services are also provided, which include −
o Voice teleservices
o Data bearer services
o The features' supplementary services
72
The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle between
the voice and data use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice messaging systems.
The MS also provides access to the various data services available in a GSM network. These
data services include −
o X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up connection to
the PAD at speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
o General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based data
transfer method at the speed up to 115 Kbps.
o High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.
We will discuss more about GMS services in GSM - User Services.
 What is SIM?
The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed
services irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal.
You need to insert the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone to receive calls at that
phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.
GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The BSS is composed of two parts −
o The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
o The Base Station Controller (BSC)
73
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS
may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The
BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1
or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols
with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A
BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell.
74
Each BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell.
Each BTS serves as a single cell. It also includes the following functions −
o Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the
antenna
o Transcoding and rate adaptation
o Time and frequency synchronizing
o Voice through full- or half-rate services
o Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
o Random access detection
o Timing advances
o Uplink channel measurements
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the
MSC. The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the
standard 64 Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or
ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell
handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of
the BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a
switching device that handles the radio resources.
The additional functions include
o Control of frequency hopping
o Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
o Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
o Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
o Time and frequency synchronization
o Power management
o Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS
 GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile
network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.
75
The switching system includes the following functional elements −
 Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM, then all the information about this
subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.
 Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the
switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as
the management of mobile services such as registration, authentication, location updating,
handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is
identified by a unique ID.
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed
by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the
MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC
will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a
call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate
the HLR each time.
76
 Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored
in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio
channel. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's
cellular world.
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type
approved.
 GSM - The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
The operations and maintenance centre (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and
support system (OSS).
 Here are some of the OMC functions
o Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging, and
statistics).
o Security Management.
o Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
o Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the
Telecommunication Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T
series M.30.
Following is the figure, which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.
The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the
system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
77
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM
network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the
maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.
A simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture is given below −
The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging
systems functions −
o Home Location Register (HLR)
o Visitor Location Register (VLR)
o Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
o Authentication Center (AuC)
o SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
o Gateway MSC (GMSC)
o Chargeback Center (CBC)
o Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements −
78
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching
(NSS) centre across the A interface.
 GSM network areas
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined −
o Cell − Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a
Cell Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
o Location Area − A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is
paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area
Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
o MSC/VLR Service Area − The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR
service area.
o PLMN − The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile
Network (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.
4.3 DECT
DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) is a digital wireless telephone

technology that is expected to make cordless phones much more common in both businesses
and homes in the future. Formerly called the Digital European Cordless Telecommunications
standard because it was developed by European companies, DECT's present name reflects its
global acceptance. Like another important wireless standard, Global System for Mobile
communication (GSM), DECT uses time division multiple access (TDMA) to transmit radio
signals to phones. Whereas GSM is optimized for mobile travel over large areas, DECT is
designed especially for a smaller area with a large number of users, such as in cities and
79
corporate complexes. A user can have a telephone equipped for both GSM and DECT (this is
known as a dual-mode phone) and they can operate seamlessly.
DECT has five major applications:

1) The "cordless private branch exchange." A company can connect to a wired telephone
company and redistribute signals by radio antenna to a large number of telephone users
within the company, each with their own number. A cordless PBX would be especially useful
and save costs in a company with a number of mobile employees such as those in a large
warehouse.
2) Wireless Local Loop (WLL). Users in a neighbourhood typically served by a telephone
company wired local loop can be connected instead by a cordless phone that exchanges
signals with a neighbourhood antenna. A standard telephone (or any device containing a
telephone such as a computer modem or fax machine) is simply plugged into a fixed access
unit (FAU), which contains a transceiver. The Wireless Local Loop can be installed in an
urban area where many users share the same antenna.
3) Cordless Terminal Mobility. The arrangement used by businesses for a cordless PBX can
also be used by a service that provided cordless phone numbers for individual subscribers. In
general, the mobility would be less than that available for GSM users.
4) Home cordless phones. A homeowner could install a single-cell antenna within the home
and use it for a number of cordless phones throughout the home and garden.
5) GSM/DECT internetworking. Part of the DECT standard describes how it can interact
with the GSM standard so that users can be free to move with a telephone from the outdoors
(and GSM signals) into an indoor environment (and a DECT system). It's expected that many
GSM service providers may want to extend their service to support DECT signals inside
buildings. A dual-mode phone would automatically search first for a DECT connection, then
for a GSM connection if DECT is not available.
4.4 WIRELESS LAN
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high-frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN (Local
Area Network). Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this limited area
such as home, school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.
Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard or Wi-Fi.
80
 Components of WLANs
The components of WLAN architecture as laid down in IEEE 802.11 are −
 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected
to the wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless network interface controller. A
station can be of two types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
o Client
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories −
o Infrastructure BSS
o Independent BSS
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
 Types of WLANS
WLANs, as standardized by IEEE 802.11, operates in two basic modes, infrastructure, and ad
hoc mode.
o Infrastructure Mode − Mobile devices or clients connect to an access point (AP)

that in turn connects via a bridge to the LAN or Internet. The client transmits frames
to other clients via the AP.
81
o Ad Hoc Mode − Clients transmit frames directly to each other in a peer-to-peer
fashion.
 Advantages of WLANs
o They provide clutter-free homes, offices and other networked places.
o The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at greater ease than wired LANs.
o The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
o Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
o The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
 Disadvantages of WLANs
o Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
o Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
o WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
4.5 INFRARED VS RADIO TRANSMISSION
1. Radio wave Transmission
The radio waves have frequency range from 3 KHz and 1 GHz. These waves are easy to
generate and these can travel along long distances. These waves are omni directional in
nature which means that they can travel in all the directions. They are widely used for the
communication between both indoor and outdoor because they have the property that they
can penetrate through the walls very easily. These waves are usually used for AM and FM
radio, television, cellular phones and wireless LAN.
82
Figure: Radio wave Transmission
2.MicrowaveTransmission
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves which have frequency range between 1 GHz to 300
GHz. These can travel along long distances. These are unidirectional in nature which means
that they can travel only in straight line. At very high frequency that cannot penetrate into
walls. These waves are usually used for one to one communication between sender and
receiver, cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless LAN.
3.InfraredWaves
Infrared Waves are electromagnetic waves that have frequency range between 300 GHz to
400 GHz. These cannot travel along long distances. These waves are used for short range
communication and they also use line-of-sight of propagation. These waves cannot pass
83
through solid objects like walls etc. These also not penetrate through walls. The most
common application of the IR waves is remote controls that are used for TV, DVD players,
and stereo system.
Figure: Infrared Transmission
Difference between Radio wave, Microwave, and Infrared waves:
Sr.
No. Basis Radio wave Microwave Infrared wave
These are These are

These are omni- unidirectional in unidirectional in
1. Direction directional in nature. nature. nature.
At low frequency, At low frequency,

they can penetrate they can penetrate
through solid objects through solid objects They cannot
and walls but high and walls. at high penetrate through
frequency they frequency, they any solid object
2. Penetration bounce off the cannot penetrate. and walls.
84
Sr.
No. Basis Radio wave Microwave Infrared wave
obstacle.
Frequency range:
Frequency Frequency range: 3 Frequency range: 1 300 GHz to 400
3. range KHz to 1GHz. GHz to 300 GHz. GHz.
These offers poor These offers These offers high

4. Security security. medium security. security.
Attenuation is Attenuation is
5. Attenuation Attenuation is high. variable. low.
Some frequencies in Some frequencies in There is no need

the radio-waves the microwaves of government
Government require government require government license to use
6. License license to use these. license to use these. these waves.
Setup and usage Cost Setup and usage Usage Cost is

7. Usage Cost is moderate. Cost is high. very less.
These are not

These are used in These are used in used in long
long distance long distance distance
8. Communication communication. communication. communication.
85
4.6 INFRASTRUCTURE AND Ad-HOC NETWORKS
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and
communicate with each other. The term ad hoc is a Latin word that literally means "for this,"
implying improvised or impromptu.
Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (LANs). The devices communicate
with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or access points as in wireless
LANs for data transfer co-ordination. Each device participates in routing activity, by
determining the route using the routing algorithm and forwarding data to other devices via
this route.
 Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks
Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of their
applications. The most prominent ad hoc networks that are commonly incorporated are
illustrated in the diagram below −
86
The ad hoc wireless network is basically a decentralized form of a wireless network. The
network is not dependent upon the common wireless infrastructure
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 Description
The ad hoc wireless network is basically a decentralized form of a wireless network. The
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4.7 IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as Wi-Fi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). Wi-Fi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can
move around within the area of network coverage.
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows
o Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers,

smartphones, etc.
o Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
o Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations

communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories
depending upon the mode of operation−
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o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices
through access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis

in an ad hoc manner.
o Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
o Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
 Frame Format of IEEE 802.11
The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are
o Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains

control information of the frame.
o Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and
its acknowledgment occupy the channel.
o Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination, and final endpoint respectively.
o Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
o Data − This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of the data field is 2312 bytes.
o Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.
89
4.8 HIPERLAN
HIPERLAN stands for high performance local area network. It is a wireless standard
derived from traditional LAN environments and can support multimedia and asynchronous
data effectively at high data rates of 23.5 Mbps. It is primarily a European standard
alternative for the IEEE 802.11 standards and was published in 1996. It is defined by the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). It does not necessarily require any
type of access point infrastructure for its operation, although a LAN extension via access
points can be implemented.
Radio waves are used instead of a cable as a transmission medium to connect stations.
Either, the radio transceiver is mounted to the movable station as an add-on and no base
station has to be installed separately, or a base station is needed in addition per room. The
stations may be moved during operation-pauses or even become mobile. The maximum data
rate for the user depends on the distance of the communicating stations. With short
distance(<50 m) and asynchronous transmission a data rate of 20 Mbit/s is achieved, with up
to 800 m distance a data rate of 1 Mbit/s are provided. For connection-oriented services, e.g.
video-telephony, at least 64 kbit/s are offered.HIPERLAN uses cellular-based data networks
to connect to an ATM backbone. The main idea behind HIPERLAN is to provide an
infrastructure or ad-hoc wireless with low mobility and a small radius. HIPERLAN supports
90
isochronous traffic with low latency. The HiperLAN standard family has four different
versions.The key feature of all four networks is their integration of time-sensitive data
transfer services. Over time, names have changed and the former HIPERLANs 2,3, 1nd 4 are
now called HiperLAN2, HIPERACCESS, and HIPERLINK.
1. HIPERLAN 1
Planning for the first version of the standard, called HiperLAN/1, started 1991, when
planning of 802.11 was already going on. The goal of the HiperLAN was the high data rate,
higher than 802.11. The standard was approved in 1996. The functional specification is
EN300652, the rest is in ETS300836.
The standard covers the Physical layer and the Media Access Control part of the Data link
layer like 802.11. There is a new sub layer called Channel Access and Control sub layer
(CAC). This sub layer deals with the access requests to the channels. The accomplishing of
the request is dependent on the usage of the channel and the priority of the request.
CAC layer provides hierarchical independence with Elimination-Yield Non-Pre-emptive
Multiple Access mechanism (EY-NPMA). EY-NPMA codes priority choices and other
functions into one variable length radio pulse preceding the packet data. EY-NPMA enables
the network to function with few collisions even though there would be a large number of
users. Multimedia applications work in HiperLAN because of EY-NPMA priority
mechanism. MAC layer defines protocols for routing, security and power saving and provides
naturally data transfer to the upper layers. On the physical layer FSK and GMSK modulations
are used in
HiperLAN/1. HiperLAN features:

 range 50 m
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 slow mobility (1.4 m/s)
 supports asynchronous and synchronous traffic
 sound 32 kbit/s, 10 ns latency
 video 2 Mbit/s, 100 ns latency

 data 10 Mbit/s
HiperLAN does not conflict with microwave and other kitchen appliances, which are on 2.4
GHz.
 Elimination-yield non-pre-emptive priority multiple access (EY-NPMA)
EY-NPMA is a contention based protocol that has been standardized under ETSI‘s
HIPERLAN, a standard for wireless LANs. Unlike other contention based protocols, EY-
NPMA provides excellent support for different classes of traffic regarding quality of service
and demonstrates very low collision rates. EY-NPMA is the medium access mechanism used
by HIPERLAN Type 1. It uses active signalling.
Active signalling takes advantage of the fact that the current wireless technology enables us
to have a slot time very much smaller than the average packet size. Each node that wants to
access the medium transmits a non-data preamble pattern consisting of slots. This pattern is
made up of alternating idle and busy periods of different lengths (measured in slots). Conflict
resolution and collision detection is done during this preamble. The main rule is that if a node
detects a signal during one of its listening periods in its pattern, it aborts and defers until the
next cycle. Otherwise, the node transmits its packet at the end of the pattern transmission.
With EYNPMA, each station may attempt to access the channel when a condition out of a
group of three is met. The three conditions are:
 Channel free condition
 Synchronized channel condition
 Hidden elimination condition
The channel free condition occurs when the channel remains idle for at least a predefined
time interval. A station willing to transmit senses the channel for this time interval, the
station extends its period of sensing by a random number of slots (backoff). If the channel is
still sensed as idle during the backoff period, the station commences transmitting. In both
92
modes of operation unicast transmissions must get positively acknowledged or else the
transmission is declared erroneous. Multicast and broadcast packets are not acknowledged.
The synchronized channel condition occurs when the channel is idle in the channel
synchronization interval, which starts immediately after the end of the previous channel
access cycle. The synchronized channel access cycle consists of three distinct phases:
4.9 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to

replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security.
Bluetooth technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets,
which is a local area network with a very limited coverage.
 History of Bluetooth
WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a

wireless carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one
another without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area
Networks (PANs).
o Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable
communication between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio
interfaces.
o In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to
form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto
standard for PANs.
o IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer
applications.
Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio
Frequency (RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate radio
waves in the ISM band.
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The usage of Bluetooth has widely increased for its special features.
o Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other.
o Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth
enabled device, almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth
enabled devices.
o Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten

meters has paved the way for several usage models.
o Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
o Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and
mobile phones.
 Piconets and Scatternets
Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through

shortrange devices known as Piconets. Bluetooth devices exist in small ad-hoc
configurations with the ability to act either as master or slave the specification allows a
mechanism for master and slave to switch their roles. Point to point configuration with one
master and one slave is the simplest configuration.
When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is called
a PICONET. A Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master.
The device that initializes establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.
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The master is responsible for transmission control by dividing the network into a series of
time slots amongst the network members, as a part of time division multiplexing scheme
which is shown below.
The features of Pico nets are as follows
o Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence
of individual devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of master.
o Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a
single Piconet.
o Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.
o Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices

enter and leave piconets.
o There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are
essentially master-to-slave or slave-to-master.
o Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
o Transmission starts in the slave-to-master time slot immediately following a polling

packet from the master.
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o A device can be a member of two or more piconets, jumping from one piconet to
another by adjusting the transmission regime-timing and frequency hopping sequence
dictated by the master device of the second piconet.
o It can be a slave in one piconet and master in another. It however cannot be a master
in more than once piconet.
o Devices resident in adjacent piconets provide a bridge to support inner-piconet

connections, allowing assemblies of linked piconets to form a physically extensible
communication infrastructure known as Scatternet.
 Spectrum
Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
band at 2.4 to 2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal
rate of 1600 hops/sec. the 2.4 GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.
 Range
Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1
meter or 3 feet Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of
10 meters or 30 feet Class 1 radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of
100 meters or 300 feet.
 Data rate
Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0
combined with Error Data Rate.
4.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed in detail about GSM (Global system for mobile
communication) as well as DECT, further we have discussed the wireless Lan and Infra-Red
Vs Radio transmission. Finally, we have go through the highly advanced concepts like IEEE
802.11 or Wi-Fi as well as high performance local area network and Bluetooth.
4.11 KEYWORDS
GSM
DECT
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HIPERLAN
BLUETOOTH
4.12 QUESTION FOR SELF STUDY
1.What is Global system for mobile communication(GSM)? Explain

2.Explain DECT in detail.
3. What is wireless LAN? explain in detail.
4. Differentiate between the Infrared Vs Radio transmission.
5. what is Ad-hoc networks? Explain
6. Briefly explain IEEE 802.11 or Wi-Fi.
7. Explain HIPERLAN.
8. Briefly explain Bluetooth and its features in detail.
4.13 REFERENCES

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UNIT – 5
MOBILE NETWORK LAYER
STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Mobile Network Layer
5.2 Mobile IP
5.3 Dynamic Host configuration protocol
5.4 Summary
5.5 Keywords
5.7 Reference
5.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define mobile Network layer

 Mobile IP
 Dynamic host configuration protocol
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5.1 MOBILE NETWORK LAYER
Layer-3 in the OSI model is called Network layer. Network layer manages options
pertaining to host and network addressing, managing sub-networks, and internetworking.
Network layer takes the responsibility for routing packets from source to destination within
or outside a subnet. Two different subnet may have different addressing schemes or non-
compatible addressing types. Same with protocols, two different subnets may be operating
on different protocols which are not compatible with each other. Network layer has the
responsibility to route the packets from source to destination, mapping different addressing
schemes and protocols.
 Layer-3 Functionalities
Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may include
various tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:
o Addressing devices and networks.
o Populating routing tables or static routes.
o Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to quality
of service constraints set for those packets.
o Internetworking between two different subnets.
o Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
o Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
 Network Layer Features
With its standard functionalities, Layer 3 can provide various features as:
o Quality of service management
o Load balancing and link management
o Security
o Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema.
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o Different logical network design over the physical network design.
o L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.
Internet protocol is widely respected and deployed Network Layer protocol which helps to
communicate end to end devices over the internet. It comes in two flavors. IPv4 which has
ruled the world for decades but now is running out of address space. IPv6 is created to
replace IPv4 and hopefully mitigates limitations of IPv4 too.
5.2 MOBILE IP
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that

allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures
that the communication will continue without the user’s sessions or connections being
dropped.
Terminologies:
1. Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the user carries e.g.
Cell phone.
2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as per its
assigned IP address (home address).
3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was
originally connected
4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its
home network).
5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away
from its home network).
6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node is
currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent
which delivers them to the mobile node.
7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile
node.
8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is
moving away from its home network.
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9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP
address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN.
Many MN using the FA can share this COA as a common COA.
10. Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an
additional IP address which acts as COA. This address is now topologically correct,
and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using
services such as DHCP.
Mobile IP
 Working:
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the
correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach the
home agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign
network. The foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the
packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the
foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
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 Tunnelling
establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint.
It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called
encapsulation.
Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source
address is the home address and destination is the care-of-address and sends it through the
tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data
packets, decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in
response to the data packets received sends a reply in response to the foreign agent. The
foreign agent directly sends the reply to the correspondent node.
 Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

1. Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their
agent advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement
messages observes whether the message is from its own home agent and determines
whether it is in the home network or foreign network.
2. Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends a
registration request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in turn, sends the
registration request to the home agent with the care-of-address. The home agent sends a
registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to
the mobile node and completes the process of registration.
3. Tunnelling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry
and an endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a
mechanism called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the
home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the
correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address as home address and
destination as care-of-address.
 Route Optimization in Mobile IP:

The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the
correspondent node. The binding cache contains bindings for the mobile node’s home
address and its current care-of-address. Every time the home agent receives an IP datagram
that is destined to a mobile node currently away from the home network, it sends a binding
update to the correspondent node to update the information in the correspondent node’s
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binding cache. After this, the correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile
node.
5.3 DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) is an application layer protocol which

is used to provide:
o Subnet Mask (Option 1 – e.g., 255.255.255.0)

o Router Address (Option 3 – e.g., 192.168.1.1)
o DNS Address (Option 6 – e.g., 8.8.8.8)
o Vendor Class Identifier (Option 43 – e.g., ‘unifi’ = 192.168.1.9 ##where unifi =
controller)
DHCP is based on a client-server model and based on discovery, offer, request, and ACK.
DHCP port number for server is 67 and for the client is 68. It is a Client server protocol
which uses UDP services. IP address is assigned from a pool of addresses. In DHCP, the
client and the server exchange mainly 4 DHCP messages in order to make a connection,
also called DORA process, but there are 8 DHCP messages in the process.
These messages are given as below:
1. DHCP discover message
This is a first message generated in the communication process between server and client.
This message is generated by Client host in order to discover if there is any DHCP
server/servers are present in a network or not. This message is broadcasted to all devices
present in a network to find the DHCP server. This message is 342 or 576 bytes’ long
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1. As shown in the figure, source MAC address (client PC) is 08002B2EAF2A,
destination MAC address(server) is FFFFFFFFFFFF, source IP address is
0.0.0.0(because PC has no IP address till now) and destination IP address is
255.255.255.255 (IP address used for broadcasting). As the discover message is
broadcast to find out the DHCP server or servers in the network therefore broadcast IP
address and MAC address is used.
2. DHCP offer message
The server will respond to host in this message specifying the unleased IP address and
other TCP configuration information. This message is broadcasted by server. Size of
message is 342 bytes. If there are more than one DHCP servers present in the network,
then client host will accept the first DHCP OFFER message it receives. Also a server ID
is specified in the packet in order to identify the server.
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1. Now, for the offer message, source IP address is 172.16.32.12 (server’s IP address in
the example), destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 (broadcast IP address), source
MAC address is 00AA00123456, destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF. Here,
the offer message is broadcast by the DHCP server therefore destination IP address is
broadcast IP address and destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF and the source IP
address is server IP address and MAC address is server MAC address.
Also the server has provided the offered IP address 192.16.32.51 and lease time of 72
hours (after this time the entry of host will be erased from the server automatically).
Also the client identifier is PC MAC address (08002B2EAF2A) for all the messages.
2. DHCP request message
When a client receives an offer message, it responds by broadcasting a DHCP request

message. The client will produce a gratuitous ARP in order to find if there is any other
host present in the network with same IP address. If there is no reply by other host, then
there is no host with same TCP configuration in the network and the message is
broadcasted to server showing the acceptance of IP address. A Client ID is also added in
this message.
1. Now, the request message is broadcast by the client PC therefore source IP address is
0.0.0.0(as the client has no IP right now) and destination IP address is 255.255.255.255
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(broadcast IP address) and source MAC address is 08002B2EAF2A (PC MAC address)
and destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF.
Note – This message is broadcast after the ARP request broadcast by the PC to find out
whether any other host is not using that offered IP. If there is no reply, then the client
host broadcast the DHCP request message for the server showing the acceptance of IP
address and Other TCP/IP Configuration.
2. DHCP acknowledgement message

In response to the request message received, the server will make an entry with
specified client ID and bind the IP address offered with lease time. Now, the client will
have the IP address provided by server.
1. Now the server will make an entry of the client host with the offered IP address and
lease time. This IP address will not be provided by server to any other host. The
destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF and the destination IP address is
255.255.255.255 and the source IP address is 172.16.32.12 and the source MAC address
is 00AA00123456 (server MAC address).
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2. DHCP negative acknowledgement message
Whenever a DHCP server receives a request for IP address that is invalid according to
the scopes that is configured with, it send DHCP Nak message to client. Eg-when the
server has no IP address unused or the pool is empty, then this message is sent by the
server to client.
3. DHCP decline
If DHCP client determines the offered configuration parameters are different or invalid,
it sends DHCP decline message to the server .When there is a reply to the gratuitous
ARP by any host to the client, the client sends DHCP decline message to the server
showing the offered IP address is already in use.
4. DHCP release
A DHCP client sends DHCP release packet to server to release IP address and cancel
any remaining lease time.
5. DHCP inform
If a client address has obtained IP address manually then the client uses a DHCP inform
to obtain other local configuration parameters, such as domain name. In reply to the
dhcp inform message, DHCP server generates DHCP ack message with local
configuration suitable for the client without allocating a new IP address. This DHCP
ack message is unicast to the client.
Note – All the messages can be unicast also by dhcp relay agent if the server is present in
different network.
Advantages – The advantages of using DHCP include:
 centralized management of IP addresses

 ease of adding new clients to a network
 reuse of IP addresses reducing the total number of IP addresses that are required
 simple reconfiguration of the IP address space on the DHCP server without needing to
reconfigure each client
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The DHCP protocol gives the network administrator a method to configure the network
from a centralised area.
With the help of DHCP, easy handling of new users and reuse of IP address can be
achieved.
Disadvantages – Disadvantage of using DHCP is:

 IP conflict can occur
5.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about mobile network layer. So later we have discussed about
the mobile IP and its different types of configuration. Hence finally we are going to check it
about dynamic host configuration protocol and its advantages and disadvantages.
5.5 KEYWORDS
DHCP
MAC
TCP
HOST
1. What is mobile Network Layer? Explain

3. Briefly explain Mobile IP.
4. Explain Dynamic host configuration protocol.
4. what are the advantages and disadvantages of Dynamic host configuration protocol?
5. What is Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:
5.7 REFERENCES
6. David Taniar, Mobile Computing Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Application
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UNIT – 6
Ad-Hoc NETWORKS
STRUCTURE
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Ad-hoc Networks
6.2 Mobile transport Layer
6.3 Traditional TCP
6.4 Classical TCP improvements
6.5 Summary
6.6 Keywords
6.8 Reference
6.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define ad-hoc networks

 Mobile Transport layer
 Classical TCP improvements
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6.1 AD-HOC NETWORKS
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or Adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link
Layer ad hoc network. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-
configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are
free to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a
router as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.
MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet. They form
a highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different
transceivers between nodes. The main challenge for the MANET is to equip each device to
continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. MANETs consist
of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically
communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging
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from sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy
defense, weapons, robots, etc.
 Characteristics of MANET
o Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly
with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
o Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as
compared to a wired network
o Autonomous Behaviour:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behaviour.
o Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their
energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight
features.
o Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is
absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host
configuration.
o Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they
are dynamically autonomous in nature.
Pros and Cons of MANET
Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
3. Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
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Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
6.2 MOBILE TRANSPORT LAYER

o The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.
o The main role of the transport layer is to provide the communication services directly
to the application processes running on different hosts.
o The transport layer provides a logical communication between application processes
running on different hosts. Although the application processes on different hosts are
not physically connected, application processes use the logical communication
provided by the transport layer to send the messages to each other.
o The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end systems but not in the
network routers.
o A computer network provides more than one protocol to the network applications. For
example, TCP and UDP are two transport layer protocols that provide a different set
of services to the network layer.
o All transport layer protocols provide multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It also
provides other services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth guarantees, and delay
guarantees.
o Each of the applications in the application layer has the ability to send a message by
using TCP or UDP. The application communicates by using either of these two
protocols. Both TCP and UDP will then communicate with the internet protocol in the
internet layer. The applications can read and write to the transport layer. Therefore,
we can say that communication is a two-way process.
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 Services provided by the Transport Layer
The services provided by the transport layer are similar to those of the data link layer. The
data link layer provides the services within a single network while the transport layer
provides the services across an internetwork made up of many networks. The data link layer
controls the physical layer while the transport layer controls all the lower layers.
The services provided by the transport layer protocols can be divided into five
categories:
o End-to-end delivery
o Addressing
o Reliable delivery
o Flow control
o Multiplexing
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End-to-end delivery:
The transport layer transmits the entire message to the destination. Therefore, it ensures the
end-to-end delivery of an entire message from a source to the destination.
Reliable delivery:
The transport layer provides reliability services by retransmitting the lost and damaged
packets.
 The reliable delivery has four aspects:
o Error control
o Sequence control
o Loss control
o Duplication control
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 Error Control
o The primary role of reliability is Error Control. In reality, no transmission will be

100 percent error-free delivery. Therefore, transport layer protocols are designed to
provide error-free transmission.
o The data link layer also provides the error handling mechanism, but it ensures only
node-to-node error-free delivery. However, node-to-node reliability does not ensure
the end-to-end reliability.
o The data link layer checks for the error between each network. If an error is
introduced inside one of the routers, then this error will not be caught by the data link
layer. It only detects those errors that have been introduced between the beginning
and end of the link. Therefore, the transport layer performs the checking for the errors
end-to-end to ensure that the packet has arrived correctly.
 Sequence Control
o The second aspect of the reliability is sequence control which is implemented at the
transport layer.
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o On the sending end, the transport layer is responsible for ensuring that the packets
received from the upper layers can be used by the lower layers. On the receiving end,
it ensures that the various segments of a transmission can be correctly reassembled.
 Loss Control
Loss Control is a third aspect of reliability. The transport layer ensures that all the fragments
of a transmission arrive at the destination, not some of them. On the sending end, all the
fragments of transmission are given sequence numbers by a transport layer. These sequence
numbers allow the receiver?s transport layer to identify the missing segment.
 Duplication Control
Duplication Control is the fourth aspect of reliability. The transport layer guarantees that no
duplicate data arrive at the destination. Sequence numbers are used to identify the lost
packets; similarly, it allows the receiver to identify and discard duplicate segments.
 Flow Control
Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver. If the receiver is
overloaded with too much data, then the receiver discards the packets and asking for the
retransmission of packets. This increases network congestion and thus, reducing the system
performance. The transport layer is responsible for flow control. It uses the sliding window
protocol that makes the data transmission more efficient as well as it controls the flow of data
so that the receiver does not become overwhelmed. Sliding window protocol is byte oriented
rather than frame oriented.
 Multiplexing
The transport layer uses the multiplexing to improve transmission efficiency.
 Multiplexing can occur in two ways:
o Upward multiplexing: Upward multiplexing means multiple transport layer

connections use the same network connection. To make more cost-effective, the
transport layer sends several transmissions bound for the same destination along the
same path; this is achieved through upward multiplexing.
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o Downward multiplexing: Downward multiplexing means one transport layer
connection uses the multiple network connections. Downward multiplexing allows the
transport layer to split a connection among several paths to improve the throughput.
This type of multiplexing is used when networks have a low or slow capacity.
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 Addressing
o According to the layered model, the transport layer interacts with the functions of the
session layer. Many protocols combine session, presentation, and application layer
protocols into a single layer known as the application layer. In these cases, delivery to
the session layer means the delivery to the application layer. Data generated by an
application on one machine must be transmitted to the correct application on another
machine. In this case, addressing is provided by the transport layer.
o The transport layer provides the user address which is specified as a station or port.
The port variable represents a particular TS user of a specified station known as a
Transport Service access point (TSAP). Each station has only one transport entity.
o The transport layer protocols need to know which upper-layer protocols are
communicating.
6.3 TRADITIONAL TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport layer protocol that serves as an
interface between client and server. The TCP/IP protocol is used to transfer the data packets
between transport layer and network layer. Transport protocol is mainly designed for fixed
end systems and fixed, wired networks. In simple terms, the traditional TCP is defined as a
wired network while classical TCP uses wireless approach. Mainly TCP is designed for
fixed networks and fixed, wired networks.
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The main research activities in TCP are as listed below.
1. Congestion control
During data transmission from sender to receiver, sometimes the data packet may be lost. It
is not because of hardware or software problem. Whenever the packet loss is confirmed, the
probable reason might be the temporary overload at some point in the transmission path.
This temporary overload is otherwise called as Congestion. Congestion is caused often even
when the network is designed perfectly. The transmission speed of receiver may not be
equal to the transmission speed of the sender. if the capacity of the sender is more than the
capacity of output link, then the packet buffer of a router is filled and the router cannot
forward the packets fast enough. The only thing the router can do in this situation is to drop
some packets.
The receiver sense the packet loss but does not send message regarding packet loss to the
sender. Instead, the receiver starts to send acknowledgement for all the received packets
and the sender soon identifies the missing acknowledgement. The sender now notices that a
packet is lost and slows down the transmission process. By this, the congestion is reduced.
This feature of TCP is one of the reason for its demand even today.
2. Slow start:
The behaviour TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called as slow start. The
sender always calculates a congestion window for a receiver. At first the sender sends a
packet and waits for the acknowledgement. Once the acknowledgement is back it doubles
the packet size and sends two packets. After receiving two acknowledgements, one for each
packet, the sender again doubles the packet size and this process continues. This is called
Exponential growth. It is dangerous to double the congestion window each time because the
steps might become too large. The exponential growth stops at congestion threshold. As it
reaches congestion threshold, the increase in transmission rate becomes linear (i.e., the
increase is only by 1). Linear increase continues until the sender notices gap between the
acknowledgments. In this case, the sender sets the size of congestion window to half of its
congestion threshold and the process continues.
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3. Fast re-transmission:
In TCP, two things lead to a reduction of the congestion threshold. One of those is sender
receiving continuous acknowledgements for the single packet. By this it can convey either
of two things. One such thing is that the receiver received all the packets up to the
acknowledged one and the other thing is the gap is due to packet loss. Now the sender
immediately re-transmit the missing packet before the given time expires. This is called as
Fast re-transmission.
Example:
Assume that few packets of data are being transferred from sender to receiver, and the
speed of sender is 2 Mbps and the speed of receiver is 1 Mbps respectively. Now the
packets that are being transferred from sender to receiver makes a traffic jam inside the
network. Due to this the network may drop some of the packets. When these packets are
lost, the receiver sends the acknowledgement to the sender and the sender identifies the
missing acknowledgement. This process is called as congestion control.
Now the slow start mechanism takes up the plan. The sender slows down the packet
transfer and then the traffic is slightly reducing. After sometime it puts a request to fast r e-
transmission through which the missing packets can be sent again as fast as possible. After
all these mechanisms, the process of next packet begins.
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6.4 CLASSICAL TCP IMPROVEMENTS
The classical transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most important protocols of
Internet Protocols suite. It is most widely used protocol for data transmission in
communication network such as internet.
 Features
o TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the receiver always sends either positive or negative
acknowledgement about the data packet to the sender, so that the sender always has
bright clue about whether the data packet is reached the destination or it needs to
resend it.
o TCP ensures that the data reaches intended destination in the same order it was sent.
o TCP is connection oriented. TCP requires that connection between two remote points
be established before sending actual data.
o TCP provides error-checking and recovery mechanism.
o TCP provides end-to-end communication.
o TCP provides flow control and quality of service.
o TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.
o TCP provides full duplex server, i.e. it can perform roles of both receiver and sender.
 Header
The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.
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o Source Port (16-bits) It identifies source port of the application process on the
sending device.
o Destination Port (16-bits) It identifies destination port of the application process on

the receiving device.
o Sequence Number (32-bits) Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a

session.
o Acknowledgement Number (32-bits) When ACK flag is set, this number contains
the next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement
of the previous data received.
o Data Offset (4-bits) This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words)
and the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
o Reserved (3-bits) Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
o Flags (1-bit each)
o NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit Congestion Notification signalling process.
o CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE bit set, it sets Congestion Windows
Reduced to acknowledge that ECE received.
o ECE -It has two meanings:
 If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the IP packet has its CE
(congestion experience) bit set.
 If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the device is ECT capable.
o URG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has significant data and should be
processed.
o ACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement field has significance. If ACK is cleared to

0, it indicates that packet does not contain any acknowledgement.
o PSH - When set, it is a request to the receiving station to PUSH data (as soon as it
comes) to the receiving application without buffering it.
o RST - Reset flag has the following features:
 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
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 It is used to reject a segment.
 It is used to restart a connection.
o SYN - This flag is used to set up a connection between hosts.
o FIN - This flag is used to release a connection and no more data is exchanged
thereafter. Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they are
processed in correct order.
o Windows Size - This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates
the amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how
much data is the receiver expecting.
o Checksum - This field contains the checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo Headers.
o Urgent Pointer - It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
o Options - It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular
header. Option field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data
less than 32-bit, padding is used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.
 Addressing
TCP communication between two remote hosts is done by means of port numbers (TSAPs).
Ports numbers can range from 0 – 65535 which are divided as:
o System Ports (0 – 1023)
o User Ports (1024 – 49151)
o Private/Dynamic Ports (49152 – 65535)
 Connection Management
TCP communication works in Server/Client model. The client initiates the connection and
the server either accepts or rejects it. Three-way handshaking is used for connection
management.
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 Establishment
Client initiates the connection and sends the segment with a Sequence number. Server
acknowledges it back with its own Sequence number and ACK of client’s segment which is
one more than client’s Sequence number. Client after receiving ACK of its segment sends an
acknowledgement of Server’s response.
 Release
Either of server and client can send TCP segment with FIN flag set to 1. When the receiving
end responds it back by Acknowledging FIN, that direction of TCP communication is closed
and connection is released.
 Bandwidth Management
TCP uses the concept of window size to accommodate the need of Bandwidth management.
Window size tells the sender at the remote end, the number of data byte segments the
receiver at this end can receive. TCP uses slow start phase by using window size 1 and
increases the window size exponentially after each successful communication.
For example, the client uses windows size 2 and sends 2 bytes of data. When the
acknowledgement of this segment received the windows size is doubled to 4 and next sent
the segment sent will be 4 data bytes long. When the acknowledgement of 4-byte data
segment is received, the client sets windows size to 8 and so on.
If an acknowledgement is missed, i.e. data lost in transit network or it received NACK, then
the window size is reduced to half and slow start phase starts again.
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 Error Control &and Flow Control
TCP uses port numbers to know what application process it needs to handover the data
segment. Along with that, it uses sequence numbers to synchronize itself with the remote
host. All data segments are sent and received with sequence numbers. The Sender knows
which last data segment was received by the Receiver when it gets ACK. The Receiver
knows about the last segment sent by the Sender by referring to the sequence number of
recently received packet.
If the sequence number of a segment recently received does not match with the sequence
number the receiver was expecting, then it is discarded and NACK is sent back. If two
segments arrive with the same sequence number, the TCP timestamp value is compared to
make a decision.
 Multiplexing
The technique to combine two or more data streams in one session is called Multiplexing.
When a TCP client initializes a connection with Server, it always refers to a well-defined
port number which indicates the application process. The client itself uses a randomly
generated port number from private port number pools.
Using TCP Multiplexing, a client can communicate with a number of different application
process in a single session. For example, a client requests a web page which in turn contains
different types of data (HTTP, SMTP, FTP etc.) the TCP session timeout is increased and
the session is kept open for longer time so that the three-way handshake overhead can be
avoided.
This enables the client system to receive multiple connection over single virtual connection.
These virtual connections are not good for Servers if the timeout is too long.
 Congestion Control
When large amount of data is fed to system which is not capable of handling it, congestion
occurs. TCP controls congestion by means of Window mechanism. TCP sets a window size
telling the other end how much data segment to send. TCP may use three algorithms for
congestion control:
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 Additive increase, Multiplicative Decrease
 Slow Start
 Timeout React
Timer Management
TCP uses different types of timer to control and management various tasks:
 Keep-alive timer:
 This timer is used to check the integrity and validity of a connection.
 When keep-alive time expires, the host sends a probe to check if the connection still
exists.
 Retransmission timer:
 This timer maintains stateful session of data sent.
 If the acknowledgement of sent data does not receive within the Retransmission time,
the data segment is sent again.
 Persist timer:
 TCP session can be paused by either host by sending Window Size 0.
 To resume the session a host needs to send Window Size with some larger value.
 If this segment never reaches the other end, both ends may wait for each other for
infinite time.
 When the Persist timer expires, the host re-sends its window size to let the other end
know.
 Persist Timer helps avoid deadlocks in communication.
 Timed-Wait:
 After releasing a connection, either of the hosts waits for a Timed-Wait time to
terminate the connection completely.
 This is in order to make sure that the other end has received the acknowledgement of
its connection termination request.
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 Timed-out can be a maximum of 240 seconds (4 minutes).
 Crash Recovery
TCP is very reliable protocol. It provides sequence number to each of byte sent in segment.
It provides the feedback mechanism i.e. when a host receives a packet, it is bound to ACK
that packet having the next sequence number expected (if it is not the last segment).
When a TCP Server crashes mid-way communication and re-starts its process it sends
TPDU broadcast to all its hosts. The hosts can then send the last data segment which was
never unacknowledged and carry onwards.
6.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about ad-hoc network. So later we have discussed about the
Mobile transport layer as well as how the data its flown securely through different layers in
Transmission control protocols.
6.6 KEYWORDS
FIN
SYN
RST
URG
ECE
1. What is Ad-hoc Network? Explain

2. Briefly explain Mobile Transport Layer.
3. Explain Traditional TCP.
4. Explain Classical TCP improvements?
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6.8 REFERENCES

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UNIT – 7
WIRELESS NETWORKS
STRUCTURE
7.0 Objectives
7.1 TCP over 2.5/3G Wireless Networks
7.2 File systems
7.3 World wide web
7.4 Summary
7.5 Keywords
7.7 Reference
7.0 OBJECTIVES
 Define TCP over 2.5/3G

 Wireless networks
 File systems
 World wide Web
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7.1 TCP OVER 2.5/3G WIRELESS NETWORKS
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most significant protocols in current
Internet. According to some estimation over 90% of Internet traffic is transported over TCP.
For example, www-browsing, e-mail, and FTP are run over TCP. Mobile Internet will support
existing applications and, consequently, also TCP protocol. However, the original TCP
protocol dates back to 1981 when wireless networks did not have the same position as they
have nowadays. As a consequence, TCP contains certain features that are not very suitable
considering the special features of wireless networks.
Especially the heart of TCP, namely flow control and retransmission mechanisms, may
cause problems over wireless interfaces. These problems originate mainly because the basic
TCP assumes that all packet losses are due to network congestion, not bit errors. When this
assumption is combined with the rough flow control scheme of TCP, the performance of
TCP transmissions over wireless networks can be severely degraded.
Fortunately, there exist a number of TCP optimization methods that can be used to improve
the situation. This paper introduces first the basic features of TCP protocol. Next several
TCP optimization methods are introduced and their operation and performance is studied.
Finally, conclusions are made about the use of TCP optimization methods in wireless
networks.
 TCP FLOW CONTROL
TCP provides a connection-oriented, reliable, byte stream service. There are several ways to
guarantee reliability, in which acknowledgment and advertised window are two important
concepts. If the TCP sender doesn't receive an acknowledgment (ACK) of one certain
segment during a certain time, the segment is retransmitted. By advertised window, the
receiving TCP can inform the TCP sender that how much buffer the receiver has, so it
prevents a fast host from taking all the buffers on a slower host.
Besides the above simple flow control, TCP also supports four intertwined congestion
control algorithms, slow start, congestion avoidance, fast retransmit and fast recovery. Slow
start operates by observing that the rate at which new packets should be injected into the
network is the rate at which the acknowledgments are returned by the other end. Slow start
adds another window to sender's TCP: the congestion window. By setting congestion
window, slow start adjusts the sending rate of the TCP sender.
Meanwhile, when congestion occurs, congestion avoidance algorithm decreases the sending
rate immediately by reducing the congestion window to one segment. Fast retransmit
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algorithm is based on the idea that when the third of duplicate acknowledgments is received,
TCP assume that a segment has been lost, and retransmit only this one segment, without
waiting for a retransmission TCP over 2.5G and 3G wireless networks timer to expire. Then,
fast recovery algorithm, but not slow start is triggered. Fast recovery algorithm doesn't
reduce the flow abruptly as slow start does, because there is still data flowing between the
two ends.
 ISSUES WITH 2.5G/3G WIRELESS NETWORKS
Hosts in a wired network are connected by cables and hence there is least transmission error
due to interference from the environment. In contrast, hosts in wireless networks move
frequently while communicating and as they share the media for communication they
experience a lot of interference from the environment.
 High Bit Error Rate (BER)
TCP regards all data loss as a notification of network congestion and lowers its sending rate
accordingly. This is a proper behaviour in wired networks where data loss due to bit error is
uncommon. However, the wireless BER is high because wireless transmission is vulnerable
to interference from the environment. If TCP unnecessarily performs a lot of congestion
control reactions in case of corruption loss, the end-to-end throughput might be degraded.
Especially in the 2.5G/3G networks, in order to improve the performance of wireless link,
the link layer applies for ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) and FEC (Forward error
correction). In general, the link layer ARQ and FEC can provide an almost error-free packet
service to the upper layer traffic. However, the retransmission by ARQ introduces latency
and jitter to the link layer flow, that results in relatively large bandwidth-delay product of
the 2.5G/3G networks.
 Mobility
Wireless hosts may move frequently while communicating. When the movement of a host
causes the change to another access node, i.e. another wireless link, data already in fight to
the wireless host is lost. If the sender has a large window and the link has a large bandwidth
product, such kind of losses is really considerable. Besides, the TCP at the destination
interprets this loss as congestion and invokes congestion control mechanisms, which is also
unnecessary.
 Narrow bandwidth
Bandwidth is a scarce resource in the current wireless networks. The maximal bandwidth for
circuit switching is 2M bits/s according to the 3G standard and it is for indoor use only. The
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outdoor bitrate is even lower, around 384K bits/s. Bandwidth also varies highly on wireless
networks. From the network infrastructure point of view, a device, which connects a
wireless link and a wired link, is likely to get congested by traffic towards wireless hosts.
7.2 FILE SYSTEMS
A file system is a process of managing how and where data on a storage disk, which is also
referred to as file management or FS. It is a logical disk component that compresses files
separated into groups, which is known as directories. It is abstract to a human user and related
to a computer; hence, it manages a disk's internal operations. Files and additional directories
can be in the directories. Although there are various file systems with Windows, NTFS is the
most common in modern times. It would be impossible for a file with the same name to exist
and also impossible to remove installed programs and recover specific files without file
management, as well as files would have no organization without a file structure. The file
system enables you to view a file in the current directory as files are often managed in a
hierarchy.
A disk (e.g., Hard disk drive) has a file system, despite type and usage. Also, it contains
information about file size, file name, file location fragment information, and where disk data
is stored and also describes how a user or application may access the data. The operations
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like metadata, file naming, storage management, and directories/folders are all managed by
the file system.
On a storage device, files are stored in sectors in which data is stored in groups of sectors
called blocks. The size and location of the files are identified by the file system, and it also
helps to recognize which sectors are ready to be used. Other than Windows, there are some
other operating systems that contain FAT and NTFS file system. But Apple product (like iOS
and macOS) uses HFS+ as operating system is horizon by many different kinds of file
systems.
Sometimes the term "file system" is used in the reference of partitions. For instance, saying,
"on the hard drive, two files systems are available," that does not have to mean the drive is
divided between two file systems, NTFS and FAT. But it means two separate partitions are
there that use the same physical disk.44.4M721
In order to work, a file system is required by most of the applications you come into contact
with; therefore, each partition should have one. Furthermore, if a program is built for use in
macOS, you will be unable to use this program on windows because programs are file
system-dependent.
 Examples of file systems
The examples of file systems are given below:
o FAT: FAT is a type of file system, which is developed for hard drives. It stands for
file allocation table and was first introduced in 1977, which is used for 12 or 16 bits
for each and every cluster access into the file allocation table (FAT). On hard drives
and other computer systems, it helps to manage files on Microsoft operating systems.
In devices like digital cameras, flash memory, and other portable devices, it is also
often found that is used to store file information. It also helps to extend the life of a
hard drive as it minimizes the wear and tears on the hard disc. Today, FAT is not used
by later versions of Microsoft Windows like Windows XP, Vista, 7, and 10 as they
use NTFS. The FAT8, FAT12, FAT32, FAT16 are all the different types of FAT (for
file allocation table).
o GFS: A GFS is a file system, which stands for Global File System. It has the ability
to make enable multiple computers to act as an integrated machine, which is first
developed at the University of Minnesota. But now it is maintained by Red Hat. When
the physical distance of two or more computers is high, and they are unable to send
files directly with each other, a GFS file system makes them capable of sharing a
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group of files directly. A computer can organize its I/O to preserve file systems with
the help of a global file system.
o HFS: HFS (Hierarchical file system) is the file system that is used on a Macintosh
computer for creating a directory at the time a hard disk is formatted. Generally, its
basic function is to organize or hold the files on a Macintosh hard disk. Apple is not
capable of supporting to write to or format HFS disks since when OS X came on the
market. Also, HFS-formatted drives are not recognized by Windows computers as
HFS is a Macintosh format. With the help of WIN32 or NTFS file systems, Windows
hard drives are formatted.
o NTFS: NTFS is the file system, which stands for NT file system and stores and
retrieves files on Windows NT operating system and other versions of Windows like
Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, and Windows 10. Sometimes, it is known
as the New Technology File System. As compared to the FAT and HPFS file system,
it provides better methods of file recovery and data protection and offers a number of
improvements in terms of extendibility, security, and performance.
o UDF: A UDF is a file system, stands for Universal Disk Format and used first
developed by OSTA (Optical Storage Technology Association) in 1995 for ensuring
consistency among data written to several optical media. It is used with CD-ROMs
and DVD-ROMs and is supported on all operating systems. Now, it is used in the
process of CD-R's and CD-RW's, called packet writing.
 Architecture of the File System
Two or three layers are contained by the file system. Sometimes, these layers function
combined and sometimes are explicitly separated. For file operations, the API (Application
Program Interface) is provided by the logical file system, like OPEN, CLOSE, READ, and
more because it is accountable for interaction with the user application. Also, for processing,
the requested operation is forwarded to the layer that is located below it. Furthermore, for
various concurrent instances of physical file systems, the second optional layer allows
support, which is a virtual file system. And each concurrent instance is called a file system
implementation.
The third layer is responsible for handling buffering and memory management, which is
called the physical file system. It is concerned with the physical operation of the storage
device and processes physical blocks being read or written. Furthermore, to drive the storage
device, this layer interacts with the channel and the device drivers.
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 Types of file systems
There are various kinds of file systems, which are as follows:
1. Disk file systems
On the disk storage medium, a disk file system has the ability to randomly address data
within a few amounts of time. Also, it includes the anticipation that led to the speed of
accessing data. Without regard to the sequential location of the data, multiple users can
access several data on the disk with the help of a disk file system.
2. Flash file systems
A flash file system is responsible for restrictions, performance, and special abilities of
flash memory. It is superior to utilize a file system that is designed for a flash device;
however, a disk file system is the basic storage media, which can use a flash memory
device.
3. Tape file systems
A tape file system is used to hold files on the tape as it is a tape format and file system.
As compared to disks, magnetic tapes are more powerful to access data for a long time,
which are the challenges for a general-purpose file system in terms of creation and
efficient management.
4. Database file systems
A database-based file system is another method for file management. Files are
recognized by their characteristics (like a type of file, author, topic, etc.) rather than
hierarchical structured management.
5. Transactional file systems
Some programs require one or more changes to fail for any reason or need several file
systems changes but do not make any changes. For instance, a program may write
configuration files or libraries mand executables at the time of installing or updating
the software. The software may be unusable or broken if the software is stopped while
updating or installing. Also, the entire system may leave in an unusable state if the
process of installing or updating the software is incomplete.
6. Network file systems
A network file system offers access to files on a server. In remote network-connected
computers, with the help of local interfaces, programs are able to transparently create,
manage and access hierarchical files and directories. The file-system-like clients for
FTP and WebDAV, and AFS, SMB protocols, NFS are all examples of the network
file systems.
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7. Shared disk file systems
A shared-disk file system allows the same external disk subsystem to be accessed by
multiple machines, but when the number of machines accesses the same external disk
subsystem, there may be occurred collisions in this condition; so, to prevent the
collision, the file system decides which subsystem to be accessed.
8. Minimal file system
In the 1970s, for some initial microcomputer users, disk and digital tape devices were
much expensive. A few cheaper basic data storage systems used common audio
cassette tape was designed. On the cassette recorder, the user was informed about
pressing "RECORD" when there was required to write data by system. And, to notify
the system, press "RETURN" on the keyboard. Also, on the cassette recorder, the user
was needed to press the "PLAY" button when the system required to read data.
9. Flat file systems
The subdirectories are not available in the flat system. It contains the only directory,
and all files are held in a single directory. Due to the relatively small amount of data
space available, this type of file system was adequate when floppy disk media was
available for the first time.
7.3 WORLD WIDE WEB
World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages
stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet. These websites
contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content of these
sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as computers,
laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and display of
text and media to your device.
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The building blocks of the Web are web pages which are formatted in HTML and connected
by links called "hypertext" or hyperlinks and accessed by HTTP. These links are electronic
connections that link related pieces of information so that users can access the desired
information quickly. Hypertext offers the advantage to select a word or phrase from text and
thus to access other pages that provide additional information related to that word or phrase.
A web page is given an online address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A
particular collection of web pages that belong to a specific URL is called a website,
e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the World Wide Web is like a huge
electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers across the world. Small websites
store all of their WebPages on a single server, but big websites or organizations place their
WebPages on different servers in different countries so that when users of a country search
their site they could get the information quickly from the nearest server.
So, the web provides a communication platform for users to retrieve and exchange
information over the internet. Unlike a book, where we move from one page to another in a
sequence, on World Wide Web we follow a web of hypertext links to visit a web page and
from that web page to move to other web pages. You need a browser, which is installed on
your computer, to access the Web.
 Difference between World Wide Web and Internet:
Some people use the terms 'internet' and 'World Wide Web' interchangeably. They think they
are the same thing, but it is not so. Internet is entirely different from WWW. It is a worldwide
network of devices like computers, laptops, tablets, etc. It enables users to send emails to
other users and chat with them online. For example, when you send an email or chatting with
someone online, you are using the internet.
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But, when you have opened a website like google.com for information, you are using the
World Wide Web; a network of servers over the internet. You request a webpage from your
computer using a browser, and the server renders that page to your browser. Your computer
is called a client who runs a program (web browser), and asks the other computer (server) for
the information it needs.
 History of the World Wide Web:
The World Wide Web was invented by a British scientist, Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. He was
working at CERN at that time. Originally, it was developed by him to fulfil the need of
automated information sharing between scientists across the world, so that they could easily
share the data and results of their experiments and studies with each other. CERN, where Tim
Berners worked, is a community of more than 1700 scientists from more than 100 countries.
These scientists spend some time on CERN site, and rest of the time they work at their
universities and national laboratories in their home countries, so there was a need for reliable
communication tools so that they can exchange information. Internet and Hypertext were
available at this time, but no one thought how to use the internet to link or share one
document to another. Tim focused on three main technologies that could make computers
understand each other, HTML, URL, and HTTP. So, the objective behind the invention of
WWW was to combine recent computer technologies, data networks, and hypertext into a
user-friendly and effective global information system.
 How the Invention Started:
In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee took the initiative towards the invention of WWW and
wrote the first proposal for the World Wide Web. Later, he wrote another proposal in May
1990. After a few months, in November 1990, along with Robert Cailliau, it was formalized
as a management proposal. This proposal had outlined the key concepts and defined
terminology related to the Web. In this document, there was a description of "hypertext
project" called World Wide Web in which a web of hypertext documents could be viewed by
browsers. His proposal included the three main technologies (HTML, URL, and HTTP). In
1990, Tim Berners-Lee was able to run the first Web server and browser at CERN to
demonstrate his ideas. He used a NeXT computer to develop the code for his Web server and
put a note on the computer "The machine is a server. Do Not Power It DOWN!!" So that it
was not switched off accidentally by someone. In 1991, Tim created the world's first website
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and Web Server. Its address was info.cern.ch, and it was running at CERN on the NeXT
computer.
 The Web Grows:
NeXT computer platform was accessible by a few users. Later, the development of 'line-
mode' browser, which could run on any system, started. In 1991, Berners-Lee introduced his
WWW software with 'line-mode' browser, Web server software and a library for developers.
In March 1991, it was available to colleagues who were using CERN computers. After a few
months, in August 1991, he introduced the WWW software on internet newsgroups, and it
generated interest in the project across the world. Graphic interface for the internet, first
introduced to the public on 6 August 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. On 23 August 1991, it was
available to everyone.
 Becoming Global:
The first Web server came online in December 1991 in the United States. At this time, there
were only two types of browsers; the original development version which was available only
on NeXT machines and the 'line-mode' browser which was easy to install and run on any
platform but was less user-friendly and had limited power. For further improvement, Berners-
Lee asked other developers via the internet to contribute to its development. Many developers
wrote browsers for the X-Window System. The first web server, outside Europe, was
introduced at Standard University in the United States in 1991. In the same year, there were
only ten known web servers across the world. Later at the beginning of 1993, the National
Centre for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) introduced the first version of its Mosaic
browser. It ran in the X Window System environment. Later, the NCSA released versions for
the PC and Macintosh environments. With the introduction of user-friendly browsers on these
computers, the WWW started spreading tremendously across the world.
Eventually, the European Commission approved its first web project in the same year with
CERN as one of its partners. In April 1993, CERN made the source code of WWW available
on a royalty-free basis and thus made it free software. Royalty-free means one has the right to
use copyright material or intellectual property without paying any royalty or license fee.
Thus, CERN allowed people to use the code and web protocol for free. The technologies that
were developed to make the WWW became an open source to allow people to use them for
free. Eventually, people started creating websites for online businesses, to provide
information and other similar purposes.
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At the end of 1993, there were more than 500 web servers, and the WWW has 1% of the total
internet traffic. In May 1994, the First International World Wide Web conference was held at
CERN and was attended by around 400 users and developers and popularly known as the
"Woodstock of the Web." In the same year, the telecommunication companies started
providing internet access, and people have access to WWW available at their homes.
In the same year, one more conference was held in the United States, which was attended by
over 1000 people. It was organized by the NCSA and the newly-formed International WWW
Conference Committee (IW3C2). At the end of this year (1994), the World Wide Web had
around 10000 servers and 10 million users. The technology was continuously improved to
fulfil growing needs and security, and e-commerce tools were decided to be added soon.
 Open standards:
The main objective was to keep the Web an open standard for all rather than a proprietary
system. Accordingly, CERN sent a proposal to the Commission of the European Union under
the ESPRIT program "Web Core." This project's objective was to form an international
consortium in collaboration with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the US. In
1994, Berners-Lee left CERN and joined MIT and established the International World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C) and a new European partner was needed for W3C.
The European Commission approached the French National Institute for Research in
Computer Science and Controls (INRIA), to substitute the CERN's role. Eventually, in April
1995, INRIA became the first European W3C host and in 1996 Keio University of Japan
became another host in Asia. In 2003, ERCIM (European Research Consortium in
Informatics and Mathematics) replaced INRIA for the role of European W3C Host. Beijing
University was announced as the fourth Host by W3C in 2013. In September 2018, there
were over 400 member organizations around the world. Since its inception, the Web has
changed a lot and is still changing today.
 How the World Wide Web Works?

Now, we have understood that WWW is a collection of websites connected to the internet so
that people can search and share information. Now, let us understand how it works!
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The Web works as per the internet's basic client-server format as shown in the following
image. The servers store and transfer web pages or information to user's computers on the
network when requested by the users. A web server is a software program which serves the
web pages requested by web users using a browser. The computer of a user who requests
documents from a server is known as a client. Browser, which is installed on the user'
computer, allows users to view the retrieved documents.
All the websites are stored in web servers. Just as someone lives on rent in a house, a website
occupies a space in a server and remains stored in it. The server hosts the website whenever a
user requests its Webpages, and the website owner has to pay the hosting price for the same.
The moment you open the browser and type a URL in the address bar or search something on
Google, the WWW starts working. There are three main technologies involved in transferring
information (web pages) from servers to clients (computers of users). These technologies
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include Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Web
browsers.
 Hypertext Markup Language (HTML):
HTML is a standard markup language which is used for creating web pages. It describes the
structure of web pages through HTML elements or tags. These tags are used to organize the
pieces of content such as 'heading,' 'paragraph,' 'table,' 'Image,' and more. You don't see
HTML tags when you open a webpage as browsers don't display the tags and use them only
to render the content of a web page. In simple words, HTML is used to display text, images,
and other resources through a Web browser.
 Web Browser:
A web browser, which is commonly known as a browser, is a program that displays text,
data, pictures, videos, animation, and more. It provides a software interface that allows you to
click hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web. When you double click the Browser
icon installed on your computer to launch it, you get connected to the World Wide Web and
can search Google or type a URL into the address bar. In the beginning, browsers were used
only for browsing due to their limited potential. Today, they are more advanced; along with
browsing you can use them for e-mailing, transferring multimedia files, using social media
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sites, and participating in online discussion groups and more. Some of the commonly used
browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Safari, and more.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application layer protocol which enables WWW
to work smoothly and effectively. It is based on a client-server model. The client is a web
browser which communicates with the web server which hosts the website. This protocol
defines how messages are formatted and transmitted and what actions the Web Server and
browser should take in response to different commands. When you enter a URL in the
browser, an HTTP command is sent to the Web server, and it transmits the requested Web
Page.
When we open a website using a browser, a connection to the web server is opened, and the
browser communicates with the server through HTTP and sends a request. HTTP is carried
over TCP/IP to communicate with the server. The server processes the browser's request and
sends a response, and then the connection is closed. Thus, the browser retrieves content from
the server for the user.
7.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about TCP over 2.5/3G wireless Networks. So later we have
discussed about the File system as well as world wide web.
7.5 KEYWORDS
Web server
Webpages
W3C
NTFS
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1. What is TCP over 2.5/3G Networks? Explain

2. Briefly explain File system.
3. Write an Architecture of the File System.
3. what is world wide Web? Explain in detail
4. How the world wide web works?
5. Explain History of world wide Web.
7.7 REFERENCES

144
UNIT – 8
WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL
STRUCTURE
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Wireless application protocol (WAP)
8.3 WAP 2.0
8.4 Summary
8.5 Keywords
8.7 Reference
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 Wireless application protocol (WAP)

 WAP 2.0
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
[WAP is] the de facto worldwide standard for providing Internet communications and
advanced telephony services on digital mobile phones, pagers, personal digital assistants,
and other wireless terminals − WAP Forum.
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. The dictionary definition of these terms are
as follows.
 Wireless − Lacking or not requiring a wire or wires pertaining to radio transmission.
 Application − A computer program or piece of computer software that is designed to
do a specific task.
 Protocol − A set of technical rules about how information should be transmitted and
received using computers.
WAP is the set of rules governing the transmission and reception of data by computer
applications on or via wireless devices like mobile phones. WAP allows wireless devices to
view specifically designed pages from the Internet using only plain text and very simple
black-and-white pictures.
WAP is a standardized technology for cross-platform, distributed computing very similar to
the Internet's combination of Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), except that it is optimized for:
o low-display capability
o low-memory
o low-bandwidth devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless phones,
and pagers.
WAP is designed to scale across a broad range of wireless networks like GSM, IS-95, IS-
136, and PDC.
8.2 WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL (WAP)
WAP is a protocol that is introduced in 1999, which stands for Wireless application protocol.
It offers Internet communications over wireless devices, such as mobile phones. In the early
2000s, it accomplished some popularity and was mainly superseded by more recent standards
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by the 2010s. Also, it offers a way of creating web applications for mobile devices, and it is
designed for micro-browsers.
Most of the wireless networks are supported by WAP, as well as TDMA, CDMA, and GSM.
Also, all operating systems can support a wireless application protocol. It enables access to
the internet in mobile devices and uses the mark-up language like WML, which stands for
Wireless Mark-up Language that is referred to as XML 1.0 application. WAP offers the
facility to connect interactive wireless devices (like mobile phones) to the internet and
enhances wireless specification interoperability.
WAP may be created on any kind of operating system, and it acts in an open application
environment. It is more beneficial for mobile users as it has the ability to deliver electronic
information efficiently. In 1998, Nokia, Motorola, Ericson, and Unwired Planet founded the
WAP Forum, whose objective was to standardize several wireless technologies with the help
of protocols.
The WAP CSS (cascading style sheet) makes capable of developers to format screen sizes in
order to mobile device adaptability. When the WAP CSS content is used, then reformatting is
not required. It controls page layout compatibility with different mobile device's display
screens.
The transport layer handles the physical network issues, by which wireless gateways can be
easily accessed by global wireless operations. A WAP gateway is a server, which provides
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the facility to access the wireless network. The WAP Forum offers specification
development, WAP tool testing and also provides support for all mobile services. Now, the
WAP Forum is referred to as the Open Mobile Alliance.
 WAP Model
In the mobile device, the user opens the web browser and access the website and visit
webpages accordingly. The mobile device forwards the URL request to a WAP gateway
through the network using the WAP protocol. Then, the WAP gateway refers to this request
over the internet after translating it into a conventional HTTP URL request. The specified
Web server accepts the request and processes the request. Then, it returns the response to the
mobile device in the WML file through the WAP gateway that will be displayed in the web
browser on the device.
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 WAP Protocol stack
1. Application Layer (WAE)

The Wireless Application Environment contains content development programming
languages like WML and mobile device specifications. It functions much like
a JavaScript and holds the tools that wireless Internet content developers use. It includes
scripting languages such as WML and WMLScript that are used in conjunction with WML.
2. Session Layer (WSP)
It determines the session will be connection-oriented or connectionless between the device
and the network and offers a reconnection and fast connection suspension. The data is passed
both ways between the network and the device in the connection-oriented session. Then,
WSP forwards the packet to the next layer WTP (Wireless Transaction Protocol). When the
information is being streamed or broadcast from the network to the device, commonly, the
connectionless session is used. Then, WSP forwards the packet to the WDP (Wireless
Datagram Protocol) layer.
3. Transaction Layer (WTP)
The Wireless Transaction Protocol offers transaction support. It is a part of TCP/IP and runs
on top of UDP, which stands for User Datagram Protocol.
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4. Security Layer (WTLS)
The Wireless Transport Layer Security provides security in terms of data integrity, privacy
and authentication that help to save your data. It also has the ability to work like Transport
Layer Security. Also, it contains security features that have Transport Layer Security.
5. Transport Layer (WDP)
With the network carrier layer, the Wireless Datagram Protocol functions in conjunction and
presents a constant data format to higher layers of WAP protocol stack.
 Components of WAP
There are three major components of the WAP, which are as follows:
1. Protocol Support
o IP networks: Protocols supported contains the HTTP (known as WP-HTTP), TLS,
and the wireless "profiled" versions of TCP (known as WP-TCP).
o Non-IP networks: It includes four layers: Wireless Transport Layer Security,
Wireless Datagram Protocol, Wireless Session Protocol, and Wireless Transaction
Protocol.
2. Application Environment
o WML Specification: WML stands for Wireless Mark-up Language, based on XML
and XHTML.
o WML Script Specification: A scripting language that is used for running code on
clients.
o WAP Micro Browser: Especially, it is designed to control the WAP device. WAP
devices make capable of operating in a limited resource environment with the help of
a WAP micro-browser.
3. Services and Capabilities
o Customization of User Profile: On the basis of client device capabilities and user
preferences, WAP enables servers to customize content delivered to users.
o Telephony Support: Wireless application protocol allows telephone services to be
operated from within a data environment. As a result, WAP phones can function as
web devices and integrated voice.
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 Advantages of WAP
There are various advantages using WAP; such are as follows:
 Portability
The primary use of WAP is to write applications using proprietary protocols. When you are
porting applications to a different kind of network, it will need substantial code rewriting. For
example, a different type of networks like GSM and CDMA, and bearer protocol like CSD
(circuit-switched data) or SMS (short message service).
 User Experience
o The devices with limited processing power, small screens, limited memory, and
limited battery.
o Provide a narrow bandwidth connection.
 Cost and Application Development Time Reduction
WAP helps to add new services at a lower cost and quickly. It could be done by the WAP
tools and platforms like WAP devices, WAP gateways, and WAP software development tool
kits.
 Some of the other advantages of WAP are:
o No hardware obsolescence
o Real-time send/receive data
o Most modern mobile telephone devices support WAP
o Implementation near to the Internet model
o Time-saving
o Increased sales for devices, infrastructure & gateway manufacturer.
o Personalized
 Disadvantages of WAP
o Not very familiar to the users
o The third party is included
o The business model is expensive
o Low speeds, security, and very small user interface
o Small display screens
o Limited bandwidth
o Speed of access and limited availability
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 Applications for WAP
o Corporate Applications: The WAP has used incorporation applications where
salespeople want to use their WAP for allowing direct access to the latest pricing,
handsets to get instant, competitive information any time, latest news.
o Mobile Banking: It is used in the banking sector for different purposes, such as
provide details of user account balance, last four transactions, overdraft limits and so
on. The elements such as WAP, private information services, security and various
different other elements are included in it. Additionally, it has numerous ways to
provide Users' information. On the other hand, the user can get information by
sending a request via message, or the service can be push-based, which means it can
be automatically generated on the basis of events or set intervals.All mobile phones
are able to run mobile banking services, or services can be tailored for a protocol-
compliant phone or particular branded phone, e.g., WAP. Furthermore, the WAP is
not only beneficial for information provision, but it can also secure electronic
commerce and mobile transactions.
o Games: Games are a huge service that is most widely used by people in terms of
applications or software in mobile devices. Similarly, as music distribution will
increase electronically, games will also increase. You can download games or videos
from an internet site rather than go to a video store to rent a game or video.
o Mobile Commerce: It is required to use a mobile phone for transactions in mobile
commerce applications. Usually, it means transferring funds electronically or making
a payment for goods. Electronic commerce applications offer services for transferring
money between accounts and paying the amount for purchasing something.
o Ringtones: It is another emerging service to download ringtones. When someone
calls on the phone, it plays tunes. The phone users can change their phone ringtone to
make different it from others. Usually, phones come with different inbuilt ringtones
into its internal memory, which users can select from them to set on the phone
ringtone. However, in modern’s times, it is more common to download the ringtones
from an internet site to the phone. Additionally, there are also many ringtone
composers available that help users to compose their own unique ringtones according
to their requirements.
o Unified Messaging: It is an emerging value-added network service that elevates
communication above the technology used to communicate. People get different kinds
of messages that are difficult to manage. For accessing different types of messaging,
152
unified messaging offers users a single interface. Typically, it helps to notify people
when they get a new message with the help of alerting them through a unified
messaging box. The short message commonly includes an indication to specify the
new message. Furthermore, with WAP, users can access and manage their unified
messaging box accordingly.
o Positioning: The meaning of positioning in terms of mobile context can include
several things: the location of phones or vehicles or people. The GPS (Global
Positioning System) is a global network of 24 satellites. A receiver with GPS can get
their satellite position and find out the location. The SMS is standard for
sending GPS information like latitude, longitude, bearing, and latitude. Generally, the
length of GPS information is around 60 characters, which can leave room for other
vehicle-specific information.
o Qualitative Information:
The different variety of content can be delivered to mobile phone users, such as share
prices, flight information, lottery results, sports scores, weather, jokes, news headlines,
and more. This information may be in the form of any kind of visual information,
graphs or maps.
 History of WAP
In 1988, Nokia, Ericsson, Unwired Planet, and Motorola founded the WAP Forum. To collect
together the several wireless technologies in a standardized protocol was the main objective
to develop the WAP (Wireless application protocol).
Europe
When the WAP is introduced, it was hyped by Marketers. BT Cell net, a UK telecom that ran
an advertising campaign, in which with the help of a Necromancer like information space, a
cartoon WAP user was browsed.
Between 2003 and 2004, when the wireless services, such as T-Mobile T-Zones, Vodafone
Live! and other easily accessible services, were introduced, the WAP made a stronger
resurgence. By transferring of UMTS and GPRS, operator revenues were generated that is a
different business model as compared to use by the traditional ISPs and Web sites.
The use of WAP had largely disappeared until 2013. The use of WAP has been retired by
most of the major websites and companies, and for many years, it is not conventional
technology for the web on mobile phones. Now, the latest mobile phone internet browsers are
designed in such a way; they are capable of supporting HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. Also,
for webpage compatibility, modern handsets avoid the need for using any type of WAP
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markup. The handsets that support HTML are widespread, such as all versions of the iPhone,
Android handsets, all Windows Phone, many Nokia handsets, and all Blackberry devices.
 Asia
In Japan, the WAP got major success; even it was not used by the largest operator NTT
DoCoMo, successfully deployed by SoftBank Mobile and rival operators KDDI (au).
Especially the services based on WAP are Java (JSCL), J-Phone's Sha-Mail picture mail
services, as well as (au)'s chakumovie. In 2010, WAP and i-mode usage declined like Europe,
as the smartphones that HTML capable become popular in Japan.
 USA
In the US, the adoption of WAP was suffered as many cell phones required extra fees for data
support and separate activation. There was also a reason for suffering from adopting the
WAP in the US; telecommunications companies demanded limiting data access to only
approved data providers. On 31 July 2007, With the related to the problem, the FCC (Federal
Communications Commission) issued an order. The third-party application developers,
device manufacturers, and others can use any application or device while operating on this
particular licensed network band.
8.3 WAP 2.0
The WAP forum 2.0 version was introduced in 2002 that helps to enhance the wireless user
experience, and uses a cut-down version of XHTML with end-to-end HTTP and carries the
wireless world closer to the internet with a suite of specifications. It offers support for
protocols like HTTP, TCP, and IP that provide an environment, which allows wireless
devices to use present internet technologies. Additionally, it is configured by the operator and
can include billing information, telephone numbers, location, and other handset information.
It includes various features; such are as follows:
o It enhances of WAP Push functionality.
o For describing the device capabilities, it provides a user agent profile.
o Furthermore, it also offers an external functionality interface for supporting external
plug-in, such as functionality in micro browsers.
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 What is WAP Gateway
The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) gateway is a software system that decodes and
encodes requests and responses between the smartphone micro browsers and the internet. A
request for accessing a website is sent via a WAP gateway as it provides security. It helps
devices that are WAP-enabled wireless to communicate to applications and internet Web
sites. You need a WAP gateway service if you want to access internet resources from a
WAP-enabled wireless device. WML (Wireless Markup Language) helps to deliver web
pages in a special format, which is compiled and forwarded through the WAP gateway.
The WAP gateway typically is a server that functions as an intermediary in an access request.
The HTTP requests for a web site to the server, the server gets data from the requested
website. Then, convert it into an encrypted form that displays on the client browser.
 WAP browser
A WAP browser enables mobile devices to access compatible web pages. A large number of
internet protocols can be used by the mini browser to convert web pages into plain text.
Usually, in terms of a WAP browser effectiveness, web developers create separate WAP web
pages for mobile devices. The web content generally takes longer to load without WAP
optimization, also may not translate the content correctly in order to mobile devices.
Advanced internet languages like extensible hypertext markup language (XHTML) and
compact hypertext markup language (CHTML) are also supported by the WAP browsers
today. It has made it possible for newer mobile devices to support advanced internet
languages with the WAP browser to translate popular XHTML media elements. Older types
of mobile devices that contain small display screens still use the WAP browser to translate
web pages. Even modern mobile devices can handle displaying web pages in their entirety as
they are increasingly powerful.
 What is WML?
Wireless markup language (WML) is a markup language that is based on HTML and HDML.
The HTML (Hypertext markup language) translates content for desktop browsers, but WML
translates for wireless devices that are not capable of processing capabilities. For mobile
phones, it is used to develop websites and is specified as an XML document type. While
designing websites with a wireless markup language, limitations of wireless devices such as
limited memory, small display screens, small resources and low bandwidth of transmission
have to be considered. The sites designed with WAP are different from normal HTML sites,
as they are monochromatic (only black and white) and have very small space for display
screen.
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 Features of WML
o User Interaction: It offers simple ways to communicate with users, as users are free
to choose inputs such as keys or voice; because it has the ability to support several
types of input like text entry control, password entry, and option selector.
o Text and Images: WML describes a way for presenting the images and text to the
user. The images will be monochrome and need to be in WBMP format.
o Navigation: WML provides browsing history and hyperlink navigation.
o Context Management: This state can be saved between different decks. It includes
some key features as compared to HTML, which is given below:
o The variables cannot be stored in HTML, but variables can be defined in WML that
holds data in string format.
o HTML is a mark-up language for desktop, but WML is for small, wireless computing
devices.
o The image format supported by WML is WBMP, and HTML supports, GIF and
JPEG, BMP.
o HTML is not case sensitive, and WML follows XHTML specification; hence, it is
case sensitive.
8.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about wireless application protocol (WAP) and its advantages
and disadvantages. So later we have discussed about the wireless application protocol (WAP
2.0).
8.5 KEYWORDS
WAP gateway
WTP
TDMA
CDMA
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1. What is wireless application protocol (WAP)? Explain

2. Briefly explain WAP model and WAP protocol in detail.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of WAP? Explain
4. what is WAP 2.0 and its features? explain in detail
8.7 REFERENCES

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Karnataka State Open University

M.Sc. Computer Science

MOBILE APP DEVELOPMENT

COURSE – ELMCS-01-Interdisciplinary Elective

Programme Name: MSc-Computer Science Year/Semester: I Semester Block No:1-2

Course Name: Mobile APP Development Credit: 2 Unit No: 1-8

Course Design Expert Committee

Dr. Ashok Kamble Member

Smt, Suneetha MSc.,(PhD) Member Convener

Dr Bhavya D.N., MTech., PhD Member

Dr. Ashoka S B., MSc.PhD Member

Course Writer Course Editor

Developed by the Department of Studies and Research in Computer Science, under

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING PAGE NO.

Frequencies of radio transmission, signals, antennas, signal

Media access control: motivation for a specialized MAC, SDMA, 54-68

BLOCK 1I MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

UNIT-8 Wireless application protocol (WAP) and WAP 2.0. 145-157

MOBILE APP DEVELOPMENT

After studying this unit, you should be able to

 Define mobile computing

 Types of mobile apps and programming languages

 Software development kits

 Mobile app development requirements

 App development process

 Best platforms for building a mobile app

5. AppMachine: Another easy-to-use platform with a drag-and-drop

Influence of mobile communication to the layer model

Layers Key points

Application layer o service location

Transport layer o congestion and flow control

Network layer o addressing, routing, device location

Data link layer o authentication

Physical layer o encryption

1.3 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

Types of Wireless Communication

 Types of Wireless Communication

Bluetooth Wireless Communication Technology

 Radio Frequency Identification

 Applications of Wireless Communication

Wireless Communication Based Projects

1.6 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. What is mobile computing and its application? Explain

2. write a neat diagram and explain a simplified mobile reference model.

3. Briefly explain wireless communication in mobile computing.

4. what are the advantages and disadvantages of mobile computing? Explain

5. Differentiate between Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

6. Explain Microwave Communication.

1. Raj Kamal, Mobile Computing

After studying this unit, you should be able to

 Define radio transmission

Some of the areas of applications of radio waves are −

 Broadcasting and multicasting

 About radio waves

 Frequency and wavelength

The wavelength of a radio signal

 Wavelength and frequency conversion

A person, who needs to convey a thought, an idea or a doubt, can do so by voice

An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.

 A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into

 A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the

Following pictures are examples of different types of Antennas.

The sole functionality of an antenna is power radiation or reception. Antenna (whether it

For a transmission line, to become a waveguide or to radiate power, has to be processed as