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A-LEVEL
STUDENT GUIDE
PEARSON EDEXCEL
Politics
UK government and politics
NEW EDITION
Toby Cooper
Neil McNaughton
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Contents
Getting the most from this book�� 4
About this book��5
Content Guidance
UK politics
Democracy and participation ��6
Political parties �� 16
Electoral systems�� 24
Voting behaviour and the media ��32
UK government
The Constitution�� 41
Parliament ��50
Prime minister and executive��56
Relations between the branches��65
Questions & Answers

Source questions
Paper 1��75
Paper 2��88
Essay questions
Paper 1��98
Paper 2�� 105
Knowledge check answers�� 114

Index�� 116
UK government and politics 3

■ Getting the most from this book
Exam tips
Knowledge check
Advice on key points in the text to help
you learn and recall content, avoid Rapid-fire questions throughout the
pitfalls, and polish your exam technique Content Guidance section to check
in order to boost your grade. your understanding.
Knowledge check answers

Summaries
■ Each core topic is rounded
1 Turn to the back of the book for
off by a bullet-list summary
the Knowledge check answers.
for quick-check reference of
what you need to know.
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Source questions
Using the source, evaluate the view that there should be greater use of referendums
in the UK. (30 marks)
Exam-style questions
In your response you must:
■ compare and contrast different opinions in the source
■ examine and debate these views in a balanced way
■ analyse and evaluate only the information presented in the source
Although this source is from a supporter of the use of referendums, it also references
plenty of the criticisms of referendums so provides both sides of the debate for you
Commentary on the to analyse. It is important to remember that you only gain AO2 and AO3 marks for
analysing and evaluating points raised clearly from the source and not points that come
from own knowledge, no matter how strong those arguments might be. In answering
questions this question, you need to focus clearly on the word ‘should’ which means that it is
something that needs to happen, rather than something that might simply be desirable.
Try to focus your analysis on this point.
Tips on what you need to do Student A answer

Since 1997 there has been an increased use of referendums in the
17–19 marks awarded (high
Level 3 to low Level 4)
In many ways this looks like a strong
to gain full marks. UK, though since the 2016 EU referendum such enthusiasm seems
to have declined. The source presents the view that we should use
answer and it does have good AO1 in
the points selected and examples used,
more referendums, rather than fewer, to solve the current political
problems, which is in many ways a convincing view because of the
current range of political issues we have in the UK.
though it does tend to rely on the EU
referendum a bit too much and would
benefit from using a wider variety of
Commentary on sample
student answers
supportive examples.
The source points out that ‘there is no culture of direct democracy in
the UK, so…people do not take them seriously’ which would seem The analysis and evaluative judgements
are good but the last two points do not
to indicate a major problem with their use. The low turnout in most
come from the source and so the answer
Read the comments showing

referendums, like the 42% for the AV referendum in 2011, shows that does not get more than 19 marks.
people do not usually regard them as a serious or important form of
democracy. If they are seen as a joke, as suggested here, then there
should not be wider use of referendums.
However, the source counters this by suggesting that the problem
how many marks each answer
is not with referendums but with their ‘infrequent use’ — ‘direct
Sample student answers democracy needs to be continuous’. This would suggest that there
should be greater use of referendums as this would make people
would be awarded in the
exam and exactly where
take them more seriously and view them as an important part of
Practise the questions, then

the UK’s political system. We can see support for this by the fact
that as more referendums were held after 2011 we saw a turnout of
marks are gained or lost.

87% for the Scottish independence referendum and 72% for the EU
look at the student answers

referendum, which helps make this argument more convincing as the
greater use of referendums would lead to greater engagement and
mean the public take them more seriously. Therefore, this makes the
that follow. view that there should be greater use of referendums in the UK a very
convincing one.
4 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

■ About this book

The aim of this Student Guide is to prepare you for the UK elements of the Edexcel
A-level Politics Papers 1 and 2 examinations. Across the two papers, the UK
Government and UK Politics sections are worth 50% of the Politics A-level, and all
of the topics covered in this guide could appear in the exams. It is therefore vital that
you are familiar and confident with all the material.
The Content Guidance section covers all the topics largely in the order that they
appear on the Edexcel A-level specification. You are strongly advised to have a copy
of the most recent version of the specification to refer to as you go through the topics.
There are eight main topics:
■ Democracy and participation
■ Political parties
■ Electoral systems
■ Voting behaviour and the media
■ The constitution
■ Parliament
■ Prime minister and executive
■ Relations between the branches
You should use the Content Guidance to ensure familiarity with all the key concepts
and terms, statistics, issues and arguments, and to have a range of relevant examples
you can quote in your answers to show you are aware of the relative significance
of these principles and concepts. There is a series of knowledge check questions
throughout this section, which can act as a guide to some important examples which
you can use when answering questions and which will also help to establish detailed
knowledge. The answers to these knowledge checks can be found at the end of the
guide. Exam tips are designed to help you avoid significant common errors made by
students, as well as guiding you towards good practice. In order to achieve highly it is
important to understand how the different parts of the specification connect together.
Linked concepts are provided throughout the book to help you to do this.
The Questions & Answers section provides an opportunity to hone your exam
technique and to become familiar with the essay skills and structures that examiners
are looking for. The answers illustrate both good and weak technique.
This guide does not provide a complete range of examples or go into full detail, so
you should use it alongside other resources such as class notes, the Edexcel UK
Government and Politics textbook by Neil McNaughton and Toby Cooper and articles
in Politics Review (both published by Hodder Education).

Content Guidance
UK politics
■ Democracy and participation

Democracy refers to a society where the people have real influence over the political
decisions that will affect them, either directly or through representatives. It also
means that government is accountable to the people. The key features of any
democracy, as the term is generally understood, are as follows:
■ The people have influence over political decision making.
■ The government is accountable to the people.
■ There are free and fair elections so that the government is granted legitimacy. Legitimacy The idea
■ Different beliefs, political parties and political associations are tolerated. that a government has a
■ The media are free and independent. right to govern, normally
granted through elections,
■ The rights of citizens are legally guaranteed.
implying that it has the
■ There are legal limits to the powers of government, established by a constitution
consent of the people.
and an independent judiciary.
Representative and direct democracy

Direct democracy
Direct democracy is a system where the people themselves make important political Direct democracy
decisions. The modern form involves the use of referendums. The main features of a A form of democracy
direct democracy include: where people make
■ The people make decisions directly. political decisions directly
instead of their elected
■ Government acts on the instructions of the people.
representatives.
■ The process is continuous and ongoing.
■ The people make decisions based on single issues.
■ The people must be educated and engaged in the issues and the process.
■ People are organised individually rather than as part of a group.
■ Decisions will be based on majoritarian outcomes, though with some protections
for minorities.
Table 1 Arguments for and against direct democracy
Arguments for Arguments against
It is the purest form of democracy. The people’s voice is It can lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’, whereby the
clearly heard. winning majority ignores the interests of the minority.
It can avoid delay and deadlock within the political system. The people may be too easily swayed by short-term,
emotional appeals by charismatic individuals.
The fact that people are making a decision gives it greater Some issues may be too complex for the ordinary citizen
legitimacy. to understand.

Democracy and participation
Representative democracy
In contrast to direct democracy, representative democracy refers to a system where
the people are represented by others, either through elected officials and bodies, or
through representative groups, like parties or pressure groups. The main features of
representative democracy include:
■ Decisions will be made by elected bodies, such as a parliament.
■ The process relies on regular elections.
■ Different groups will offer choices to the people.
■ The people vote for a programme of options, rather than individual issues.
■ Political activity will be organised via groups, rather than individually.
■ The government must act based on what it believes to be in the best interests of the nation.
■ The government must answer to the people, through elections.
■ The public should be engaged and informed during election campaigns but do not
need to be so well informed at other times.
■ The process demands little from the people in between elections.
Representative and direct democracy compared

The similarities between representative and direct democracy
In both representative and direct democracy, the following similarities can be identified:
■ Popular consent is important.
■ There is an active role for the people.
■ The decisions of the government derive from the people.
■ The actions of the government are accountable to the people.
■ The public must be informed and engaged in political matters.
■ The processes will be governed by constitutional laws and rules.
The differences between representative and direct democracy

The following differences can be identified:
■ With direct democracy the people themselves make political decisions, while with
representative democracy decisions are made by members of elected bodies.
■ With direct democracy decisions are made by referendum whereas with representative
democracy decisions are made by government and elected assemblies.
■ With direct democracy the people decide on single issues while in representative
democracy people choose between full political programmes at elections.
Advantages and disadvantages of representative and direct democracy
Table 2 An assessment of representative democracy
Advantages Disadvantages
Representatives may have expert knowledge and Elected representatives may be more interested in party
experience which the general public do not possess. politics than in the national interest. In general, parties may
exercise too much control over their elected members.
Representatives are likely to be more rational and less There is no guarantee that representatives, whether
likely to be swayed by emotional appeals. elected or not, accurately reflect the views of those whom
they claim to represent.
Representatives are democratically accountable and The UK electoral system produces a highly unrepresentative
therefore should behave in a responsible way. result.

Content Guidance
Table 3 An assessment of direct democracy

It gives legitimacy to political decisions if the people Issues may be too complex for people to judge.
themselves make them.
It is a decisive form of decision making and avoids The people may be swayed in their judgement by emotional
excessive debate within the political system. appeals and false claims and information. They may not have
enough information to make a rational decision.
Decisions made by the people cannot be overturned by Representatives are democratically accountable for their
political leaders. decisions, which helps to make them act responsibly. The
people cannot be held accountable to themselves.
The case for reform of representative democracy

UK democracy is largely representative in nature. However, there are a number of
problems with the system of democracy. This is sometimes described as a democratic Democratic deficit
deficit. The main problems associated with democracy in the UK include: A flaw in the system
where not enough
■ The House of Lords is unelected.
democratic input occurs
■ General elections produce unrepresentative outcomes. Governments may achieve
for those elected or in
an overall majority of the seats in parliament, but they never achieve a majority of
decision making.
the total votes.
■ Some parties, such as the Liberal Democrats and the Green Party, are under- Exam tip
represented because of the electoral system, while others, such as Conservatives, Use examples to illustrate
Labour and SNP are over-represented. the points you make in
■ The system of devolution has led to an imbalance of representation across the UK. exam answers. This is
■ There is a lack of government accountability between elections and accountability especially important
to Parliament is weak. in questions about
direct democracy and
Table 4 summarises the UK’s democratic deficit and shows the positive and negative
referendums. Examples of
aspects of representative democracy in the UK. It also shows the proposals that have
referendums can be found
been made to address these.
on page 30.
Table 4 Representative democracy in the UK assessed
Democratic feature Positives Negatives Reform proposals Knowledge check 1
Elections Nearly all over 18 In general elections, Reform the electoral
can vote. the first-past-the- system and Identify the following:
There is little post system distorts introduce some ■ a pressure group
electoral fraud support for parties form of proportional
that represents the
and strong legal and produces an representation.
safeguards exist to unrepresentative concerns of Black,
prevent fraud. House of Commons. Asian and Minority
Parliament The House of The House of Lords is Introduce an elected Ethnic (BAME) citizens
Commons can hold unelected. second chamber.
■ the name given to
the government to
account. those elected to the
Distribution of Devolution has Devolved governments Grant further Welsh Parliament
power spread power away in Scotland, Wales and powers to devolved ■ the name given to
from London to the Northern Ireland have governments.
national regions. varying powers. those elected at local
Create English government level
England has no devolution.
■ the subject of the
form of devolved
representation, other national referendum
than for some cities. held in the UK in 2011

Democratic feature Positives Negatives Reform proposals

Public participation People are free Turnouts at A fairer electoral
to vote, to stand elections remain system might
for office and to low by historical encourage more
express political standards, while party voting.
views. membership is also
lower than typically Widen the franchise
before the 1990s. to 16+ voters and
perhaps make voting
compulsory.
Protection of rights Strong in the UK. Parliament is Make Parliament
and liberties The country is sovereign, which subject to the ECHR.
signed up to the means that it can
European Convention remove or weaken the
on Human Rights protection of rights.
(ECHR) and the
courts enforce it. The
Supreme Court and
the judiciary enforce
the rule of law.
Linked concept
All democratic reforms are also examples of possible constitutional reforms
and vice versa, so you should consider the link between these two areas. (See
pages 43–49.)
In addition, individual elements, such as reform of elections and Parliament can
only be properly considered with a knowledge of those specific concepts. (See
pages 28–29 and 50–55.)
Political participation
There are a number of ways in which people can participate in politics. The main
examples are:
■ voting in elections and referendums
■ being a member of a political party
■ being an especially active member of a political party
■ standing for election to public office at local, regional or national level Participation crisis
■ becoming a member of a pressure group or campaign group A belief, common in the
■ becoming involved in political campaigns online, including signing e-petitions
twenty-first century, that
political participation in
It is sometimes said that the UK is suffering from a participation crisis. This the UK has declined so
suggests that there is a decline in the number of people who are participating in much that it has become
politics in various ways. However, the evidence varies. In some ways participation is a threat to the democratic
declining, but in others it is increasing (as shown in Table 5). health of the nation.

Content Guidance
Table 5 Does the UK have a participation crisis?

Evidence that it does Evidence that it does not
Turnout at elections has been low in recent years, despite Several e-petitions have had very high response rates
a small recovery in 2010–17, and variable at referendums. (e.g. for a second EU referendum in 2016 (3.8 million) and
against a road pricing scheme in 2007 (1.8 million)).
Membership of parties has declined significantly over the Membership of the Labour, Liberal Democratic, Green and
past 30 years. Scottish National parties grew in the period 2015–19.
There is a good deal of disillusion and apathy, especially Young people are increasingly involved in pressure groups,
among the young who have become disengaged from social movements and online campaigns.
party politics.
Support for the two main parties has been in decline. Support for alternative parties and pressure groups has
grown markedly since the 1990s.
Linked concept
Participation is closely linked to the nature of voting systems and there is
evidence to suggest that participation declines in safe seats that result from
the first-past-the-post (FPTP) voting system. (See page 25.)
The following suggestions have been proposed to try to increase turnout and
participation:
■ make voting compulsory
■ make registering to vote more convenient, especially online
■ possibly introduce online voting
■ introduce weekend voting
■ encourage more political education in schools
■ extend the franchise to 16- and 17-year-olds to encourage more voting among the young
Knowledge check 2
Reforming the electoral system might also help to increase turnout at elections as What has been the
some form of proportional representation would see fewer votes ‘wasted’. turnout in the following
elections?
The franchise and suffrage ■ 2019 general election
■ 2021 Scottish
Milestones in the widening of the franchise Parliament elections
■ Between 1832 (Great Reform Act) and 1928 the franchise was gradually extended. ■ 2021 Welsh Senedd
■ In 1832 the franchise was extended to about 8% of the adult population. elections
■ In 1867 and 1884 the franchise was extended to most men but not women. ■ 2021 London Mayoral
■ In 1918 the vote was given to married women over 30. election
■ In 1928 the vote was given to all women.

Suffrage This refers
■ In 1969 the vote was extended to all adults over 18 instead of over 21. to the right to vote. The
■ In 2016 16- and 17-year-olds were granted the vote in Scotland (though not for term ‘franchise’ is an
general elections). alternative.
Suffragettes and suffragists Knowledge check 3

The suffragettes used both legal and illegal methods to campaign for votes for women. Outline four ways in which
The suffragists stuck to legal methods. Their significance is: people participate in
■ Contemporary pressure groups can learn a great deal from the methods of the politics in the UK.
votes for women movement.

■ They illustrate the fact that illegal methods can bring beneficial publicity but can
also be harmful to the cause.
■ They demonstrate how a group of people excluded from the political process can
affect the process from the outside.
■ They demonstrate the importance of media publicity and public support for
achieving goals.
Current movements to extend the franchise

There are currently debates about three key groups and whether the franchise should
be extended to them:
■ 16- and 17-year-olds
■ prisoners
■ those sectioned for mental health reasons
Here we will focus on the issue of votes for 16- and 17-year-olds. The debate is
outlined in Table 6.
Table 6 Should 16- and 17-year-olds be given the right to vote?
Arguments in favour Arguments against
With the spread of citizenship education, young people are 16- and 17-year-olds are too young to be able to make
now better informed about politics than ever before. rational judgements.
Voting turnout among the 18–24-year-old age group is very Many issues are too complex for younger people to
low. Extending the franchise may encourage more people understand.
to become engaged with politics and to vote.
The internet and social media now enable young people to Few people in this age group pay tax so they have a lower
be better informed about politics. stake in society.
If someone is old enough to serve in the army, get married Turnout among the young (18–24-year-olds) is much lower
or pay tax, they should be old enough to vote. than the rest of society and where 16- and 17-year-olds
have been given the right to vote, they turn out in even
lower proportions.
A campaign to extend the franchise

The Votes at 16 campaign brings together many other groups who support lowering
the franchise to 16. It uses a variety of methods including:
■ organising petitions
■ writing to MPs and peers
■ arranging meetings with MPs and political groups
■ raising public awareness of the issue
So far the campaign has seen the right to vote in local and devolved elections in
Scotland and Wales extended to 16- and 17-year-olds, but there has been no change
in England or for general elections.
Pressure groups and other influences Pressure group An

association or movement
Types of pressure group that campaigns either to
Pressure groups are organised groups that seek to put pressure on those in power. further the interests of a
They do not have any power themselves but seek to influence those who do by section of society or to
working closely with them inside the political process (insider groups) or by organising further a particular cause
or issue.

Content Guidance
campaigns against those in power from outside the political process (outsider groups). Pluralist democracy A
Pressure groups, unlike other influencing groups, seek to promote policies that will type of democracy where
benefit their members, either directly benefiting the members’ interests (sectional decisions are made by a
groups) or by benefiting a cause the members believe in (causal groups). neutral government based
on the interplay of ideas
By competing with each other and promoting key causes on an equal basis, pressure
between groups of equal
groups can promote a system of pluralist democracy, although unfair or imbalanced
status.
competition can lead to elitism which undermines democracy.
Elitism A feature of
Pressure group methods and factors in success or failure society and the political
Pressure groups experience varying degrees of success and failure. Success means system which suggests
promoting favourable legislation in parliament and preventing unfavourable legislation, that some groups wield
as well as raising public awareness of an issue or persuading government to place a considerable amount
an issue on the political agenda. Two areas of pressure group activity should be of influence, giving them
considered. These are the methods typically used by pressure groups (see Table 7) and an unfair advantage in
the factors that contribute to their success or otherwise (see Table 8). political discussion.
Table 7 Campaigning methods

Pressure group Aims Methods
Plane Stupid To prevent airport expansions ■ Invading airports and blocking flights
■ Occupying airport terminals
■ Blocking entrances to airports
■ Delaying Heathrow expansion with a judicial review case
■ Organising e-petitions
British Medical To force government to ■ Regular withdrawal of labour for routine operations and
Association (BMA) withdraw a new contract for treatments
junior hospital doctors
UK Finance (formerly To prevent government ■ Lobbying ministers and sympathetic MPs and peers
British Bankers’ imposing excessive
Association) regulations on banks
Friends of the Earth Promoting environmental ■ Public campaigns to attract members
protection ■ Research and publicity campaigns to highlight
environmental problems
■ Lobbying ministers and parliament
Liberty Protecting citizens’ rights and ■ Initiating court cases against public bodies and government
freedoms (mostly judicial reviews) when it is felt rights are under threat
Table 8 What makes some pressure groups more successful than others?
Success factors Failure factors
Size: Many members and/or followers suggests more Small size: Such groups suffer from lack of active
pressure on government and possibly more available support and usually a lack of funds. Example: Local
funds. Example: Age UK environmental protection groups
Finance: With ample funds a group can mount successful Limited finance: Without enough funds, a group can fail to
campaigns and use publicity. Example: UK Finance promote or organise itself and get its message out. Example:
Save our Bluebell Common (Heaton Mersey Common)
Public opinion: Some campaign groups enjoy the Adverse public opinion: Some groups fail to capture the
widespread support of the public. Example: Action on public imagination. Example: Pro-smoking group, Forest
Smoking and Health (ASH)
Strategic position in society: Groups that are vital to Countervailing forces: Groups may fail because they
society have more political leverage. Example: British face powerful adversaries. Example: Anti-fracking
Medical Association (BMA) groups are opposed by powerful energy companies
Government support: Some groups have views which Government opposition: Sometimes groups and their
accord with government policy. Example: Plane Stupid aims fall out of favour with government. Example: BMA
and the issue of a third runway at Heathrow since Boris strikes against a seven-day NHS
Johnson became PM

Pressure group case studies

When undertaking a case study of a pressure group you should research the following:
■ If it is a sectional group, who does it represent?
■ What are its objectives?
■ What are its main methods?
■ What notable successes has it achieved?
■ What are the reasons for its successes and failures?
Other collective organisations

Think tanks
Think tanks do not have members nor do they represent interests other than their own.
Think tank A colloquial
Instead they carry out academic research and produce ideas in line with the aims of their
term which refers to a
foundation. These may be neutral, as in the case of think tanks linked to universities, or
research organisation
there may be a clear agenda, such as to promote free market or socialist ideas.
that produces information
Think tanks seek to influence government by persuading it of the merits of their views and opinions about policy
and arguments and offering policy ideas that the government can simply adopt and issues.
use. Key examples include:
■ Adam Smith Institute
■ Centre for Social Justice
■ Fabian Society
Lobbyists
Sometimes referred to as ‘public relations’ firms, lobbyists are political advisers who
Lobbyists People
are hired by private interests to help them achieve their political goals. This may be
employed by a client to
through explaining how best to influence the political system, arranging meetings
influence the political
between clients and political figures, or advocating on behalf of clients in a bid to
process, particularly
influence legislation or government decisions, such as the awarding of a contract or
concerning legislation.
implementation of key legislation.
Lobbyists are usually people who have previously worked in the political system and
have expert knowledge of the people and process of government. They can be useful in
providing advice and information to the government but are often criticised for promoting
the interests of their clients over the interests of the nation. Key examples include:
■ Media Intelligence Partners
■ Chartered Institute of Public Relations
■ Government Affairs (Services) Ltd
Corporations
Corporations are major businesses that play a vital economic role in UK politics. As a
result of their size, wealth and the number of people they employ, their opinions can
often be used to influence government policy — by threatening to relocate to another
country, threatening to close down key sources of employment or simply by advising
of potential consequences that may result from government action. This can lead to
beneficial outcomes for the economy, but corporations prioritise their own interests
and profits ahead of the national interest, public will or a cause. As such, they can be
seen to undermine the democratic process. Key examples include:
■ Google ■ HSBC ■ Starbucks

Content Guidance
Knowledge check 4
Linked concept
The various groups listed here aim to work closely with Parliament and the Give an example of each
executive to develop policies and influence the passage of legislation. While of the following groups:
this may be seen as negative, it can also help improve the quality of legislation ■ think tank
by offering expert advice and opinions to lawmakers. (See pages 11–13.) ■ lobbying firm
■ corporation
Rights in context Exam tip

When discussing
Milestones in the development of rights in the UK
democracy in any context,
■ Magna Carta, 1215 This limited the power of the monarch, requiring the
it is important to consider
‘barons’ to give consent before taxation could be imposed and securing certain
how well dispersed power
rights, such as trial by jury.
and influence are — well
■ The Bill of Rights, 1688 This ensured a number of individual rights for British
dispersed in a pluralist
citizens. It covered things like freedom from cruel and unusual punishments and
system or concentrated
false imprisonment.
in a few hands in an elitist
■ The Human Rights Act 1998 This had the effect of bringing the European system. It is generally
Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law. It strengthened the protection held that in a healthy
of a whole range of rights and liberties. It made civil liberties a firm part of UK law. democracy, power,
■ The Freedom of Information Act 2000 This Act gives citizens the right to influence and knowledge
view information held by any public body in two categories — first, information are widely dispersed.
held about themself and, second, information which may be of public interest. The
only exception is information that might threaten national security if published. Civil liberties Those
■ The Equality Act 2010 This replaced several existing pieces of legislation rights and freedoms
establishing rights in the UK. The Act outlaws any kind of discrimination on the which cannot be abused
grounds of gender, ethnicity, religion, disablement and sexual orientation. or reduced by any public
body, effectively freedom
Rights protection in the UK from the government.
They include such
How effectively are rights protected in the UK? examples as freedom
The issue of how well rights are currently protected in the UK is much disputed. The of thought, expression,
debate on this issue is shown in Table 9. association and
Table 9 The protection of rights in the UK: strengths and weaknesses movement.
Strengths Weaknesses Civil rights Rights that

There is a strong common law Common law can be vague and disputed. It can are absolute and must
tradition. also be set aside by parliamentary statutes. be protected by the
The UK is subject to the ECHR. Parliament remains sovereign and so can ignore the government, through the
ECHR or can even repeal the Human Rights Act. law, effectively freedom
The judiciary has a reputation for There is increasing pressure on government, as by the government.
being independent and upholding a result of international terrorism, to curtail rights
Specifically, the term
the rule of law, even against the in the interests of national security. The right to
expressed wishes of government privacy, the rights of association and expression, as refers to rights such as
and parliament. Civil rights are well as freedom from imprisonment without trial, are voting, standing for office
therefore virtually guaranteed. all under threat. and protection from
discrimination.

Exam tip
Linked concept
The protection of rights in the UK is closely tied up with the independence When discussing rights
and neutrality of the Supreme Court and is a means of understanding the in any context, it is
relationships between the various branches of government. The Human important to distinguish
Rights Act, which gives the Supreme Court a great deal of authority in rights between individual
protection, is also an example of a key constitutional reform. (See pages 41–42.) rights, which are largely
protected in law, and
Individual and collective rights collective rights, which
are usually protected
Problems can arise when the individual rights of citizens conflict with the rights
by government and
of the community as a whole. In some cases these conflicts have no answer. They
parliament.
remain difficult political issues.
Table 10 Conflicts between individual and collective (community) rights
Individual rights Conflicting collective rights
Freedom of expression The right of religious groups not to have
their beliefs satirised or questioned
The right to privacy The right of the community to be protected
from terrorism by security services who
may listen in to private communications
The right to press freedom The right of public figures to keep their
private lives private
The right to demonstrate in public places The right of the community to their own
(right to association and free movement) freedom of movement
and thus cause disruption
The right to strike in pursuit of pay and The right of the community to expect good
employment rights service from public servants who are paid
from taxation
Pressure groups and rights protection

Pressure groups play an important role in ensuring rights are upheld and defended
in the UK, helping to promote awareness of rights as well as offering support and
assistance to those who have had their rights denied.
Liberty
Liberty is an open membership pressure group that aims to promote human rights in the UK
by advocating for them, supporting legal challenges and campaigning against rights abuses.
In 2018 Liberty announced that it would represent Ed Bridges in challenging the use
of facial recognition in public spaces as a violation of the right to privacy.
Since 2017 Liberty has campaigned against the 28-day statutory limit on immigration
detention.
JUSTICE
JUSTICE is a group made up of lawyers who advocate for the protection of human
rights. The group uses its expertise to work with governments to develop legal reforms
that will help protect human rights in the UK, such as the Data Protection Act of
1998 and the Constitutional Reform Act of 2005. JUSTICE will also intervene by
offering advice and legal support in cases relating to major rights issues in the UK
legal system. It became the first non-governmental organisation (NGO) to argue a
case before the UK Supreme Court in 2009.
Content Guidance
Summary
When you have completed this topic, you should have a thorough knowledge of
the following information and issues:
■ the features of direct and representative democracy
■ the similarities and differences between direct and representative
democracy
■ the reasons for and arguments against reform of the UK’s democratic
system
■ the key milestones in the development of the franchise
■ the work of groups to extend the franchise, including the suffragettes and
suffragists and one modern campaign
■ the ways in which pressure groups seek to influence those in power
■ the various types of groups that seek to influence the political system and
how they operate
■ the nature and importance of judicial independence
■ two examples of pressure groups at work in the UK
■ the ways in which rights have developed in the UK, including key milestones
■ the conflicts that have arisen over rights protection in the UK
■ Political parties
Functions and features of political parties
Political parties play an essential role in ensuring representative democracy works Political party An
effectively. The functions of political parties are: association of people
■ to convert political demands into practical political programmes of action who share similar political
■ to provide organised opportunities for people to participate meaningfully in politics views and who seek
■ to recruit people who can stand for election to representative institutions at local,
political representation
regional and national levels or power in order to put
those views into practice.
■ to manage election campaigns, presenting the electorate with choices between sets
of policies
■ to educate the general public about political issues
■ to call government to account when in opposition
The features of political parties are:

■ Members hold broadly similar political views on a range of issues, centred around
an ideology.
■ They are seeking elected office and to gain political power within the political
system.
■ They are internally democratic, with members playing a role in decisions and
choosing officials.
■ They have formal membership.

Political parties
The role of parties in the UK political system

In carrying out their functions, political parties influence the way in which the
political system operates, which can be positive or negative.
Positive aspects
■ They provide open opportunities for people to become active in politics.
■ They are inclusive and make few demands on members.
■ They make political issues coherent and help to make government
accountable.
■ They help to make elections and the operation of parliament effective and
understandable to the public.
Negative aspects
■ Adversarial party politics denies the creation of consensus and reduces issues to
false, simplistic choices.
■ Parties claim legitimacy through their electoral mandate even when they are
elected to power with a minority of the popular vote.
■ Parties sometimes become elitist so that small leadership groups can dominate
policy making to the detriment of internal democracy.
Linked concept
Parties are a fundamental part of the process of representative democracy
in the UK and therefore have a direct impact on how effectively democracy
operates. (See pages 6–10.)
Parties also target voters and provide choice, both of which are key
elements of elections and the way in which people choose to cast their
votes. (See pages 28–29 and 33.)
The funding of UK political parties

Parties are currently funded in a number of ways:
■ collecting membership subscriptions from members
■ holding fundraising events such as fetes, festivals, conferences and dinners
■ receiving donations from supporters
■ raising loans from wealthy individuals or banks
■ the self-financing of candidates for office
■ up to £2 million per party is available in grants from the electoral commission.
In addition, ‘Short money’ and ‘Cranborne money’ are funds given to opposition
parties for research — the amount depends on the party’s size in Parliament and
the number of votes it won in the previous general election
Why is party funding controversial?

1 The income of parties varies considerably, as shown in Table 11. This
means that larger parties have a huge advantage over smaller parties.

Content Guidance
Table 11 Income of parties reported in 2020 (central funds)

Party Income from all sources (£ millions) Knowledge check 5
Labour 14.5
Name three types of
Conservatives 15.4
Liberal Democrats 4.1 state funding for political
Scottish National Party 1.45 parties that already exist
Green Party (of Great Britain) 2.0 in the UK.
Plaid Cymru 1.6
Source: Electoral Commission Exam tip

Try to remember a few
2 Funding by large donors, both individuals and companies, may give statistics to illustrate the
those donors unaccountable influence. current inequality in party
3 Some party donations undermine the reputation of the political process funding.
as they may be given in the hope and expectation that the donor be
given an honour such as a peerage or a knighthood.
4 As party memberships (and membership subscriptions) have been
declining, parties rely more heavily on donations from rich benefactors.
What measures have been proposed to solve these party funding problems?
1 Impose restrictions on the size of individual donations to parties. To be
effective the cap would have to be relatively low.
2 Impose tight restrictions on how much parties are allowed to spend. This would
make large-scale fundraising futile.
3 Restrict donations to individuals, i.e. outlawing donations from businesses,
pressure groups and trade unions.
4 Replace all funding with state grants for parties, paid for out of general taxation.
You need to be able to evaluate these proposed reforms for party funding by
considering the arguments for and against each. Table 12 summarises the arguments
on either side of the debate about state funding for parties.
Table 12 Should UK parties receive state funding?

It will end the opportunity for the corrupt Taxpayers may object to funding what can
use of donations. be considered to be ‘private’ organisations.
It will end the possibility of ‘hidden’ forms of It will be difficult to know how to distribute
influence through funding. funding. Should it be on the basis of past
performance (in which case large parties
will retain their advantage) or on the basis
of future aspirations (which is vague)?
It will reduce the huge financial advantage Parties may lose some of their
that large parties enjoy and give independence and will see themselves as
smaller parties the opportunity to make organs of the state.
progress.
It will improve democracy by ensuring wider State funding may lead to excessive state
participation from groups who have no regulation of parties.
ready source of funds.

Political parties
Left wing A political

Linked concept position, often associated
Any change to the nature of party funding would be a constitutional reform and with socialism and social
the arguments surrounding it are closely related to those of democracy and democracy, mainly
representation. (See pages 6–9.) concerned with creating
more equality between
different groups in society.
Established political parties
Right wing A political
Left-wing and right-wing politics position, often associated
with conservatism, mainly
Commonly, political parties are placed on a spectrum from left to right that helps concerned with conserving
describe their views in relation to each other. Table 13 shows the kinds of policies the best elements of the
typically associated with left-wing and right-wing political ideas: past and tradition.
Table 13 The distinction between left- and right-wing political ideas
Left-wing ideas Right-wing ideas
Redistributing income from rich to poor through taxation Low levels of taxation to encourage private enterprise and
and welfare create incentives to work
Strong support for the welfare state Acceptance of private sector involvement in the provision of
public services
Support for workers’ rights and trade union power The state should not interfere with the working of the
economy save for exceptional circumstances
The state should support industries which are vital to Support for free markets in goods, finance and labour,
society and the economy including reducing trade union power
Support for measures designed to create equality of Keeping welfare benefits relatively low as an incentive for
opportunity people to find work and not become too dependent on the state
A stress on equal rights for all groups in society A strong position on law and order and on national unity and
patriotism
The policies of political parties do not always fit neatly into a left–right spectrum. Exam tip
However, we can identify which parties are generally left-wing in their views, which
Try to keep up to date
are right-wing and which are in the centre of the political spectrum. Parties which are
with party policies. Focus
not very left-wing may be described as centre-left, and on the other side parties may be
on policies relating to the
described as centre-right. Figure 1 shows where UK parties fit into the left–right scheme.
economy, welfare, law
40 and order, and foreign
Right-wing
Conservative affairs.
30
Labour
20
10
0
1950
1951
1955
1959
1964
1966
1970
1974
1974
1979
1983
1987
1992
1997
2001
2005
2010
2015
2017
2019
– 10
– 20
– 30
– 40
– 50
Left-wing – 60
Figure 1 Parties and the left–right spectrum

Content Guidance
The generally accepted three established parties are the Conservatives, Labour and
the Liberal Democrats. Specific policies constantly change and it is vital to keep
up with these developments, but central ideologies tend to be more consistent. The
principal policies of the three parties as they were for the December 2019 general
election are outlined below.
Conservatives
■ Increase the number of nurses by 50,000.
■ No income tax, VAT or National Insurance rises.
■ Pensions to rise by at least 2.5% per year.
■ No one to have to sell their home to pay for care.
■ Reach net zero on carbon emissions by 2050.
■ Spend £6.3 billion on 2.2 million disadvantaged homes.
■ Introduce a points-based immigration system.
■ Continue the rollout of universal credit.
■ Launch a democracy commission to consider the powers of the Supreme Court and
the nature of the Human Rights Act.
Labour
■ Scrap the benefit cap and two-child limit.
■ Scrap university student tuition fees.
■ Create a British Recovery Bond to help people save and invest in Britain Knowledge check 6
post-pandemic. Study the policies of
■ Provide start-up loans for 100,000 new businesses from across all regions of the UK. the three main parties.
■ Extend the business rate relief and VAT cuts to hospitality and leisure. Identify a policy on which
■ End public sector pay freezes. all three parties agree and
■ Provide local councils with funding to prevent tax rises. a policy that at least two
parties disagree on.
■ Invest £30 billion in creating 400,000 new green jobs.
Liberal Democrats
■ Fund the NHS with a penny income tax rise.
■ Provide free childcare for all children aged 2–4.
■ Generate 80% of energy from renewable sources by 2030.
■ Increase taxes on frequent flyers.
■ Recruit 20,000 new teachers.
■ Legalise cannabis.
■ Freeze rail fares.

Political parties
Factions within parties New Right Describes

conservative ideas of
The different factions, or groupings, within parties are almost as important as the
reducing the role of the
differences between parties. All major parties contain important factions within them.
state and prioritising
These are summarised below.
individualism and
Conservatives nationalism.
■ New Right — supports the policies adopted in the 1980s. They include neo-liberal One-nation Related to
ideas of free markets, low taxation, low levels of welfare benefits and the weakening conservatism. One-nation
of trade unions, plus neo-conservatism which wishes to see a strong, authoritarian conservatives support
state. The main group is called Conservative Way Forward. policies that will help to
■ One-nation — now a small minority who wish to avoid policies which may be unite the nation and avoid
socially divisive. They are more centrist and accept a role for the state to ensure a social conflict.
low level of inequality.
Old Labour Commonly
Labour used to describe left-wing
■ Old Labour — supports traditional left-wing socialist policies such as the re- Labour policies which
nationalisation of some important industries and strong regulation of public dominated the party in the
utilities, strengthening trade unions and raising taxes to redistribute income and 1940s and in the 1970s
improve welfare services. and 1980s.
■ New Labour — supports centrist policies such as poverty reduction programmes, New Labour Commonly
mild redistribution of income and support for the welfare state but not excessively used to describe the
generous state benefits. New Labour supporters also take a pragmatic approach to moderate policies of the
economic management. Labour Party that were
Liberal Democrats dominant between the
early 1990s and 2015.
■ Modern liberals — support centre-left policies similar to those adopted by the
centrists in the Labour Party, together with a strong position on environmental Modern liberals Refers
control and constitutional reform. to liberals in recent
■ Classical liberals — sometimes referred to as Orange Book liberals, they support history who accept that
constitutional reform and environmentalism, but they also support neo-liberal government interference
policies which would establish very free product, labour and financial markets. can be justified in the
interests of welfare and
Linked concept social justice.
The left–right spectrum and party positions relate in many ways to the core Classical liberals
ideologies. What a core ideology stands for and what a political party stands Refers to liberals who
for today are not necessarily the same, though it does show where the parties follow nineteenth-century
came from originally. (See pages xx–xx.) liberalism, believing
that there should be
Emerging and minor political parties minimum interference by

government in society and
Parties to be considered under this heading include: the economy.
■ Scottish National Party (SNP)
■ Plaid Cymru
■ Green Party
■ Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)
■ Sinn Féin

Content Guidance
Table 14 shows the general political stance of minor parties on the left–right spectrum Knowledge check 7
plus their main policies.
Within each party, which
Table 14 The political stance of minor and emerging parties in the UK faction would be classed
Party Principal policy General political stance as the left wing of the
SNP Scottish independence Centre-left party and which the right
Green Party Environmental protection Left wing of the party?
Plaid Cymru Self-government for Wales Centre-left
DUP Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK Right
Sinn Féin Northern Ireland to leave the UK to join the Centre-left
Republic of Ireland
The importance of other parties in the UK

Small parties have a number of ways in which they may impact UK politics:
■ When the governing party lacks an overall Commons majority, it may survive by
reaching an agreement of support with a minor party. The Conservative Party made
such a pact with the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) of Northern Ireland in 2017.
■ A party that wins large numbers of votes (though not necessarily seats) may
influence large parties who fear losing votes to it. This is most true of UKIP (who
pressurised the Conservatives into holding a Brexit referendum following the 2015
general election) and the Green Party (who have persuaded more parties to adopt
environmentalist policies).
■ If an emerging party wins a significant number of seats in the House of Commons
it can become influential as a member of the opposition. This has become true of Knowledge check 8
the SNP since 2015. Name three ways in
At a local level, small and emerging parties may gain control of a devolved body or which parties other
local council and can play an important role in regional politics. This is the case for than the Conservatives,
the SNP in Scotland, as well as the DUP and Sinn Féin in Northern Ireland. Labour and the Liberal
Democrats have impacted
Although such parties can be important, more often than not, their importance in
on UK politics since 1997.
national politics is limited due to either the Conservatives or Labour usually having a
majority in the House of Commons and the other being the official opposition.
The ideas and policies of two minor parties

Table 15 summarises some of the key policies of two of the minor parties. Exam tip
Table 15 Minor party policies You need to know the
Party Policies general ideas and specific
SNP Scottish independence policies of two minor or
Failing independence, greater autonomous powers for Scotland within the UK emerging parties. Focus
Redistribution of income from rich to poor
on policies relating to the
Strong support for public sector health and education
Investment in renewable energy economy, welfare, law and
Green Party Strong controls on environmental damage and strict emissions control targets order and foreign affairs
Very large investment in the generation of renewable energy to help contrast them with
Radical redistribution of income from rich to poor
more established parties.
Radical constitutional reform

Political parties
UK political parties in context

Party systems and classifications
Party system refers to the number of parties that win significant representation and/ Party system A
or have significant influence in the political system. Different countries have different description of how many
party systems. In the UK there are different party systems in different parts of the parties have a significant
country. number of seats or a
■ Dominant-party system One party dominates the number of seats in the significant influence in a
legislative body, such as the SNP in Scotland since 2007. political system.
■ Two-party system Only two parties have significant representation and a realistic
chance of forming a government; one will be in power and the other will be the
official opposition, such as usually occurs in the UK Parliament.
■ Multi-party system More than two parties have significant numbers of representatives
elected and many will have a chance of becoming a party of government, such as occurs
in Northern Ireland and in many local councils across the UK.
When it comes to Westminster, there is clear evidence of a two-party system, with
only the Conservatives and Labour having a realistic chance of winning power. While
some other parties may have significant numbers of seats, such as the SNP, they do
not really have a chance of actually gaining a majority. Others may join a coalition or
support a minority government, but these are exceptions rather than the norm.
Knowledge check 9
There are also periods of dominant-party systems in the UK, as shown by the
Conservatives being the main party of government since 2010, after 13 years of How would you describe
Labour dominance. In Scotland and Wales, the SNP and Labour have dominated for the party system in the UK
many years. With the introduction of devolved systems across the UK and alternative as a whole and in each of
voting systems, there are many more parties that have some form of power and the devolved regions?
representation than in the past.
Linked concept
The party system across the UK is closely linked to the electoral system
and is the reason why we see the domination that we do in key elections.
(See pages 24–29.)
Factors in party success and failure

Much of the material relating to the success or otherwise of parties is contained in
the section on ‘Voting behaviour and the media’ (see pages 32–40). At this stage we
can identify the main factors that affect party success as follows:
■ How competent was the party in the past when it was last in office?
■ How economically responsible does it appear to be?
■ Is it trustworthy?
■ How effective is the party leader? An effective leader can win support for their
party but a poor leader will cost the party support. This will include issues such as:
– decisiveness
– ability to lead
– media image

Content Guidance
– intelligence
– apparent honesty
■ How unified is the party? A unified party has a clear message and instils
confidence in the voters, whereas a divided party appears weak and confused.
■ How is the party portrayed by the media? A party that is heavily criticised in
the press will find it difficult to secure public confidence, while one that is well
portrayed will gain confidence from the electorate.
Linked concept
The success of a party is usually associated with electoral success. How it
develops policies and support to persuade voters to vote for it is a key part of
voting behaviour and how elections are won. (See pages 36–38.)
Summary
When you have completed this topic you should have a thorough knowledge of
■ the functions and features of political parties in the UK
■ how parties are funded in the UK
■ debates on reform of party funding in the UK
■ the origins and development of the three established parties in the UK
■ the current policies and positions of the established parties
■ the development and policies of other parties in the UK
■ the impact other parties have had on UK politics
■ the nature of the party system across the UK and regionally
■ factors that affect party success in the UK
■ the distinction between left- and right-wing politics
■ Electoral systems Electoral system A

system for converting
Different electoral systems explained and assessed votes into seats gained in
a legislature.
First-past-the-post
The main features of the first-past-the-post electoral system, as used in UK general Exam tip
elections, are: In evaluating and
■ The country is divided into 650 single-member constituencies. comparing electoral
■ Each constituency returns one Member of Parliament (MP). systems, you need to
■ At elections, each party presents one candidate for election.
know and understand the
workings of the systems
■ The winner of the election is the candidate who wins more votes than any other
in order to explain why
candidate. This is known as a plurality.
they work as they do.
■ It is not necessary to win an overall (over 50%) majority of votes to win a seat.

Electoral systems
The advantages and disadvantages of the first-past-the-post electoral system are

shown in Table 16.
Table 16 An assessment of first-past-the-post

It is easy to understand and usually produces a clear result The overall outcome is not proportional. Some parties win
in each constituency. more seats than their support warrants, while others win
fewer than they deserve.
It produces one single representative for each It means that many votes are effectively wasted because
constituency and so creates a close constituency–MP they can have no impact on the outcome in safe seats.
bond.
Accountability of the individual MP is clear to the electors. Votes are of unequal value because votes in safe seats are
less valuable than votes in marginal seats.
The system tends to produce a clear winner in the general It encourages some voters to vote tactically and so
election, i.e. a single party with a parliamentary majority. abandon the party they really want to support.
This helps to promote strong, stable, decisive government.
It helps to prevent small parties breaking into the It prevents new parties breaking into the system and so
system. This is useful if the small parties are undesirable produces political ‘inertia’.
‘extremists’.
Arguably first-past-the-post has stood the test of time. The democratic legitimacy of the government can be
Abandoning the system would be a dangerous step into called into question as, since 1945, all winning parties have
the unknown. won with less than half of the popular vote.
The result is usually achieved quickly, allowing democracy Between 2010 and 2017 the ability of FPTP to return a
to function efficiently. clear parliamentary majority was called into question.
The additional member system (AMS)

The additional member system (AMS) is a hybrid system, mixing two other electoral
systems. This system operates in elections to the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh
Parliament. It works like this:
■ Two-thirds of the seats are elected using first-past-the-post, as for UK general
elections.
■ The other third of the seats are elected on the basis of closed regional list voting.
The country is divided into regions and each party offers a list of candidates for
each region.
■ Voters therefore have two votes — one for the constituency and the other for one of
Top-up system Part of
the party lists. the additional member
■ Party list seats are allocated based in part on the result of the regional list and system requires that
through a variable top-up system which adjusts the proportions of votes cast on parties which are unfairly
the list system. This is a complex calculation but, in essence, what happens is the represented by the
seats awarded from the list system are adjusted to give a more proportional result. first-past-the-post part
■ Parties that do less well in the constituencies (in Scotland, typically Conservatives of the system will have
or Greens) have their proportion of list votes adjusted upwards. Those that do their seats ‘topped up’
proportionally well under first-past-the-post (typically Labour in Wales and SNP in preferentially to make
Scotland) have their list votes adjusted downwards. the overall result more
■ The overall effect of variable top-up is to make the total result close to proportional proportional to total
of the total votes cast in both systems. votes cast.

Content Guidance
Linked concept
The alternative electoral systems were a key part of the constitutional reforms
of the Blair era and are tied to devolution. They have also had some impact on
party representation. (See pages 28–29.)
An assessment of the additional member system is shown in Table 17.
Table 17 The additional member system (AMS)

It produces a broadly proportional outcome It produces two classes of representative
and so is fairer to all parties. — those with a constituency and those
elected through the lists, meaning they are
held accountable in different ways.
It gives voters two votes and so more It is more complex than first-past-the-post.
choice. Having two votes can confuse some voters.
It combines preserving constituency It can result in the election of extremist
representation with a proportional outcome. candidates. Knowledge check 10
A majority government can be achieved if It is more likely to result in minority or Name three bodies in the
there is sufficient support, as occurred in coalition government, which can be
Scotland in 2011. unstable and more difficult to hold to UK that are elected using
account. AMS.
Single transferable vote (STV)

The single transferable vote (STV) is a proportional electoral system which is used in
elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly and for Scottish local council elections. It
operates in this way:
■ There are usually six seats available in each constituency.
■ Each party is permitted to put up as many candidates as there are seats, i.e. up to six.
In practice, parties do not adopt six candidates as they have no chance of winning all
six seats available. Four is the normal maximum number from each party.
■ Voters place the candidates in their order of preference by putting a number 1, 2, 3
etc. beside their names.
■ Voters can vote for candidates from different parties or even all the parties, though
few actually do.
■ At the count an electoral quota is calculated. This is established by taking the Electoral quota A
total number of votes cast, dividing it by the number of seats available plus 1. So, feature of the single
if 50,000 votes are cast and six seats are available, the quota is 50,000 ÷ (6 + 1 = 7). transferable vote system,
This works out as 7,143. One is then added, giving a final figure of 7,144. the quota (known as a
■ The first preferences are counted for each candidate. Any candidates who achieve Droop quota) calculates
the quota are elected automatically. the number of votes a
■ After this stage the counting is complex. The candidates securing the fewest first candidate must achieve to
choice votes are eliminated and the second, third, fourth or even lower preferences be elected. It is calculated
of the voters who had voted for the eliminated candidates are transferred to the by the total votes divided
other candidates, until a candidate secures the quota to be elected. by seats available plus one.
■ This process continues until six candidates have achieved the quota and are
elected. If all but six candidates have been eliminated, then the remaining
candidates will be elected, even if they do not achieve the quota.

Electoral systems
An assessment of STV is shown in Table 18. Exam tip

Table 18 The single transferable vote (STV) system It is important to think
Advantages Disadvantages about the impact different
It produces a broadly proportional It is quite a complex system that some voters do electoral systems have
outcome. not understand. where they are currently
It gives voters a very wide choice The vote counting is complicated and can take a used and to think about
of candidates to choose from. long time.
what impact they might
The second and subsequent
choices of the voters are taken into have if they were used in
consideration in the counting. Westminster elections.
Voters can vote for candidates It can help candidates with extremist views to be
from different parties and show a elected. Minority government
preference between candidates of the When no party wins
same party.
an overall majority it
As there are six representatives per With six representatives per constituency the
constituency, each voter has a choice lines of accountability are not clear. may form a minority
of those to represent them and usually government. This is
can be represented by someone from a common form of
the party they support.
government in Scotland
It promotes more consensus politics It is more likely to result in minority or
which can lead to greater political coalition government. and Wales. Such
cooperation, essential in a divided governments tend to be
society such as Northern Ireland. weaker and more unstable
because of their lack of
Supplementary vote (SV) majority support.
This system is used to elect a single candidate, such as a mayor, and is designed to Coalition government
ensure that the winner has a majority of support from the electors. It is therefore When no party wins an
an example of a majoritarian system and in the UK is used to elect the London overall majority two or
Mayor and other regional mayors, as well as in by-elections in STV regions. It operates more parties may form
like this: a coalition government,
■ Voters have two choices, a first and second choice. If any candidate achieves an as occurred in the UK in
overall majority, i.e. 50%+, of the first choice or round, they are automatically elected. 2010–15. The coalition
■ If this does not happen the top two candidates go into a second round of counting. parties share seats in
All the others are eliminated. government and agree
policies between them.
■ The second-choice votes are added to the first choices to give two final totals. As
there are only two candidates left, one of them must achieve an absolute majority
of the remaining votes. Knowledge check 11
■ Therefore, the winner usually has an overall majority of a combination of first- and Study the four electoral
second-choice votes. systems described above
■ Which system is likely
An assessment of SV is shown in Table 19.
to produce the most
Table 19 The supplementary vote (SV) system
proportional result?
Advantages Disadvantages ■ Which system gives
The winning candidate can claim to A winning candidate may not enjoy the first-choice the most choice to
have an overall majority of support. support of an overall majority.
voters?
It is relatively simple for voters toThere is evidence of voters not understanding
understand. the system and wasting their vote by voting for ■ Which system is most
the same candidate twice or two parties with no likely to produce an
chance of finishing in the top two. overall majority for the
Voters’ first and second choices are It is likely to promote a two-party system and make
winning party?
relevant. it even harder for small parties to win a seat.

Content Guidance
Table 20 summarises the electoral systems used in the UK. Exam tip
Table 20 Summary of electoral systems used in the UK Remember that the
System Type of system Where used term ‘proportional
First-past-the-post Plurality UK general elections representation’ does
English and Welsh local government elections not refer to a particular
Additional member Hybrid Scottish parliamentary elections electoral system. It is a
system (AMS) Welsh parliamentary elections way of describing several
Greater London Assembly elections systems that produce a
Single transferable vote Proportional All Northern Ireland elections proportional outcome,
(STV) Local elections in Scotland
such as STV.
Supplementary vote (SV) Majority City mayoral elections
Comparing first-past-the-post with other systems

When comparing FPTP to other systems, you need to consider what you hope to
achieve in Westminster general elections. Table 21 shows a variety of objectives and
suggests which electoral system is most likely to achieve each one.
Table 21 Comparing FPTP to other electoral systems on the basis of objectives

Objective FPTP AMS STV SV
Strong, stable, single- Usually very strong Possible but less likely Very rare More likely than
party government than under FPTP under FPTP
Maximum voter Limited to only one Two choices with two Up to six choices on a Two preferential
choice choice which may chances of securing preferential basis with choices, though
have limited impact desired representation as many chances of only one candidate
securing some degree of elected
desired representation
A multi-party system Unlikely as it tends to More likely than FPTP, Far more likely than any Even less likely than
promote a two-party though evidence suggests other system used in under FPTP
system single-party dominance the UK
occurs in the UK
Strong constituency Strong due to The FPTP candidate Large multi-member The same as FPTP
representation single-member holds this, but the top-up constituencies make
constituencies candidates do not this much less likely
A proportional Unlikely due to More likely due to the Far more likely than Could be even less
outcome wasted votes and top-up element, though under FPTP or any proportional than
safe seats it depends on the other system under FPTP due to
percentage of top-up two-party dominance
seats (fewer in Wales
than in Scotland, making
it less proportional)
An absolute majority Mixed, but about The FPTP seats are going Very unlikely Much more likely
for the winner in 50–60% chance to be the same but the than under any other
each constituency under FPTP top-up seats are not likely system
to see an absolute majority
Votes are of equal No, as a result of More likely than under Much more likely than Slightly better than
value safe seats, wasted FPTP but still widespread under any other system under FPTP but still
votes and unequal variation not very equal
representation
Electoral systems analysis

Debates about why different electoral systems are used in the UK
Until 1997 the only electoral system used in the UK was the FPTP system. So, why
were different electoral systems introduced and why are they still in use today?

Electoral systems
■ New Labour had committed itself to electoral reform, partly after 18 years in
opposition and partly as a means of gaining support from the Liberal Democrats if
a coalition were needed.
■ Having been elected with a huge majority in 1997 and benefiting from FPTP, New
Labour cooled its approach to electoral reform until the prospect of defeat in the
2010 general election.
■ However, having committed themselves to electoral reform they needed to
introduce new systems somewhere in the UK.
■ It was also hoped that introducing more systems that created fairer representation
might encourage greater participation.
■ In some devolved regions, AMS was introduced as a means of allowing smaller
parties to gain some representation and ensuring the regions did not end up as a
copy of Westminster. This improved the level of democracy and representation.
■ For elected mayors, who hold a great deal of administrative power, it was important
to use SV as a way of ensuring that the winning candidate had support from a
majority of the people.
■ In Northern Ireland, the history of violence that resulted from key parties being
excluded from power meant STV would be used to ensure that nearly all parties
would gain some form of representation as well as ensuring that one party could
not win an absolute majority.
■ STV was introduced by the Scottish Parliament in order to improve democracy and
create a more representative set of councils.
Despite these positive reasons for using different electoral systems, their use has also
presented problems.
– Levels of participation and turnout have not improved noticeably as a result of
the introduction of alternative electoral systems.
– In Scotland and Wales one party has been dominant for a prolonged period of
time with no real single party of opposition.
– Though small, instances of spoiled ballots as a result of confusion are higher Knowledge check 12
(around 3% of the total) than under FPTP (around 1%). What is the position of the
three key political parties
The outcome of the alternative vote (AV) referendum in 2011 indicated a rejection of
in relation to reform of the
electoral reform for general elections and there appears to be no great popular desire
UK electoral system?
for further electoral reform from the UK electorate.
The impact of electoral systems on types of government, the party

system and voter choice
Table 22 summarises the different outcomes and qualities of first-past-the-post
(FPTP) in comparison with the three other systems. In each case there is an
evaluation in terms of the party system, government formation and voter choice.
Table 22 Four electoral systems compared

System Party system Government formation Voter choice
FPTP Tends to two-party Usually strong government with a majority Little choice
AMS Multi-party Difficult for one party to gain a majority Voters have two votes
STV Multi-party A majority government is very unlikely Voters have many choices
SV Tends to two-party A majority government is more likely Voters have two choices

Content Guidance
Referendums
The experience of referendums in the UK since 1997
The use of referendums to settle important political issues, normally constitutional
matters, has become increasingly popular since 1997. Table 23 summarises the use of
referendums since 1997.
Table 23 Referendums in the UK since 1997
Year Issue Level Why held Yes (%) No (%) Turnout (%)
1997 Should additional powers Scotland A fundamental change in the system 74.3 25.7 60.4
be devolved to Scotland of government needed popular
and a Scottish Parliament consent.
established?
1997 Should additional powers Wales A fundamental change in the system 50.3 49.7 50.1
be devolved to Wales of government needed popular
and a Welsh Assembly consent.
established?
1998 Should the Belfast Northern This required support across the 71.7 28.9 81.0
Agreement be Ireland whole of the divided community.
implemented?
2004 Should additional powers Northeast A fundamental change in the system 22.1 77.9 47.7
be devolved to northeast England of government needed popular
England and a regional consent.
assembly established?
2005 Should a ‘congestion Edinburgh It was a highly controversial proposal. 25.6 74.4 61.7
charge’ zone be introduced
in Edinburgh?
2011 Should the UK adopt the National The coalition government was divided 32.1 67.9 42.2
alternative vote system for on the issue of electoral reform.
general elections?
2014 Should Scotland become Scotland A fundamental question about who 44.7 55.3 84.6
an independent country? governs Scotland and a manifesto
commitment of the SNP in the Scottish
Parliament elections of 2011, which
they had won with an outright majority.
2016 Should the UK remain a National A fundamental constitutional question. 48.1 51.9 72.2
member of the EU? The governing Conservative Party was
split on the issue. Also, to meet the
challenge of UKIP.
Knowledge check 13
Linked concept
Study the outcomes of
Referendums are a form of direct democracy and offer alternative
referendums since 1997.
representation. They are also associated with constitutional reform. Indeed, the
Identify:
use of referendums to confirm constitutional reforms is itself a constitutional
reform. (See pages 43–44.) ■ Which referendum had
the highest turnout?
■ Which referendums
The reasons why referendums have been held were locally based?
The main reasons why referendums have been used to settle political issues, rather ■ Which referendums
than using government and parliament, include the following: were regionally based?
■ An issue might be very divisive so a referendum can settle the issue and unite the ■ Which referendum had
population. Example: the devolution referendums of 1997. the highest majority?
■ Which referendum had
the narrowest majority?

Electoral systems
■ An issue may be of huge constitutional significance and so requires pure Binary choice This
democracy. Example: the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence. means there are only two
■ It helps to entrench and safeguard constitutional changes. Example: the 1998 possible outcomes — yes
referendum on the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland. or no. All referendums
■ To judge public opinion on an issue. Example: local referendums on congestion are binary even if the
charges. issue could have more
complicated responses.
The case for and against referendums
Exam tip
Referendums have become the subject of controversy, especially after the
EU referendum of 2016 proved to be so divisive. This was partly because the When assessing the use
result was so close and partly because it revealed how divided the UK was on of referendums, consider
the issue of the European Union. Furthermore, it presented a binary choice, that the alternatives to
remain or leave, when the issue was more complex than that. It also was unusual referendums are votes in
in that it did not offer a clear vision of what would happen next, so voters did parliament or decisions
not know what they were actually voting for, unlike in the other referendums, by executive government.
which clearly presented what the reform proposed would be. The 2016 You should try to evaluate
referendum is the best example to use when discussing the problems of which of the three bodies
referendum use. Other referendums, however, have proved to be more — the people, parliament
successful. The arguments concerning referendums are summarised in Table 24. and government — is best
suited to resolving an issue.
Table 24 Evaluating the use of referendums in the UK

Referendums are the purest form of democracy, The people may not be able to understand the
uncorrupted by the filter of representative democracy. complexities of an issue such as the consequences of
They demonstrate the pure will of the people, as occurred leaving the EU or adopting a new electoral system.
in the EU vote in 2016.
Referendums can mend rifts in society, as occurred Referendums can also cause social rifts. This arguably
with the decisive result of the 1998 vote on the Belfast occurred in both 2014 in Scotland and in 2016 with the EU
Agreement. referendum.
Referendums can solve conflicts within the political system There is a danger that the excessive use of referendums
and so stave off a crisis. This was especially the case with may undermine the authority of representative democracy.
the EU referendums in both 1975 and 2016.
Referendums are particularly useful when the expressed A referendum can represent the ‘tyranny of the majority’.
(as opposed to implied) consent of the people is important, This means that the majority that wins the vote can use
so that the decision will be respected. This was very true of their victory to force the minority to accept a change which
the votes on devolution in 1997. is against their interests. The Scots, who voted strongly to
stay in the EU in 2016, claimed they were being tyrannised
by the English majority.
Arguably the people are much more informed than they Voters may be swayed by emotional rather than rational
have ever been in the past. The internet and social media appeals. It may also be that they are influenced by false
in particular have facilitated this. This makes them more information.
capable of making decisions for themselves rather than
relying on elected representatives.
They can be useful in preventing the government from Some questions should not be reduced to a simple yes/no
making a mistake or enacting an unpopular policy, as answer — they are more complicated. Certainly the 2011
occurred in 2004 when the northeast of England decisively question on electoral reform is an example of this. Perhaps
rejected the government’s proposed plans for regional several different options should have been considered, not
devolution. just one.

Content Guidance
Summary Exam tip
When you have completed this topic you should have a thorough knowledge of When studying the case for
the following information and issues: and against referendums,
■ the workings of the different electoral systems used in the UK it is tempting to see them
■ the advantages and disadvantages of each of these electoral systems as good or bad. For more
■ the impact of different electoral systems on the type of government elected effective evaluation, think
■ the impact of different electoral systems on party representation of a referendum in terms
■ the impact of different electoral systems on voter choice of better or worse than the
■ the arguments surrounding electoral reform at Westminster system of representative
■ what referendums are and how they are used in the UK democracy we currently
■ the impact referendums have made on politics in the UK have and whether it
■ the case for and against the use of referendums in a representative democracy improves or weakens the
existing system.
■ Voting behaviour and the media

Social factors affecting voting
Class and voting
Traditionally, social voting was determined by a person’s social class (based on how Social class How
they earned their money). Until 1997, class was the most effective way of explaining we divide up society
how a person might vote in an election. Broadly speaking, classes are divided as follows: according to a person’s
■ Class AB Higher managerial, company director, higher professional such as lawyers occupation, though not
■ Class C1 Supervisors, clerical workers, junior managers, lower professional such as income.
nurses
■ Class C2 Skilled manual occupations
■ Class DE Unskilled manual workers, basic catering, unemployed
The link between people’s social class and the party they are most likely to support
has declined. It used to be the case that the vast majority of class AB voted
Conservative and the majority of class DE voted Labour. Table 25 shows how the link
between social class and voting habits has changed since the 1960s.
Table 25 Changes in core voting support by class

Election year % class AB voting Conservative % class DE voting Labour
Class dealignment
1964 78 64
The increasing tendency
1987 57 53
1997 59 59 for voters to support
2010 40 40 a particular party not
2015 45 41 because of which class
2017 43 59 they are in, but according
2019 45 39 to an objective judgement
of the quality of the
There are a number of reasons why class-based voting has declined. They include: parties. In other words,
■ Class dealignment. A diminishing proportion of the population consider class has become a
themselves a member of a specific class. Class is less important in society than it weaker indicator of which
used to be. way a person will vote.

Voting behaviour and the media
■ The parties have tended to move towards the centre of the political spectrum
which means they appeal to people across the class boundaries.
■ Other factors than class have become important, most notably age.
Linked concept
Voters’ changing attitudes to political parties have a lot to do with the issues
and positions those parties take and what is important to the electorate. (See
pages 23–24.)
Partisanship and voting attachment

Partisanship is used to describe an intense attachment and loyalty to a particular party.
It causes a person to vote for the party regardless of leadership or policies. As a result of
Partisan dealignment
partisan dealignment, a smaller proportion of voters feel a strong attachment to one
A widespread tendency
of the major parties. This decline in partisanship has a number of causes:
for people to feel a weaker
■ Class dealignment has occurred. This means that the old strong links between
attachment to a particular
the working class and Labour and the middle class and the Conservatives have party. This means a larger
weakened. As a result of class dealignment people have weaker party attachments. proportion of voters are
■ The parties have tended to adopt centrist policies which can attract a wider range willing to change their
of voter support but alienate more committed members. party allegiance between
■ There is a growing support for alternative parties based on issues, such as the elections.
Greens and SNP.
Partisanship The extent
■ There is a general widespread dissatisfaction with the performance of parties at
to which people feel a
Westminster so people feel less attachment to them.
strong and permanent
■ There has been a long-term decline in party membership, so there are fewer
attachment to one party,
committed party supporters. meaning they will always
As a result, class and partisan voting have become far less important in explaining support that party at
electoral outcomes than they were in the past. elections.
Gender, age, ethnicity and region in voting patterns

Knowledge check 14
Gender
Look at Table 25. Answer
Generally, gender plays a limited role in explaining voting behaviour. Gender roles the following questions:
have become less clearly defined since the 1960s, with women increasingly entering
■ What proportion
the workplace and taking on traditional male roles and some men taking on what were
of middle-class
seen as traditional female roles. Before the 1980s women were seen predominantly as
voters supported the
housewives rather than industrial workers and a slight majority would vote Conservative.
Conservatives in (a)
However, as more women have moved into the workplace and Labour has become less
1964 and (b) 2019?
focused on traditional industries that had been dominated by men, so slightly more
■ What proportion of
women tend to vote Labour than Conservative, particularly younger women.
working-class voters
The evidence seems to suggest that gender-based voting is of less importance than other supported the Labour
factors, partly because a simple male/female division is too simplistic and masks a variety Party in (a) 1964 and
of issues that create differences in voting patterns more easily discerned in other groups. (b) 2019?
Age ■ Which party appears
to have suffered more
There is a strong correlation between the age of voters and the way they typically
from class dealignment
vote, which has actually become the main dividing line in voting behaviour in recent
since 1964?
elections. Table 26 demonstrates the correlations.

Content Guidance
Table 26 Age and voting in four general elections

1979 1997 2010 2015 2017 2019
Age % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
range Con Lab All* Con Lab LD Con Lab LD* Con Lab LD* Con Lab LD* Con Lab LD*
18–24 42 41 12 27 49 16 30 31 30 27 43 5 27 62 5 19 62 9
25–34 43 38 15 28 49 16 35 30 29 33 36 7 27 56 9 27 51 11
35–44** 46 35 16 28 48 17 34 31 26 35 35 10 33 49 10 36 39 13
45–54 31 41 20 34 28 26 36 33 8 43 40 7 46 28 14
55–64*** 47 38 13 36 39 17 38 28 17 37 31 9 51 34 7 49 27 11
65+ 36 41 17 44 31 16 47 23 8 61 25 7 64 17 11
Total, all 43 40 13 31 44 17 37 30 24 38 31 8 37 30 8 45 33 12
ages
Source: IpsosMORI/Ashcroft polling

*The third party was the SDP/Liberal Alliance in 1979, the Liberal Democrats thereafter.
**In 1979 this figure is for 35–54.
***In 1979 this figure is for 55+.
The conclusions we can reach from these data about age and voting are as follows: Exam tip
■ The 18–24 age group is much more likely to support the Labour Party than the It is not feasible to
Conservatives. remember a vast quantity
■ The 35–44 age group is the most likely range to support the Liberal Democrats. of statistics to reinforce
■ The older a voter is, the more likely they are to support the Conservative Party. your analysis and use
as evidence, but it is
Ethnicity important to remember
When looking at ethnicity the official phrasing still in use for political commentary is a few key statistics.
BAME, standing for Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic. In recent years this term itself Otherwise you should
has become problematic with a number of people preferring to use the term ‘people of simply know the dominant
colour’ to distinguish people not of a white background. As we are reflecting official trends.
figures and references we are using the term BAME here, but be aware that this
carries problematic connotations.
There is a striking correlation between voting behaviour and ethnicity. Table 27
indicates clearly that people of BAME backgrounds are far more likely to support
Labour than the Conservatives.
Table 27 Ethnicity and voting

% BAME voting % BAME voting % BAME voting
Election Conservative Labour Liberal Democrat
1997 18 70 9
2010 16 60 20
2015 23 65 4
2017 21 65 6
2019 20 64 12
Source: IpsosMORI
This is partly a class effect in that people of colour are more likely to be filling lower-
paid occupations, but it is also to do with Labour’s past record on securing equality
for such groups and outlawing discrimination, while the Conservatives still have a
reputation for being opposed to immigration and hostile to members of the BAME
community in the 1960s and 1970s.

Region
There are wide disparities in regional voting in the UK. Regional voting figures
demonstrate that the UK is a very divided country as far as political allegiances are
concerned. When looking at regional statistics, it is important to consider that class
may play a role. It is clear that parts of the UK, especially the south of England, are
largely middle class, while much of the north is working-class dominated. However,
the regional variations cannot be accounted for solely by class. Table 28 shows the
results of the 2019 general election broken down by region.
Table 28 2019 general election, voting by region (% seats)
% % Liberal SNP or Plaid
Region Conservative % Labour Democrat Cymru
East of England 57.2 24.5 13.4 n/a
Northeast of England 38.3 42.6 6.9 n/a
Northwest of England 37.6 46.4 7.9 n/a
Southeast of England 54.2 22.1 18.3 n/a
Southwest of England 52.9 23.3 18.1 n/a
East Midlands of England 54.9 31.8 7.8 n/a
West Midlands of England 53.5 33.9 7.9 n/a
London 32.0 48.1 14.9 n/a
Yorkshire and the Humber 43.0 38.8 8.0 n/a
Scotland 25.1 18.6 9.5 45.0
Wales 36.1 40.9 6.0 9.9
The 2019 general election was slightly unusual in that a number of traditional Labour
seats in industrial northern areas voted Conservative on the basis of Brexit. However,
Labour still dominated in urban cities, while the SNP reaffirmed its position as the
dominant party in Scotland. Exam tip
Despite the slight shifts in 2019, a number of conclusions can be drawn: In answers about what
■ The south of England is heavily dominated by the Conservative Party. determines voting
■ The same is true of the rural Midlands, though to a slightly lesser extent.
behaviour, it is important
to distinguish between
■ The north of England is dominated by Labour.
the long-term social
■ Scotland is heavily dominated by the SNP.
factors described here
■ London is different from the rest of the south of England in that Labour has more
and the short-term factors
support there. that influence each
individual election such
Summary of factors affecting voting as manifestos, leadership,
Table 29 summarises the relationships between a variety of social factors and voting campaigns and press
for the parties. influence.
Table 29 The influence of social and democratic factors

Factor Estimated influence
Gender There is a slight tendency for women to favour Labour, but gender is not that important in explaining voting behaviour.
Age This is a key factor. Older voters favour the Conservatives significantly. Young voters have a strong Labour bias.
Ethnicity This is another significant factor in voting behaviour. Labour tends to benefit from BAME votes, but these
BAME votes tend to be concentrated in urban areas already dominated by Labour.
Class Class used to be the most important determinant of voting behaviour but is becoming much less influential.
Region There are considerable variations in regional voting patterns. Scotland is heavily dominated by the SNP,
while the south of England is solidly Conservative. The north of England is Labour country, while the English
Midlands are closely contested between the two main parties.

Content Guidance
Political factors affecting voting Knowledge check 15

From the statistics shown
Party leaders in this section:
The quality of the party leaders is an issue which stands alone in voting behaviour. ■ Which is the least
The typical qualities that voters like to support are listed below. In each case a good significant social
example of the reputation of a leader is given: factor?
■ their record in office (e.g. Margaret Thatcher, 1979–87) ■ Which is the most
■ compassion (e.g. John Major, 1990–92) significant social
■ decisiveness (e.g. Tony Blair, 1997–2007) factor?
■ strong leadership (e.g. Margaret Thatcher)
■ clear vision (e.g. Tony Blair, Nicola Sturgeon for the SNP and Jeremy Corbyn
in 2017)
■ communication skills (e.g. David Cameron, 2010–16)
■ populist appeal (e.g. Jeremy Corbyn, 2017, Boris Johnson, 2019)
Examples of negative qualities perceived by voters, resulting in defeat, include:

■ John Major’s perceived weakness in the face of a divided party contributed to his
heavy defeat in 1997.
■ Gordon Brown was seen as weak and indecisive when he sought election in
2010.
■ Nick Clegg was seen as untrustworthy when the Liberal Democrats suffered a
crushing loss of seats in 2015.
■ Theresa May’s poor media performance in the 2017 campaign and failure to attend
the televised leaders’ debate weakened her position as leader.
■ In 2019 Jeremy Corbyn seemed to have no clear vision for Brexit and was
uncertain in his position, while focusing on policies that did not resonate with
voters.
Manifesto A document
Exam tip that sets out a party’s
When discussing voting behaviour, always add some clear examples of how each factor policies at the time
has affected actual results in your chosen case studies. of a general election.
The contents are both
Policies and manifestos policy aspirations and
commitments.
Manifestos are critical to an understanding of how parties try to persuade voters
to vote for them. Parties try to develop a set of manifesto policies that will appeal Mandate If a party
to a wide cross-section of voters. If a party wins the election, it has a mandate to wins the election and
carry out its manifesto promises. Traditionally, these would be a set of principles takes power, it has a
based on the party’s core ideology, but increasingly the manifesto pledges are mandate or authority to
designed to reflect the concerns of voters and persuade them to vote for the party. carry out all its manifesto
If done well, a manifesto can swing voters towards a party, but if done badly, it commitments. This is a
may alienate voters. Table 30 lists some examples of successful and unsuccessful key democratic aspect of
manifesto promises. party politics in the UK.

Table 30 The impact of key manifesto pledges

Election Successful manifesto pledge Unsuccessful manifesto pledge
1979 Conservative plan to introduce a ‘right to buy’ Labour commitment to defeat world poverty
scheme on council homes
1997 Commitment to introduce devolution to Wales Conservative pledges to support traditional families
and Scotland through tax allowances and benefits
2010 Conservative pledge to reduce the deficit Labour pledge that failing police forces will be taken over
by successful ones
2015 Conservative pledge to hold an in–out EU Labour pledge to reduce university tuition fees to £6,000
referendum per year
2017 Labour commitment to increase police numbers Conservative pledge to use people’s homes to fund social
care (the so-called ‘dementia tax’)
2019 Conservative promise to get Brexit done Labour commitment to the nationalisation of key industries
Campaigning
During an election campaign, parties will use a variety of techniques to persuade
voters to vote for them. Successful campaigns will ensure a party wins enough seats to
gain a majority. Such techniques include:
■ party political broadcasts on mainstream TV
■ leafleting
■ targeted advertising via social media platforms
■ holding meetings and rallies
■ televised leaders’ debates
■ campaign adverts on advertising boards
■ get out the vote activities (calling, knocking on doors, online messages to encourage
key groups to turn out)
■ daily press briefings to promote the party
■ constituency visits by the ‘big beasts’ of the party
■ targeting key marginal seats
■ negative campaigning by trying to undermine their opponents
■ political stunts to gain press attention and spark interest from voters, such as
Labour’s 2015 ‘Woman to Woman’ pink bus campaign
Wider political context

When it comes to elections, the wider political context can be key. What has been
happening with the economy, the major issues of the day and a party’s reputation for good
management can all impact how voters cast their ballot. Some key examples of this include:
■ the failure of Parliament to deal with Brexit before the 2019 election
■ the terror attacks in the run-up to the 2017 election, which undermined the
Conservative Party’s reputation for strong law and order
■ hostility towards the Liberal Democrats in 2015 following their role in the coalition
■ the financial crisis of 2008 that led to a rejection of New Labour
■ the War on Terror, which cost Labour some support in 2005

Content Guidance
■ the financial crash of 1992 and the accusations of sleaze and scandal that damaged
the Conservative Party in the 1997 election
■ the economic strife and ‘Winter of Discontent’ that cost the Labour Party support
in the 1979 election
As these examples suggest, negative aspects in the wider political context tend to
damage the party of government and benefit the party of opposition, while if the
wider context is stable, voters tend to stick with the party already in power.
Linked concept
When considering general elections many other issues need to be considered,
including the attitude towards parties, the policies they have formulated,
attitudes to devolution and the relationships between the various political
branches. (See pages 19–24, 44–47 and 65–72.)
Voter turnout
The overall turnout in elections does not in itself affect the outcome of elections. Turnout The proportion
However, the different rates of turnout among various social groups are influential. of the total electorate
Some key features of turnout among various social groups include: who actually turn out to
■ Young voters turn out in smaller numbers than older voters. As Labour, Liberal vote at an election or in a
Democrats and the Greens are more popular among the young, this means that referendum.
these three parties are disadvantaged by this factor. This effect was reduced
somewhat in 2017 when the votes of the 18–24 age group increased significantly.
■ The over 65s turn out to vote in much larger numbers than other age groups
(sometimes as high as 80%). As older people tend to support the Conservatives and
UKIP, these two parties benefit from higher turnout.
■ Members of class DE vote in smaller numbers than class AB. This gives an
advantage to the Conservative Party.
■ Although Labour is supported by a large majority of BAME voters, turnout in this
group is relatively low.
The influence of the media

The way the media reports on politics and how it shapes the debate can have a huge
influence on the way people view politics and make their decisions. The broadcasting
media (TV and radio) in the UK are controlled to ensure that they have no political
bias, but in their reporting of events and policies and mistakes by those in power they
can influence the perceptions people hold. The press, however, is a different matter.
Newspapers in the UK virtually all have a political bias and try to persuade their
readers to support a particular position. Social media is also growing in importance
and is less regulated and less controlled than broadcast media, though its impact
tends to lie in how it is reported by the press and broadcast media rather than the
impact it has itself.

The role and impact of the media on elections Knowledge check 16

Table 31 shows the political stance of UK newspapers. From the information in
Table 31 The political affiliations of the main UK newspapers at the 2019 election Table 31:
Newspaper Political preference Circulation (000s) ■ Which party receives
Sun Very strongly Conservative 1,371 most support from
Daily Mail Very strongly Conservative 1,200 newspapers?
Daily Mirror Very strongly Labour 500 ■ Which are the two
The Times Moderate Conservative 406 most significant
Daily Telegraph Very strongly Conservative 336 newspapers in terms of
Daily Star No preference 321
Conservative support?
Daily Express Very strongly Conservative 313
■ Which is the only mass
i Conservative/Liberal 231
democrat circulation newspaper
Financial Times Conservative/Liberal 169 supporting Labour?
Democrat
Guardian Moderate Labour 135
Source: Statista
Research suggests that newspapers have relatively little impact on the political views
of their readers but they do, it is believed, reinforce existing attitudes. However, there
are some concerns about press bias:
■ Newspapers may contribute to setting the agenda — by identifying certain issues
they make them most significant — and so favour some parties more than others.
This often applies to the economy. Exam tip
■ Newspapers may influence people concerning the image of leaders. A major press
Do not confuse the fact
campaign in 2015 suggested Ed Miliband was ineffective.
that the press may have
■ The press may influence people’s image of the parties in general (valence), which
influence over politicians,
may influence some floating voters.
which it probably does, as
■ Even though newspapers may have little influence over voters, some politicians
opposed to voters, which
believe they do and so they can be influenced to change their policies to please it does to a lesser extent.
newspaper owners.
■ In 2017 Jeremy Corbyn appeared to defy a very negative press image by increasing
his standing during the election campaign.
Political opinion polls

The problems concerning opinion polls include a number of features. The main Opinion polls Statistical
issues are as follows: research, carried out by
■ The media and political parties pay a great deal of attention to opinion polls. professional organisations,
■ In recent elections and referendums, opinion polls have proved to be inaccurate. which measures the voting
They failed to predict the Conservative general election victory in 2015, the ‘Leave’ intentions of people as
vote in the 2016 EU referendum and the hung parliament in 2017. well as their attitudes
■ Voters may adjust their intentions according to what the polls reveal. For example,
towards political issues,
some voters may have decided not to vote for Labour in 2015 as they feared a parties and political
Labour–SNP coalition. Some may have voted to leave the EU as a protest as they leaders.
expected the outcome to be ‘Remain’ and their vote would not matter.
■ If the polls show a clear outcome one way or another it may discourage people from
voting at all.

Content Guidance
■ Parties may adjust their policies as a result of opinion poll findings even though
those findings may be inaccurate.
These issues have led to calls for controlling opinion polls. The main proposal is
to ban the publication of polls in the run-up to elections. Table 32 summarises the
arguments for and against the banning of polls.
Table 32 Should the publication of opinion polls be banned in the run-up to elections?
For banning Against banning
They may influence the way people vote. It would infringe the principle of freedom of
expression.
They have proved to be inaccurate so they If they are banned they will become
mislead the public. available privately for organisations that can
afford to pay for them.
Arguably politicians should not be slaves Polls give valuable information about
to changing public opinion as expressed in people’s attitudes, which can guide
the polls. politicians usefully.
They would still be published abroad and
people could access them through the
internet.
General election case studies

You should gather material from three general elections, one from 1945–92 (1979
is recommended), the 1997 election and one since 1997 (the most recent election is
recommended). In each case you should study the following features of the election:
■ What were the main features of the outcome? How did each party perform?
■ What were the main changes since the previous election? Which parties gained
ground and which lost ground?
■ What were the main issues at the election?
■ What were the main factors that influenced the outcome? Was it valence issues?
Leadership factors? Economic factors? Long-term changes in social factors?
■ How was the political system affected by the outcome? Did government change?
What was the size of the government majority? Was there a hung parliament?
Summary
When you have completed this topic you should have a thorough knowledge of
■ the results and impact of at least three general elections
■ the factors that explain the outcomes of at least three elections
■ the role of manifestos in election campaigns
■ the importance of social factors, including class voting, on electoral
outcomes
■ the way in which voting patterns have changed over time and the possible
reasons for these changes
■ the role of the media in determining voting behaviour
■ the importance and relevance of opinion polls, media bias and persuasion in
electoral campaigns

The Constitution
UK government
■ The Constitution
Any constitution has the following key functions:
■ It distributes power between political institutions, both between the centre and
regions, and between institutions at the centre.
■ It establishes how institutions relate to each other.
■ It usually specifies the main processes of government such as the electoral system
and the legislative process.
■ It normally specifies the limits to government overall.
■ It establishes the civil rights and freedoms of the citizens.
■ It establishes who is a citizen and how one can become a citizen.
Rule of law The
■ It establishes the method by which the constitution can be amended. democratic principle
The UK Constitution differs in nature to most constitutions in democratic countries, that everyone, including
but it still performs the functions described above. government itself, should
be subject equally to the
The nature and sources of the UK Constitution law.
Parliamentary
The development of the UK Constitution
sovereignty The key
Unlike nearly every other democratic country, the UK’s constitution has evolved principle of the UK
through a number of important historical and legislative occurrences. Table 33 traces Constitution which
the stages in its development. establishes that the
Table 33 The historical development of the UK Constitution Westminster Parliament
Date Development Nature of change has supreme legal power.
1215 Magna Carta Mostly now out of date, but this established the principle
of the rule of law.
1688–89 The Glorious The Bill of Rights established the sovereignty of Knowledge check 17
Revolution and Parliament and its supremacy over the monarch.
Look at Table 33 and
Bill of Rights
1701 Act of SettlementAmong other terms, this Act established the monarch as answer these questions:
ruler of the whole of the United Kingdom. ■ Which developments
1911 and Parliament Acts Limited the power of the House of Lords and so established key
1949 established the House of Commons as superior to the
Lords. constitutional
1972 European Brought the UK into the European Union; since principles?
Communities Act rescinded. ■ Which developments
1998 Devolution Acts Large amounts of power were transferred from marked significant
Westminster to governments in Wales, Scotland and transfers of power from
Northern Ireland.
some institutions to
1998 Human Rights Act Brought the European Convention on Human Rights
(ECHR) into UK law. others?
2005 Constitutional The Supreme Court was established, thus confirming the ■ Which developments
Reform Act independence of the judiciary. specifically affected
2017 The UK agrees to Following a referendum in 2016, the UK began the the distribution of
leave the EU process of leaving the EU. sovereignty?

Content Guidance
The nature of the UK Constitution

The nature of the constitution refers to its features and how it might be defined.
■ It is uncodified. This means it is not found in one single, authoritative
document.
■ It is not entrenched. This means there is nothing to protect it from being Entrenchment A
changed by a simple process, normally an Act of Parliament. Entrenchment constitutional principle
implies safeguards to prevent the constitution being amended too easily and whereby constitutional
without evidence of widespread consent. rules are safeguarded
■ It has a variety of sources. This means it can be found in several forms and in a
against change by a
large number of separate documents and principles. future government or
legislature.
■ It is unitary. In a unitary constitution sovereignty lies in one place. In the UK this
is the Westminster Parliament.
■ It is not supreme. In most democratic nations the constitution holds ultimate
sovereignty. This is not the case in the UK, meaning constitutional laws are subject
to Parliament, not the other way round.
Exam tip
■ It is very flexible. Because it is not entrenched and because it is under the
control of Parliament the UK Constitution can be changed very easily, by a simple It is important to
Act of Parliament. understand the
key features of the
constitution and their
The main sources of the UK Constitution positive and negative
When we speak of a ‘source’ of the constitution, what we really mean is the various implications. Any question
elements that make up the constitution. Table 34 shows the different sources of the asking you to evaluate
UK Constitution. the constitution will
Table 34 Sources of the UK Constitution require a consideration of
Type of source Description Example these features and how
well they allow the UK
Parliamentary statutes An Act of Parliament, The European Union
passed in the same way (withdrawal) Act 2020, Constitution to operate.
as any other Acts confirming the official
withdrawal of the UK from the Constitutional
EU convention An unwritten
Constitutional Unwritten principles that The Salisbury Convention that rule of the constitution
conventions are accepted as binding the House of Lords must not which everyone in the
within the political obstruct proposals contained
community in the governing party’s last political community
election manifesto accepts as binding.
Common law Laws established Many of the rights of citizens New conventions are
through the courts in the exist through common law, constantly developing.
process of interpreting maintained by the judges
the law
Authoritative works Great works of legal The Coalition Agreement 2010,
authority which act as which set out the process and
guides to the operation rules for forming a coalition
of the constitution government
Treaties International agreements The Lisbon Treaty 2009,
that become binding on which increased the areas of
the UK responsibility for the EU

The Constitution
How the UK Constitution has changed since 1997 Exam tip

People often describe
Reform of the UK Constitution, 1997–2010 the UK Constitution as
The New Labour government elected in 1997 pledged to carry out sweeping reforms unwritten. This is untrue
of the constitution with the following aims: as about 80–85% of it
■ to make the UK generally more democratic is written, it is just not
■ to bring the constitution into line with other modern systems codified. Make sure you
do not make this mistake
■ to decentralise power away from central government
in your answers.
■ to improve the status of human rights in the UK
There were many reforms carried out and you should have a thorough knowledge of
the following ones:
■ Reform of the House of Lords, 1999
■ Electoral reform, 1998
■ Devolution, 1998
■ Human Rights Act, 1998
■ Reform of the Supreme Court, 2005
Table 35 shows the nature of the reforms, together with the specific legislation and
details of what was involved.
Table 35 Constitutional reforms, 1997–2010 (summarised)
Reform Year Legislation Detail Knowledge check 18
Devolution 1997/98 Scotland Act The transfer of considerable powers to Looking at the
governments and elected bodies in the
Wales Act
three countries constitutional reforms
Northern Ireland between 1997 and 2010,
Act identify:
Electoral 1998 Scotland Act The devolution settlement, including the
reform introduction of new electoral systems
■ two reforms that
Wales Act
in the three countries: STV (single enhanced human
Northern Ireland transferable vote) in Northern Ireland, rights in the UK
Act AMS (additional member system) in
■ a reform that
Scotland and Wales
decentralised power
Human 1998 Human Rights Act Brought the European Convention on
Rights Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law, ■ two reforms that
making it fully binding make the UK more
House 1999 House of Lords Most of the hereditary peers were democratic
of Lords Act removed, leaving only 92 in the House
reform of Lords. It became a mostly appointed
chamber
Exam tip
Supreme 2005 Constitutional Twelve of the most senior judges were
Court Reform Act removed from the House of Lords, forming
a fully independent Supreme Court as the Some questions may
highest court in the country
ask you about general
constitutional reforms
Linked concept while others may have
All constitutional changes are inherently linked to the idea of democratic reform specific dates, so make
and improving elements of UK democracy. (See pages 43–49.) sure you are clear which
Constitutional changes are also passed through Parliament in the form of reforms happened in
statute law and sometimes confirmed by referendums. (See pages 30–31.) which time periods.

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of temples in the sacred enclosure at Thebes (this enclosure itself
meant order and protection), and then we shall have all the
materials requisite for enabling us to understand every particular
of Homer’s statement. Jupiter goes to the Ethiopians, because he
was the chief god of Thebes. But there are temples enough for all
the gods, and so they all accompany him. Here they meet, we
see why, Oceanus. It is a great festival of many days. This is
intelligible. We see why these Ethiopians are irreproachable. In an
age of piracy and violence they enforce, with all the authority of
Religion, the order, fair dealing, and abstinence from all kinds of
violence, and ensure the security, necessary for trade; and which
had made the trade they were protecting and fostering the
greatest, at that time, in the world. Their singular
irreproachableness might be measured by their unparalleled
prosperity, and their unparalleled prosperity accounted for by their
singular irreproachableness; and both might be explained by their
profound and all-embracing piety. This made them irreproachable.
This made them prosperous. This ensured the presence of all the
gods at their twelve days’ Feast.
[5] Throughout this chapter I distinguish between the idea, and
the doctrine, of a future life. There may be some traces of the
idea in the Old Testament; though I believe that they are not so
numerous, or so distinct, as many suppose. And what there may
be of this kind is certainly counterbalanced by the general tenor of
the documents with respect to this subject, and by some distinct
statements in the opposite sense. What I affirm is, that there is no
trace of a doctrine of a future life. A doctrine on such a subject is
a categorical averment of it, unmistakably announced, and
unmistakably used as a motive for shaping the whole life. Of such
an averment, so used, I assert, and endeavour to account for, the
absence.
[6] It has been pointed out to me by a reader of the first edition
of this book, that there is a great similarity between the above
paragraph and a passage in Bishop Butler’s Analogy. But as I
have not seen that great work since my Oxford days, now thirty-
two years ago, I think I may be allowed to leave it standing with
an acknowledgment of unconscious reminiscence.
[7] Note.—After the foregoing Chapter was in type, it occurred
to me to apply the light of the fact it accounts for to some
prominent particulars of the Old Testament. Here are a few of the
results: Moses gives as a reason for our first parents having been
driven out of Paradise, that God desired to preclude the possibility
of their eating of the fruit of a certain tree, whereof if they were to
eat they would become immortal; and that He afterwards carefully
guarded the tree from them by Cherubims, and a flaming sword
that turned every way. This was to prevent their becoming
immortal. Previously, too, God had threatened that, if they
disobeyed a certain commandment, they should become
incapable of immortality (for the context shows that this was the
meaning intended); and, on their disobedience, God had passed
on them the sentence that they should return to the dust out of
which they had been made. There can be no reasonable doubt
but that in this part of the introductory history a foundation is
designedly laid for the absence of the doctrine of a future life from
the dispensation; and objections to its absence answered by
anticipation. Popular hermeneutics, however, are incapable of
explaining these particulars, notwithstanding the significant
prominency assigned them in the narrative.
Again, on the theory of the popular interpretation, we can see
no reason why Isaiah should have placed the ultimate
suppression of evil, and the complete triumph of good, on this
earth. That would be of no advantage to the generation to which
he had to address himself; and it would be an arrangement that
would give nothing to those who had borne the heat and burden
of the day, and everything to those who had done nothing. The
difficulty, however, vanishes, when we remember that he had no
doctrine of a future life, or of any other stage than this earth for
man. Everything, therefore, that was to be brought about, must be
brought about on this earth, and during this earthly life, which
were all.
Our fact also accounts for the conspicuous, and otherwise
inexplicable, want of proselytizing zeal in the old Israelites. They
quite believed that the best thing for man was the knowledge of
God; but they had no disposition to communicate this knowledge.
The reason was that the advantages of this knowledge were
temporal. Had, therefore, Jehovah been brought to give
protection, wealth, and strength to their neighbours, with whom
they were generally in a state of hostility, it would have been a
hurt to themselves. So soon as the objects of religion became
moral only, and not of this world, Israelites had abundance of zeal
for making proselytes among their neighbours.
Doubtless other particulars will occur to the reader, which, like
those I have just noted, are explicable only by the aid of the direct
opposite to that which the popular interpretation assumes, this
direct opposite being, in fact, the most prominent and distinctive
of the peculiarities of the dispensation.
[8] Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.—
Acts vii. 22.
[9] In ‘Land and Water,’ of February 3rd, 1872, may be found an
interesting account of the way in which D. (Lord Ducic) stalked,
killed, and ultimately secured the sunken carcass of one of the
few stragglers that may now occasionally be seen to the north of
the cataract. It was a full-grown specimen, and, as the evidence
of its stomach proved, a child-eater. Jure occisus est. The scene
was 3° 32´ north of the cataract.
[10] M. de Lesseps has lately raised these charges 50 per
cent., having made the discovery that the chargeable tonnage of
a steamship includes the space required for engines and fuel. As
well might he, after having charged a sailing vessel for its cargo-
space, assess at so much more the scantling of its spars, and the
spread of its canvas. At all events this method of charging is not
after the fashion in which he himself originally interpreted those
terms of the concession, which fix the rate at which ships using
the Canal may be charged.
INDEX.
Abraham, his genealogy, 29.

At the Pyramids, 83.
At Heliopolis, 119.
Bargaining with Ephron, 337
Abydos, 97-104.
Ride to, 98.
Its Palace and Temple, 100;
its Tablet, 101.
Antiquity of its civilisation, 102-104
Acacia, 411
Achmed and Hodge, 396-401
Agriculture, Egyptian, favoured early civilization, 13-15.
Syrian, 245
Alexandria, 448-457
Alkali, Egyptians used, in washing, 367
Amasis, 277
Amenemha III., his register of risings of the Nile, 5, 114.
Engineered Lake Mœris, 114
American, an, on the Pyramids, 85.
The ⸺ pig, 433
Amunoph, 124.
His Colossus, 150
Apries, or Pharaoh Hophra, 277
Arabs sleep in the open air, 99.
Truthfulness and honesty of, 176.
Superstitions, 359-364
Arch, date of the, in Egypt, 142.
Why not used, 294.
Date of the pointed, 464
Art, style of Egyptian, 36
Arts, antiquity of useful, 44
Aryan ancestors of Egyptians might have come from the Persian
Gulf, 38.
Date, 40.
Their belief in a future state, 35, 195
Ashdod, siege of, 275
Ass, the, 424
Assassef, 151
Assyrian Dynasty at Bubastis, 271.
They overrun Egypt, 272
Assouan, Governor of, 168.
Camel-riding at, 421
Astronomer Royal for Scotland on the Pyramids, 63, 65
Awe, its place in religion of Egypt, 127
Backsheesh, 45-51
Bahr Jusuf, 103, 106, 475
Bargaining, 337, 469
Basques, possible origin of, 40, 44
‘Beginning’ of 1st Ch. of Genesis, 264
Belief, travel and, 244-256
Belzoni, 138
Benihassan, 173
Bethany, girl of, 47-49
Bethlehem, women of, 50
Birds in Egypt, 436-440
Birket el Keiroon, 106, 111, 112
Bitter Lakes, 486
Bottled-up labour, Capital is, 59
Boulak Museum, wooden statue in, 72-74.
Chephren’s statue in, 74
Brotherhood, doctrine of, 318.
Overthrew Egyptianism, 320.
Its subsequent history, 322
Bubastis, 270.
Festival of, 278.
Canal of, 473, 475
Buffalo, the, 433
Builders, Orientals great, 467
Buildings, cause of disappearance of, 77.
Destruction of, in Egypt, 79.
In the Delta, 266-289.
Preservation of, in Upper Egypt, 290-298.
Why large, and constructed of large stones, 293
Bunyan’s ‘Pilgrim’s Progress,’ 190
Cairo, 458-471
Caliphs, tombs of the, 467
Camel, 417-423
Canalization of the Isthmus, 472-493
Capital, what ⸺ is, and how it acts, 59.
What it will do for the East, 394
Caste, origin of, 34.
How used by the Egyptians, 311.
Survey of the phenomena of, 332-336
Christianity has no written law, 211, 213, 215, 217, 220, 229,
233, 318.
Why ⸺ triumphed in Egypt, 320.
Why ⸺ failed, 321.
Was a protest, 509.
What it dealt with, 516
Chronology, early, 75, 81
Church and State, 514.
Its relation to religion, 515.
Its conflicts with the State, 516.
Originally included the State, 517.
Its usurpations stopped, 519.
Who look to the, for the education of the people, 525.
Its inability to educate, 526.
Its sphere, 528.
What it should teach, 532
Civilization, early hindrances to, 13.
What it was before the date of the Pyramids, 52-56.
Anterior to Abydos, 102
Cleanliness, Oriental, 365-369
Cleopatra, 164, 286.
Needle of, 455
Climates, Egypt has the ⸺ of two zones, 15
Clothes pawned returned at sunset, 340
Colchis, Egyptian colony at, 160
Colossus of Memnon, 150
Communications easy in Egypt, 13.
In direction of latitude, 14
Conclusion, 494-540
Concrete, early thought, 259
Constantinople, 492
Contemporaneous, Egyptian documents, 94, 101
Copts at Thebes, 148
Cosmogony, Mosaic, how to be taken, 261
Crabs, their business, 145
Criticism, Biblical, 82, 257
Crocodiles, why worshipped, 109.
The last killed below the Cataract, 435
Custom, persistency of, 337.
Change of, an European characteristic, 340
Darius completes the Canal to the Red Sea, 477

‘Day’ of the 1st Ch. of Genesis, 263
Dead, Book of the, 186
Deceased, the, 103
Della, its dynasties, 266-284.
Overthrow and disappearance of its monuments, 266-289
Dendera, 286
Despotism, how nature aided, in Egypt, 18-20.
How formerly checked, 21
Dish, dipping in the, 340
Divorce, 378, 383
Doctrine differs from idea, 193
Dodecarchs, connexion of, with Labyrinth, 115
Dog, the, 428
Dôm Palm, 413
Donkey-boys, 170-176
East, can anything be done for the? 389-395

Edfou, 285
Education, the, which the State should undertake, 524
Egypt, how formed, 1-9.
Its agriculture made civilization possible, 13.
Has two climates, 15.
Its configuration and agriculture aided despotism, 12-20.
What hope for modern, 21.
Antiquity of its civilization, 26.
Its relation to Israel, 239.
Its prosperity under Amasis, 277.
What its history teaches, 536
Egyptians, how their character affected by nature, 12-20.
Hard lot of modern, 22-24.
Not mainly African, or Semitic, 27.
Mixed Aryan and Ethiopian, 32.
Their style of art, 36.
Aptitude for science and organization, 37.
Might have arrived by the Red Sea, 38.
Not Turanian, 41.
Resembled the Japanese, 42-44.
Their belief in a future life, 182-192.
Their wisdom and its fall, 299-322
England, how want of wood in Egypt affects, 408.
Advantage of the Canal to, 491
English thought practical, 120-123.
Language in Egypt, 171
Equus, why not Latin for horse, 263
Esbekeyeh, 464
Esné, 287
Established Churches, 214
Ethiopians, connexion with Egypt, 33.
Why irreproachable, 162 (note)
Etruscans, possible origin of, 40, 44
Evil eye, 360-363
Exclusiveness, national, 312.
Abrogation of, 318
Exodus, date of, 474
Faioum, 105-116.
Remoteness of its reclamation, 105.
How reclaimed, 106-112.
Why crocodiles were worshipped in, 109
Fellah, his hard case, 22
Festivals, at Bubastis, 278.
At Sais, 279
Finns, possible origin of, 40, 44
Free trade and independence, 43
French policy in Egypt, 480
Fuel, how manufactured in Egypt, 407
Future life, Egyptian belief in, 35.
Whence derived, 182.
Basis of Egyptian civilization, 184.
Why not a doctrine of the Mosaic Dispensation, 193-243.
Why necessary for Christianity, 211-220.
Why Moses could not have taught it, 221.
Logical basis of the doctrine, 238.
Buddhist doctrine of, 240.
Jewish morality unsupported by, 240, 500
Gardening in Egypt, 414-416
Genesis, 1st Ch. of, 261-265
Geese, ancient and modern, 438
Germanicus at Thebes, 164-167, 502
Girl of Bethany, 47-49.
At Thebes, 172.
At Benihassan, 173
Goats, 434
Gods, materials from which ⸺ were made, 290
Granite, why used, 267
Greece compared with Egypt, 501.
What it achieved, 539
Greeks keep pigs in the East, 431, 432
Hareem, the atmosphere of the, 387

Harrow, my young friend late from, 47, 51, 87, 91
Harvests, Egypt has two, 15
Hebrew Scriptures not primarily historical, 81-84.
Their chronology, 81.
Why ⸺ have no doctrine of a future life, 193-243.
How to be interpreted, 257.
Right of interpretation, 259
Heliopolis, 117-123.
The Holy Family at, 117.
The University of Egypt, 119.
Obelisk of, 119
Herodotus upon the formation of Egypt, 3.
Mentions a register of risings of the Nile, 5.
His account of Lake Mœris explained, 110.
Of Egyptian colony in Colchis, 160.
What he says of Bubastis, 270.
Of the Egypt of Amasis, 277.
Of Necho’s circumnavigation, 274.
Of feasts of Bubastis and Sais, 278
Herod’s temple and palace, 246
Hippopotamus, 435
Hodge compared with Achmed, 396-401
Homer acquainted with the greatness of Thebes, 124.
Why ⸺ sends the gods to the irreproachable Ethiopians,
160-162.
Mentions the Island of Pharos, 453
Homœopathy, 364
Hophra, or Apries, 276
Horse, the, in Egypt, 426
Houriism, 381-388
Ideas make men and women, 385.

Change slowly, 519
Imagination, its relation to history and religion, 461
Immortality, how the working of society confirmed the idea of,
17.
How the river and the sun, 18.
How Christ brought it to light, 211-234.
Why mankind not immortal, 243 (note)
Insects in Egypt, 443
Instincts, moral sentiments are, 306.
What are ⸺, 308.
Egyptian study of, 310
Interpretation, historical method of, 257-265
Isaiah, why ⸺ anticipated a new earth, 243 (note)
Iseum, 280
Ismailia, 483
Israel compared with Egypt, 499.
Israelites, who they were, 29.
Their ethnology, 199.
Not unimaginative, 204.
Their moral heroism, 241.
When ⸺ built Pithom and Ramses, 474
Jacob’s deception, 250

Japan, Egypt compared to, 42-44
Jerusalem, aspect of the city, 246.
Only a Bible word, 256.
Pilgrims at, 357.
Camels at, 419
Jesus Christ, the situation to which His teaching was addressed,
207.
What He taught, 210-220.
Argumentative position of, 216, 229.
Why He taught a future life, 229.
Why He impugned the doctrine of immediate judgments,
239.
His doctrine, in part, a protest, 509
Jews, a mixed people, 29, 199.
Moral heroism of, 241.
Why not proselytisers, 243 (note)
Jezebel’s last toilet, 338
Joseph, story of, 338
Josiah defeated by Necho, 276
Kagabu, 339
Karnak, 125-132.
Hypostyle hall of, 129
Kêf, 95
Koran, 345
Labour, why squandered on Pyramids and Temples, 57-63

Labourer, English, why held to labour all the year round, 399
Labyrinth, 114-116
Lamps, Feast of, 279
Landlordism Eg., 328-331
Language, morality compared to, 242
Laps, possible origin of, 40, 44
Law, Semitic idea of, 31.
Separation of Municipal from Religion, 212-216.
General laws the same as particular Providence, 235
Legislatures, Orientals have no, 347, 371
Letters, discovery of, 184.
Results, 185, 391
Liberty, Oriental systems extinguish, 372
Library of Rameses, 146.
Of Alexandria, 455
Light, Symbol of the Divine Spirit, 280
Literature, effects of, 390-392.
Alexandrian, 451
Livingstone, 2
London, a contemplation of, 506, 534
Luncheon at the Pyramids, 92-96
Luxor, 124
Luxury, Oriental, 383
Mad, are all Orientals, 341

Mandeville, his account of the Pyramids, 64-66
Marriages, Oriental, 338, 374.
Why early in the East, 378
Master-mind, the, 122
Medinet Haboo, 148
Memnon, 150
Mendes, 266
Metaphysical solutions of physical problems, 3
Metaphysics, Hebrew, 261.
Early, 232
Mississippi compared with the Amazon, 15
Modern societies, prospects of, 540
Mœris, Lake, 108.
Abundance of fish, 110.
Herodotus’ account of, 110
Mohamed, 66, 342
Mohamed Adamanhoury, 470
Money not known at date of the Pyramids, 58
Monogamists, early Egyptians were, 37.
Nature made us, 379
Monuments, why disappeared in the Delta, 266-289.
Why not in Upper Egypt, 285-289.
Rationale of, 290-298
Moral being is a growth, 253.
Moral sentiments instincts, 306-310.
Aims of society must be, 536
Morality not dependent on future life, 240.
How congenital, 242.
Grounds of, 242.
Progressive, 251.
What should be taught by the State, 524.
What by the Church, 532
Moses, his wife, 168.
Aim of his legislation, 201.
First historical protestant, 509
Mosks of Omar, 246.
Of Cairo, 464.
Of Ebn e’ Tooloon, 464.
Of Hassam, 465.
Of El Azar, 466
Mosquitoes, 443
Mounds of old cities, 404
Mouské, 461
Municipal religion when impossible, 227
Nature, how ⸺ affected the Egyptians, 12-20.

What it presented to the Egyptians, 16.
Variety of, 495.
Intelligence seen in, 496
Necho, extends the Canal to the Bitter Lakes, 273.
Circumnavigates Africa, 274.
His Asiatic campaign, 275.
Extends the Canal of Rameses, 477.
Necropolis of Pyramid era, 91-95.
Of Thebes, 133-143
Nile, how the, formed Egypt, 1-9.
Three colours of its water, 9.
Contrast of past and present value of its work, 10.
Facilities for up and down traffic, 14.
Important that it flows in the direction of latitude, 14
Norfolk Island Pine, 415
Obelisk of Heliopolis, 119.

Of Luxor, 125.
Of Alexandria, 281, 455.
Were books, 298
Omar destroys the library of Alexandria, 456.
Re-opens canal to Red Sea, 479
Orientals, are they mad? 341.
Intellectual inferiority of, accounted for, 343
Originality of the Egyptians, 153
Osiris, temple of, at Abydos, 101.
Mysteries of his sufferings, 271
Ositarsen, first name at Karnak, 130.
At Tanis, 267
Ox, the, 434
Palace of Westminster, what it suggests, 512, 514

Palm-trees, tax on, 23.
Character of, 110
Paradise, Hebrew, 205.
Mahomedan, 381
Parliament, history of the English, 513
Paul, St., what he taught, 220
Pearls, real, 121
Pelicans, 437
Persian invasion, 163
Petamenap, his tomb, 141
Pharos, 453
Philæ, Great Pyramid looks down on, 70.
Ride to, 421
Physical Geography, bearing of, on national history, 12
Pigeons in Egypt, 437
Pilgrimage, 355-358
Pilgrims, Greek and Latin, at Jerusalem, 357
Pithom, 473
Platte, resemblance of valley of, to Egypt, 4
Pointed Arch, 464
Polygamy, 374-380.
The polygamic region, 376
Population, Commerce supports, 245
Pork, why forbidden in the East, 433
Port Saïd, 482
Post-Pharaohnic temples, 285-289
Prayer, Oriental, what it is, 349.
Connexion of, with morality, 351.
Variation in its object, 352.
Repetitions in, 354.
Women not taught, 374
Printing-press, its use to the East, 392
Progress, in arts, 137.
In religion, 231.
In moral being, 253.
Historical progress, 325.
Ordained by God, 233.
Rendered possible by letters, 184, 392
Property, value of security for, 389.
Exists amongst animals, 429
Prophets, the Hebrew, have no doctrine of a future life, 194.
Anti-Egyptian policy of, 276.
Their hopefulness, 315.
Their self-devotion, 500
Protestant, the first, 509
Providence, identity of particular, and general laws, 235
Psalm, the 109th, 250
Psammetichus, 272
Ptolemy Philadelphus re-opens the canal to the Red Sea, 478
Pyramids, contemporary civilization implied by, 52-56.
Why labour was squandered on, 57-63.
Why so formed, 63-69.
Sir J. Mandeville’s account of, 64-67.
Inscriptions on the Great, 65.
Great Pyramid higher than the Cataract of Philæ, 70.
Ascent of Great Pyramid, 85-91.
Luncheon at, 92-96.
Necropolis of Pyramid era, 94-95
Railway, a mid-European, 492

Rameseum, 146
Rameses II. at Luxor and Karnak, 125.
His temple-palace, 145, 146.
His library, 146.
His great expedition, 154-163.
His inscription in Syria, 162.
Cut the Pithom-Ramses Canal, 473
Rameses III., his tomb, 135.
His temple-palace, 148
Ramses, city of, 473
Rationale of the monuments, 290-298
Register of Nile risings, 5, 114
Religion, Aryan character of that of Egypt, 27, 35.
Aim of that delivered by Moses, 201.
A municipal, when impossible, 227.
A chapter in its history, 231.
Same as truth, 237.
Its great rôle in Egypt, 299.
Why it did not spread, 302.
Its aims moral, 303.
Why it fell, 320.
Reverts in Egypt to Theocracy, 321.
An organism of thought, 341.
A distinction between Christianity and Mahomedanism, 342.
What it is, 515.
Its aims, 532
Republicans, why Orientals are not, 370-373.
Conditions disposing them to be, 370
Ritualists, where those, get their ideas, 465
Rome compared with Egypt, 502.
Rooks, 439
Sais, its temple, 271.

Connexion with the Greeks, 271.
Festival of, 279
Sakia, 446
Sandstone-buildings long-lived, 289
Saul’s sons hanged, 250
Scarabs, 177-181
Scene, the, in England, 495.
Must be associated with man, 496.

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Pearson Edexcel A-Level Politics

Student Guide 1: UK Government and

HE magazine _jan-21_200x140.indd 1 02/02/2021 16:05

Questions & Answers

UK government and politics 3

■ Getting the most from this book

Knowledge check answers

318007_03_PE_A-level_PS_G1_073-097.indd Page 83 14/12/21 11:09 AM user /103/HO02459/work/indd

Tips on what you need to do Student A answer

Read the comments showing

Practise the questions, then

marks are gained or lost.

look at the student answers

UK government and politics 83

4 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

■ About this book

UK government and politics 5

■ Democracy and participation

Representative and direct democracy

6 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Democracy and participation

Representative and direct democracy compared

The differences between representative and direct democracy

UK government and politics 7

Table 3 An assessment of direct democracy

The case for reform of representative democracy

8 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Democracy and participation

Democratic feature Positives Negatives Reform proposals

UK government and politics 9

Table 5 Does the UK have a participation crisis?

■ In 1928 the vote was given to all women.

Suffragettes and suffragists Knowledge check 3

10 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Democracy and participation

Current movements to extend the franchise

A campaign to extend the franchise

Pressure groups and other influences Pressure group An

UK government and politics 11

Table 7 Campaigning methods

12 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Democracy and participation

Pressure group case studies

Other collective organisations

UK government and politics 13

Rights in context Exam tip

Strengths Weaknesses Civil rights Rights that

14 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

Democracy and participation

Pressure groups and rights protection

The features of political parties are:

16 Pearson Edexcel A-level Politics

The role of parties in the UK political system

The funding of UK political parties

Why is party funding controversial?

UK government and politics 17

Table 11 Income of parties reported in 2020 (central funds)

Source: Electoral Commission Exam tip