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3D Imaging of the
Environment
This is a comprehensive, overarching, interdisciplinary book and a valuable
contribution to a unifed view of visualisation, imaging, and mapping. It covers a
variety of modern techniques, across an array of spatial scales, with examples of
how to map, monitor, and visualise the world in which we live. The authors give
detailed explanations of the techniques used to map and monitor the built and natural
environment and how that data, collected from a wide range of scales and cost
options, is translated into an image or visual experience. It is written in a way that
successfully reaches technical, professional, and academic readers alike, particularly
geographers, architects, geologists, and planners.
FEATURES
• Includes in-depth discussion on 3D image processing and modeling
• Focuses on the 3D application of remote sensing, including LiDAR and
digital photography acquired by UAS and terrestrial techniques
• Introduces a broad range of data collection techniques and visualisation
methods
• Includes contributions from outstanding experts and interdisciplinary teams
involved in earth sciences
• Presents an open access chapter about the EU-funded CHERISH Project,
detailing the development of a toolkit for the 3D documentation and analysis
of the combined coastline shared between Ireland and Wales
Intended for those with a background in the technology involved with imaging
and mapping, the contributions shared in this book introduce readers to new and
emerging 3D imaging tools and programs.
3D Imaging of the
Environment
Mapping and Monitoring
Edited by John Meneely
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

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Designed cover image: © Historic Environment Scotland, The Engine Shed, Stirling, Scotland
First edition published 2024
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© 2024 selection and editorial matter, John Meneely; individual chapters, the contributors
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ISBN: 978-0-367-33793-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-10895-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-32757-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9780429327575
Typeset in Times
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To my wife Dr. Julie Meneely, thank you for your
never-ending support.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Editor .........................................................................................................................x
Contributors ..............................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1 Digital Documentation and Digital Innovation in Practice .................1

Adam Frost and Lyn Wilson
Chapter 2 Mapping the Urban Environment with a Handheld Mobile

LiDAR System—A Case Study from the UrbanARK Project .......... 27
Aaron Miller, John Meneely, Ulrich Ofterdinger, Debra Laefer,
Michela Bertolotto, and Anh Vu Vo
Chapter 3 Using Drones to Map and Visualise Glacial Landscapes .................. 45

Iestyn D. Barr, Kathryn Adamson, Timothy Lane, Konstantin
Nebel, and Willem G. M. van der Bilt
Chapter 4 Laser Scanning of a Complex Cave System during Multiple

Campaigns .......................................................................................... 56
Ján Kaňuk, Jozef Šupinský, John Meneely, Zdenko Hochmuth,
Ján Šašak, Michal Gallay, and Marco Callieri
Chapter 5 Digitizing Giant Skeletons with Handheld Scanning

Technology for Research, Digital Reconstruction, and
3D Printing ......................................................................................... 82
Jesse Pruitt, Tim Gomes, Evelyn Vollmer, and Leif Tapanila
Chapter 6 Mapping, Monitoring, and Visualising Stone Decay

in the Urban Environment .................................................................. 95
John Meneely
Chapter 7 Unpiloted Airborne Laser Scanning of a Mixed Forest................... 114

Michal Gallay, Ján Kaňuk, Carlo Zgraggen, Benedikt Imbach,
Ján Šašak, Jozef Šupinský, and Markus Hollaus
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 8 Digital Mapping and Recording of Inishtrahull Island and

Its Built Heritage in 24 Hours .......................................................... 127
John Meneely, Kendrew Colhoun, Trevor Fisher, Michael
Casey, Daniel Moloney, and Alan Lauder
Chapter 9 CHERISH: Development of a Toolkit for the 3D Documentation and

Analysis of the Marine and Coastal Historic Environment ............. 138
Anthony Corns, Robert Shaw, Linda Shine, Sandra Henry,
Edward Pollard, Toby Driver, Louise Barker, Daniel Hunt,
Sarah Davies, Patrick Robson, Hywel Griffths, James Barry,
Kieran Craven, and Sean Cullen
Chapter 10 3D in the Construction of a Full-Scale Replica of St.

Patrick’s Cross, Downpatrick ........................................................... 163
Michael King and John Meneely
Chapter 11 Thermography Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ........................... 175

Scott Harrigan and Harkin Aerial
Chapter 12 Reconstruction of the Ballintaggart Court Tomb

Using 3D Scanning, 3D Printing, and Augmented
Reality (AR) ..................................................................................... 190
John Meneely, Colm Donnelly, Ciaran Lavelle,
Tony Martin, Brian Sloan, and Stephen Weir
Chapter 13 Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Monitoring and Modelling

Coastal Dune Morphodynamics.......................................................200
Sarah Kandrot
Chapter 14 Creating a Virtual Reality Experience of Fingal’s Cave,

Isle of Staffa, Scotland ..................................................................... 216
Victor Portela, Stuart Jeffrey, and Paul Chapman
Index ...................................................................................................................... 227

Preface
The feld of 3D imaging has undergone a remarkable transformation over the past
few decades, fuelled primarily by the emergence of new technologies, the growing
demand for realistic, immersive visual experiences and the ability to easily share the
results online.
This text is an essential guide for anyone interested in learning about this exciting
feld. Whether you are a student, a researcher, or a professional, this book provides
a wide-ranging overview of the techniques, technology, and applications used today.
With contributions from leading specialists in the feld, it covers an expansive
range of topics and technologies over a vast range of scales, such as photogrammetry,
laser scanning, drone mapping, and 3D printing. Through a collection of case stud-
ies, it explores the applications of 3D imaging in various felds, such as our built cul-
tural heritage, geomorphology, archaeology, zoology, and climate change and how
3D technologies are being used to map, monitor, visualise, and share the research
being carried out in these areas.
The text is designed to be accessible to a broad spectrum of readers, from begin-
ners to advanced users, and includes many links to online 3D content of the exam-
ples covered. It provides a general introduction to the feld of 3D imaging while also
giving in-depth coverage of advanced 3D technologies and techniques.
I hope that this book will serve as a valuable resource for anyone interested in 3D
imaging and that it will inspire new ideas and innovations in this exciting and rapidly
evolving feld.
John Meneely
ix
Editor
John Meneely is the founder of 3D Surveying Ltd, having previously worked as
Senior Research Technician at the School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s
University, Belfast. With over 30 years of experience in practical research, he has
worked all over the world with interdisciplinary teams across the earth sciences.
His expertise lies in using a variety of 3D laser scanning and other digital technolo-
gies to map, monitor, and visualise the built and natural environment across a wide
range of spatial and temporal scales. He has presented his work at many national
and international conferences and been the keynote speaker at several 3D digital
technologies conferences. He was on the advisory board for SPAR Europe for two
years – Europe’s largest 3D scanning conference – and invited to speak at the 2009
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) symposium in Malta on
the use of terrestrial laser scanning. His early research and publications focused
on studying the catastrophic decay of building stone under complex environmental
regimes and the digital documentation of natural and built heritage sites for several
geological, geographical, archaeological, managerial, and educational applications.
His recent interest has extended his data collection skills into 3D visualisation via
3D printing, VR, and AR. He is currently advising several SMEs, primarily in the
environmental monitoring, built heritage, construction, and facilities management
sector on integrating 3D technologies into their workfow.
x
Contributors
Kathryn Adamson Kendrew Colhoun Director
Department of Geography KRC Ecological Ltd
Manchester Metropolitan University Newcastle, Northern Ireland, UK
Manchester, England, UK
Anthony Corns
Louise Barker The Discovery Programme
Department of Archaeology Dublin, Ireland
Royal Commission on the Ancient
and Historic Monuments of Wales Kieran Craven
(RCAHMW) Geological Survey Ireland
Shrewsbury, England, UK Department of the Environment,
Climate and Communications
Iestyn D. Barr Dublin, Ireland
Department of Geography
Manchester Metropolitan University Sean Cullen
Manchester, England, UK Geological Survey Ireland
Department of the Environment,
James Barry
Geological Survey Ireland
Dublin, Ireland
Department of the Environment,
Sarah Davies
Dublin, Ireland
Department of Geography and Earth
Sciences
Michela Bertolotto
School of Computer Science Aberystwyth University
University College Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
Dublin, Ireland
Colm Donnelly
Marco Callieri School of Natural and Built
Visual Computing Laboratory Environment
Institute of Information Science and Queen’s University
Technologies Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
National Research Council of Italy
Pisa, Italy Toby Driver
Department of Archaeology
Michael Casey Royal Commission on the Ancient
Dublin, Ireland and Historic Monuments of Wales
(RCAHMW)
Paul Chapman Shrewsbury, England, UK
School of Simulation and Visualisation
Glasgow School of Art Trevor Fisher
Glasgow, Scotland, UK Banbridge, Northern Ireland, UK
xi
xii Contributors
Adam Frost Daniel Hunt

Historic Environment Scotland Department of Archaeology
The Engine Shed Royal Commission on the Ancient
Stirling, Scotland, UK and Historic Monuments of Wales
(RCAHMW)
Michal Gallay Shrewsbury, England, UK
Institute of Geography
Faculty of Science Benedikt Imbach
Pavol Jozef Šafárik University Aeroscout GmbH
Košice, Slovakia Hochdorf, Switzerland
Tim Gomes Stuart Jeffrey

Idaho Virtualization Laboratory School of Simulation and Visualisation
Idaho Museum of Natural History Glasgow School of Art
Idaho State University Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Pocatello, Idaho, USA
Sarah Kandrot
Hywel Griffths Department of Geography
Department of Geography and Earth University College Cork
Cork, Ireland
Sciences
Aberystwyth University
Ján Kaňuk
Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
Faculty of Science
Harkin Aerial
Pavol Jozef Šafárik University
Oyster Bay, New York, USA
Košice, Slovakia
Scott Harrigan
Michael King
Virtual Surveyor
Newry, Mourne, and Down District
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA Council
Downpatrick and Newry, Northern
Sandra Henry Ireland, UK
The Discovery Programme
Dublin, Ireland Debra Laefer
Tandon School of Engineering
Zdenko Hochmuth New York University
Institute of Geography Brooklyn, New York, USA
Faculty of Science
Pavol Jozef Šafárik University Timothy Lane
Košice, Slovakia Department of Geography
and Environmental
Markus Hollaus Science
Research Group Photogrammetry John Moores University
Department of Geodesy and Liverpool, England, UK
Geoinformation
Vienna University of Technology (TU Alan Lauder
Wien) Wildlife Conservation and Science Ltd
Vienna, Austria Kilcoole, Wicklow, Ireland
Contributors xiii
Ciaran Lavelle Patrick Robson

National Museums Northern Ireland Department of Geography and Earth
Cultra, Northern Ireland, UK Sciences
Aberystwyth University
Tony Martin Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
School of Natural and Built
Environment Ján Šašak
Queen’s University Institute of Geography
Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK Faculty of Science
Pavol Jozef Šafárik University
John Meneely Košice, Slovakia
3D Surveying Ltd
Banbridge, Northern Ireland, UK Robert Shaw
The Discovery Programme
Aaron Miller Dublin, Ireland
School of Natural and Built Environment
Queen’s University Linda Shine
Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK The Discovery Programme
Dublin, Ireland
Daniel Moloney
Redcastle, Donegal, Ireland Brian Sloan
School of Natural and Built
Konstantin Nebel Environment
Geography and Environmental Queen’s University
Research Group Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
John Moores University
Liverpool, England, UK Jozef Šupinský
Ulrich Ofterdinger Faculty of Science
School of Natural and Built Environment Pavol Jozef Šafárik University
Queen’s University Košice, Slovakia
Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
Leif Tapanila
Edward Pollard Idaho Virtualization Laboratory
The Discovery Programme Idaho Museum of Natural
Dublin, Ireland History
Idaho State University
Victor Portela Pocatello, Idaho, USA
School of Simulation and
Visualisation Willem G. M. van der Bilt
Glasgow School of Art University of Bergen
Glasgow, Scotland, UK Bergen, Norway
Jesse Pruitt Evelyn Vollmer

Idaho Virtualization Laboratory Idaho Virtualization Laboratory
Idaho Museum of Natural History Idaho Museum of Natural History
Idaho State University Idaho State University
Pocatello, Idaho, USA Pocatello, Idaho, USA
xiv Contributors
Anh Vu Vo Lyn Wilson

School of Computer Science Historic Environment Scotland
University College Dublin, Ireland The Engine Shed
Stirling, Scotland, UK
Stephen Weir
National Museums Northern Carlo Zgraggen
Ireland Aeroscout GmbH
Cultra, Northern Ireland, UK Hochdorf, Switzerland
1 Digital Documentation
and Digital Innovation
in Practice
The Historic Environment
Scotland Approach
Adam Frost and Lyn Wilson
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Historic Environment Scotland (HES) (and its predecessor organisation Historic
Scotland) has used digital documentation and visualisation in various forms for
many years, primarily for conservation purposes. As an early adopter of these tech-
nologies, we frst commissioned stereo pair photogrammetry in 1974 to augment our
survey record for monitoring the condition of the historic sites we look after around
Scotland, including Edinburgh and Stirling Castles. Laser scans were frst commis-
sioned in 2001 to create accurate 3D records of Pictish carved stones. In-house skill
in digital documentation was established in 2007 with a specifc focus on conserva-
tion. Within our Conservation Science Team, as the emphasis on non-destructive
analytical techniques naturally increased, we developed our capabilities in laser
scanning and infrared thermography, amongst other methods. Our expertise grew
from this solid scientifc foundation.
In 2009, we set out to lead the ambitious Scottish Ten Project to create accurate
3D models of Scotland’s (as then) fve UNESCO World Heritage Sites and fve inter-
national heritage sites.1 Initiated and funded by the Scottish Government and deliv-
ered in partnership with The Glasgow School of Art, and the nonproft organization,
Cyark, the models were used in conservation and management, interpretation and vir-
tual access (Wilson et al., 2013). Key achievements of the project included our digital
documentation work contributing to two UNESCO World Heritage Site nominations
for Rani ki Vav in Gujarat, India, in 2014 and the Giant Cantilever Crane in Nagasaki,
Japan, in 2015. Additionally, our accurate 3D model of Sydney Opera House was the
frst as-built record of the structure and has since been used to develop a detailed
building information model. Within Scotland, our project captured baseline 3D data
that now allows us to regularly monitor coastal erosion at Skara Brae in Orkney and
to develop a city scale model for the entire World Heritage area of the Old and New
Towns of Edinburgh, now often used for town planning purposes.
DOI: 10.1201/9780429327575-1 1
2 3D Imaging of the Environment
A dedicated Digital Documentation Team was established in 2010 with a focus

on conservation-driven projects within Historic Scotland and collaborative working
with the Visualisation Team at The Glasgow School of Art and others in the heritage
sector. The experience gained delivering the Scottish Ten project and the growing
appreciation that 3D data could be used for many different heritage purposes led to
the announcement of the Rae Project in late 2011. The Rae Project aims to digitally
document in 3D all 336 properties under the care of HES and the 41,000 associated
collections items (Hepher et al., 2016). In doing so, Scotland aims to become the
frst country in the world to digitally document its most signifcant heritage assets.
The project is named after John Rae, the 19th-century Orcadian explorer credited
with discovering the Northwest Passage—a navigable Arctic route from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Pacifc. While the 3D data collected is still used principally for con-
servation, multiple applications in facilities management, interpretation, learning
and research are increasingly common. Given the signifcant time, skill and fnan-
cial investment in capturing and processing 3D data for complex historic sites and
objects, it is eminently sensible to maximise re-use of the data sets for as wide a
range of applications as possible. At the time of writing, we have completed digital
documentation of approximately 42% of the properties in our care and several hun-
dred collections items. A prioritization matrix with input from across HES business
areas helps us strategically manage our ongoing programme.
In 2017, our commitment to the application of digital technologies for the ben-
eft of our historic environment was extended with the establishment of our Digital
Innovation Team. This strategic development aligned with the opening of the Engine
Shed,2 Scotland’s building conservation centre, where the Digital Documentation
and Digital Innovation Teams are based. The Digital Innovation Team’s role is to
develop the 3D data the Digital Documentation Team creates and use this in new and
innovative ways, both for use by the heritage sector and beyond. Another part of the
team’s role is looking for cutting-edge developments in digital technologies that can
be adopted for positive impact within HES. With all our digital heritage activities, we
strive for high quality, maximum beneft and adherence to best practice.
OUR APPROACH
The Digital Documentation and Digital Innovation Teams work within the Conservation
Directorate at HES to promote, develop and apply digital technologies to improve how
we care for our cultural heritage. We aim for tangible, applied uses of the technology
and data to serve as our use-cases and represent process effciencies—where time and
energy overheads may be reduced with improved results and fewer risks. This includes
surprising and novel uses of emerging digital techniques, such as to support traditional
skills by using additive manufacture of carved stone elements as sophisticated refer-
ence material for trained stone masons. This section looks at our general approach and
highlights our ambitions for the future of digital documentation.
STRATEGIC CONTEXT
The historic environment is defned by Our Place in Time: The Historic Environment
Strategy for Scotland (OPiT) (HES, 2014) as ‘the physical evidence for human activity
Digital Documentation and Digital Innovation in Practice 3
that connects people with place, linked with the associations we can see, feel and
understand’. Therefore, the historic environment is both itself a collection—of build-
ings, landscapes and sites—and the home for diverse collections—objects, material
culture and intangible heritage, stories, and traditions—that help us to understand it.
As the lead public body for the historic environment in Scotland, we work with
and support the sector to deliver the aims of OPiT. Our vision is for the historic envi-
ronment to be cherished, understood, shared and enjoyed with pride, by everyone.
To fulfl this vision, our Corporate Plan, Heritage For All (HES, 2019b) outlines key
outcomes that we will achieve through our work.
The preservation and management of our collective heritage is a key focus of
our Corporate Plan. Both the properties in care and associated collections undergo
continuous monitoring and targeted analysis which informs, and is informed by, our
research programmes. Our ability to care for, manage, conserve and provide access
to—and engagement with—those collections is underpinned by our understanding
of the material science of the objects themselves and the impact that their environ-
ment has upon them. This environment—whether it is the historic buildings that
house them, the impact of climate change, or the need for interventions such as heat-
ing, humidifcation and other forms of protection—is determined by our research
and development. This, in turn, leads to policy approaches and guidance which we
share with the sector. Research directly supports delivery of the HES Climate Action
Plan, Research Strategy, and Digital Strategy (HES, 2019a, b & c and 2020) and
broader objectives of the HES Corporate Plan.
At a wider strategic level, HES is part of the National Heritage Science Forum
member council, which supports the development of heritage science infrastructure
across the UK, including provision of access to specialist equipment across the mem-
bership providing a UK-scale heritage science network. The multiple value of our
digital work is recognised by UNESCO and is featured strongly in the organisation’s
2019 ‘Cultural Heritage Innovation’ report (UNESCO, 2019).
RESEARCH AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

The HES digital teams are actively involved in research and development, both as
internal R&D projects and through collaborative partnerships with higher educa-
tion institutions. We support master’s degree programmes and co-supervise PhD
students. Research must have an applied heritage focus with clear, practical bene-
fts. Our research activities are crucial for maintaining a leading edge in the rapidly
developing area of digital heritage. Building others’ capacity in digital documen-
tation is also a focus area. Since 2012, we have hosted a funded trainee within
our team for one year, offering the opportunity for hands-on, real-world experi-
ence. We also provide advice to the heritage sector in Scotland, the UK and often
internationally.
One example of our collaborative research is the development of algorithms
based on signal processing to automatically segment masonry walls from 3D point
clouds (Valero et al., 2018 and 2019), a task that often would be accomplished by
hand with inconsistent results. This research, with The University of Edinburgh
and Heriot Watt University, specifcally addresses maintenance of traditional build-
ings where elevations are produced that include the delineation of each stone and
FIGURE 1.1 Automatic segmentation of rubble masonry wall at Linlithgow Palace from
3D point cloud data.
Source: © The University of Edinburgh, Heriot Watt University and Historic Environment Scotland
defect assessment, a process that may require the erection of costly scaffold. The
algorithms can automatically extract this information on stone from the point cloud
(Figure 1.1), potentially representing signifcant time and money savings. In the case
of rubble masonry, the algorithm can also calculate mortar recess. The outcome of
this research has been freely disseminated as an offcial plugin for CloudCompare3
for use within the sector and by practitioners and specialists.
DISSEMINATION
Sharing our data in various formats allows us to facilitate research, support con-
servation objectives and engage wider audiences. This is central to how our work
and the digital assets created through digital documentation provide value for the
organisation and partners. There are technical challenges to making substantial 3D
data available to end users, and we are committed to using a range of technologies
and approaches best suited to the output requirements and audience. Our current
approach is illustrated in Table 1.1, where our deliverable data is divided into two
categories of access, each with different audiences and purposes.
Data that is required for internal organisational use, such as supporting a new
architectural design in a CAD or BIM software package or an engineering enquiry,
may be best used as a ‘raw’ or optimised interoperable 3D fle. Other conservation
tasks, such as condition inspection, may beneft more from visual interrogation of
a 3D mesh with an emphasis on high-quality photo textures. In this case, the data
TABLE 1.1
Various Dissemination Channels for 3D Digital Documentation Data Used
by the Digital Documentation and Innovation Teams within the
Organisation and Externally
Access Medium Organisational Use Only Organisational and External Use
Network streaming • ContextCapture Viewer (3D • Sketchfab
textured mesh/model viewer)
• Potree Viewer (3D point
cloud viewer)
• 3DHOP Viewer (3D viewer)
Offine and local data access • Leica TruView (Enhanced • Interoperable 2D/3D fle formats
panoramic laser scan viewer) (for research applications and
• Interoperable 3D fle format requests)
(e.g., e57)
may be better used via a network-accessible model viewer. To improve discover-

ability of PIC-related information within the organisation, HES has developed the
Properties in Care Asset Management System (PICAMS). PICAMS serves informa-
tion across the organisation via a web-accessible intranet, using enhanced search
tools and geographic information to identify and present relevant information for
staff enquiries. We are in the process of integrating web-accessible 3D assets with
the aim of enabling organisation-wide access to Rae Project data.
For wider public dissemination (and also organisational use), further consider-
ations that we take into account include:
• Digital access, including discoverability, availability, controls and accessibility

• Bandwidth and system resources (such as memory and graphics capability)
as limiting factors to users with diverse mobile and desktop hardware
• Ensuring a good user experience; optimising 3D data, the environment and
narrative elements such as annotations to engage audiences
Since 2017, we have used the online 3D model platform Sketchfab to make avail-
able and promote optimised versions of our data for sites and objects. This allows
wider public access to our digital documentation data to engage audiences at differ-
ent levels. As of December 2020, 354 3D models are available to view and interact
with. The various models on the HES account have received over 168,000 views, 658
likes and a number of ‘Staff Picks’. Figure 1.2 shows an example of an optimised 3D
model of Caerlaverock Castle, presented with a virtual tour of annotated signage.
DIGIDOC CONFERENCES
The DigiDoc conference series aims to inspire and engage audiences in the applica-
tion of innovative technologies for cultural heritage. First held in 2008, when digital
FIGURE 1.2 (A) Caerlaverock Castle available to view and explore for free on the HES
Sketchfab account. (B) Interactive annotations within the Sketchfab model act as a virtual
tour to online visitors.
documentation in cultural heritage was still in its infancy, the conference returned
in 2009, 2011 and 2012. In October 2018, we welcomed international delegates to
the Engine Shed in Stirling for a revival of our DigiDoc conference series. Over 200
participants from Scotland, UK, Europe, USA, China and Australia attended over
three days. The Engine Shed provided the perfect venue: our dynamic building con-
servation centre which we aim to develop into an international centre of excellence
for heritage innovation.
Our 2018 DigiDoc Research and Innovation Day provided a friendly platform
for researchers and SMEs to showcase new and cutting-edge work, along with
established leaders from the UK digital heritage sector. The following two days of
DigiDoc saw world-leading innovators from gaming, TV, flm and VFX industries
and heritage, arts, science and education sectors give keynote addresses on a diverse
range of thoroughly engaging topics. HES now aims to host DigiDoc on a three-
yearly basis, highlighting the most inspirational and aspirational developments and
applications in digital technologies.
SUSTAINABILITY
Climate change is leading to unprecedented impacts on Scotland’s historic environ-
ment. As outlined in our new Climate Action Plan (CAP) 2020–2025 (HES, 2020),
rising sea levels, higher temperatures and a wetter climate are pushing many historic
buildings and sites into new and uncharted conditions that they were not designed
to cope with. To address both the impacts and causes of climate change requires
swift and meaningful action: both to reduce our own carbon footprint and to adapt
Scotland’s historic environment to meet the consequences of climate impacts. The
CAP sets out our priorities for addressing climate change, both as an organisation
and on behalf of Scotland’s historic environment sector. Research and innovation is
specifed as one of four cross-cutting priorities underpinning delivery of this plan,
and in alignment with our Research Strategy, we identify specifc programmes of
research activity each year to support delivery of the Plan.
As an organisation, in the last 10 years, we have reduced emissions from HES
operations by 37%, and our CAP sets out not only our own net-zero carbon ambi-
tions but our commitment to support decarbonisation and enhanced sustainability
across the heritage sector in Scotland and beyond. Helping the sector to reach net-
zero, using our historic assets to create positive environmental impacts and setting
best practice standards through our research, education and training programmes,
directly aligns with the values of the UKRI Sustainability Strategy. We are starting
to explore ways to identify carbon reduction made through digital co-working, where
the use of 3D digital documentation data shared with colleagues and partners is help-
ing to reduce unnecessary travel and associated energy and emissions for projects.
METHODOLOGY
Our general digital documentation methodology is presented here, with a focus on
how we tackle the differences in scale between the objects, sites and the landscapes
they sit within. The Rae Project largely governs our approach to this process, with a
specifcation that has evolved to refect what we believe to constitute reliable, accu-
rate 3D data for a range of uses. We also factor in enquiries relating to the prop-
erties or collections, for example, whether there is a specifc research objective or
application.
We work with colleagues across our organisation to facilitate access and coor-
dinate all data capture activities for digital documentation projects. As a signifcant
undertaking with a long-term vision, the Rae Project is structured with respect to
organisational priorities. For properties, this is governed by a prioritisation matrix
that considers a range of factors including conservation conditions and strategic
value—where the data will be of immediate beneft to current or future investment
projects, interpretation design, etc. Likewise, close liaison with the collections team
allows us to digitally document items considered to be the most relevant priority

candidates based on a range of criteria.
DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION AND VISUALISATION WORKFLOW

Working as part of a team is an essential element to our coordination and execution
of a successful feldwork project. From before the planning stage, through to on-site
feldwork and data management, good communication within the team is crucial.
This ensures that coverage is as complete as possible, that the work is done safely,
that laser scans and photography are well integrated and that relevant paradata and
metadata are documented and backed up.
From a data processing perspective, the specifc workfows for each digital docu-
mentation process are different, largely depending on the capture devices, associated
software, data types and interoperability with other data. Our general approach to these
workfows is to make use of parallel processes to save time (both staff and computa-
tional resource), due in part to the overwhelming data management and processing tasks
involved that can range from fully supervised, to ‘one-click’ unsupervised operations.
Diagram 1.1 provides an illustrative overview of our digital documentation meth-
odology, showing encompassing stages from planning through to the dissemination
of results.
DATA CAPTURE
We use established and emerging geospatial and imaging technologies to digitally
document cultural heritage assets. Through the course of the Rae Project and through
collaborative projects, the technologies and workfows employed by the Digital
Documentation and Innovation Teams have evolved signifcantly. These are rapidly
developing and continue to drive improvements to our data sets, from more complete
levels of coverage to higher quality 3D and image data. Speed improvements to the
capture techniques and other connected parts of the pipeline (e.g., storage devices,
network connectivity) allow faster on-site and on-premises data capture, saving staff
time and accelerating project progress.
In this section we will look at scale as the governing factor that informs the tech-
nique and methodology that we employ to digitally document an asset. Subjects can
vary massively in scope from great landscapes of cultural signifcance to millimetre-
size collections items. Despite the unique challenges of working across these scales,
there are common themes between our best practices for data capture:
• Using techniques with metric tolerances appropriate to the subject scale to

generate reliable 3D data sets (accuracy, precision and resolution)
• Suitability for use in a conservation context (non-destructive, non-contact)
• Accurately refects the condition of the subject at time of the data capture
• Reproducible methodology to monitor condition
• Conducting work safely, with regards to the safety of the survey staff, mem-
bers of the public and other stakeholders
• Producing data that can either be used directly by, or adapted for end users,
who may have varied technical ability and access requirements
DIAGRAM 1.1 Illustrative diagram showing the HES digital documentation workfow
with key outputs.
In addition to cultural heritage assets, the Digital Innovation Team at HES explores
the use of current and emerging techniques to document environments to produce
immersive data sets and create engaging content. For audiovisual data capture where
the subject or environment may be a live event or have a temporal component, we
employ some of the following techniques:
• Spatial (ambisonic) audio

• Stereoscopic video
• 360° spherical panoramic images
These capture technologies directly feed into immersive content pipelines, enabling
the creation of more engaging content for public dissemination, richer digital inter-
pretation and more informative learning resources for training applications. This
includes both three-degrees-of-freedom (3DOF) and six-degrees-of-freedom (6DOF)
Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR) and other classes of digital multime-
dia and real-time experiences.
MULTI-SCALAR APPROACH TO DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION

We take a multi-scalar approach to digital documentation, from small artefacts to
architectural features, buildings and engineering structures to entire landscapes. This
variation between methodologies, software and workfows requires best practice to
be employed at all levels to produce robust and reliable results. Furthermore, many
of HES’ 336 properties in care include natural and built heritage often spanning
thousands of years of history. These sites vary from small remote monuments such
as the glacial erratic Wren’s Egg through to Edinburgh Castle within the UNESCO
Old and New Towns of Edinburgh World Heritage Site. Our work with external
partners such as Transport Scotland and Network Rail on the Forth Bridges project
likewise enabled us to digitally document internationally signifcant industrial heri-
tage in high resolution at a landscape scale.4
At the other end of the scale, the HES Collections Team look after over 41,000 col-
lections items, a growing number as new items are accessioned or loaned. Variation
in dimensions, weight, material and condition also pose a signifcant challenge for
digital documentation. Table 1.2 sets out the range of data capture techniques that we
use and approximate tolerances.
Landscape Scale Digital Documentation

The sites and monuments that we digitally document are situated within wider nat-
ural and built landscapes that are important to contextualise to better understand
their spatial relationships. Landscape-scale 3D data can be used directly to sup-
port conservation and condition monitoring projects and enable research where
highly detailed topographical information helps to identify patterns such as climate
change–related erosion.
We use established remote sensing techniques for landscape-scale data capture. The
appropriate method is decided with consideration of the size of the landscape area rela-
tive to the required resolution of the data and other factors such as vegetation cover.
TABLE 1.2
Table Adapted from Historic Environment Scotland Short Guide 13 ‘Applied
Digital Documentation in the Historic Environment’
Illustrative
Scale Speciﬁc Technique Accuracy Output Data Type
Landscape Airborne LiDAR 30 mm Spatial (XYZ), intensity,
[>km] photo (RGB), orthophoto,
classifed
Mobile laser scanning (e.g., boat/vehicle 20 mm Spatial (XYZ), intensity,
mounted system) photo (RGB)
Aerial photogrammetry (e.g., small 1–30 mm* Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
unmanned aerial system (SUAS), aircraft)
Structure Total/Multi-Station 2 mm Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
[<km] Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 1–5 mm Spatial (WGS84)
Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) 3 mm Spatial (XYZ), intensity,
photo (RGB)
Structure from motion (SfM) 3 mm* Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
Photogrammetry
Structured light scanning 0.1 mm Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
Object Triangulation laser scanning 0.05 mm Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
[<m] Structure from motion (SfM) 0.1–2 mm* Spatial (XYZ), photo (RGB)
Photogrammetry
Refectance transformation imaging (RTI) n/a Photo (RGB), normal map
* Results depend on variables including subject, quality of input images, camera specifcation and Ground
Sample Distance.
Airborne LiDAR
Fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft with onboard laser scanning hardware and image cap-
ture can record large swathes of the environment at high altitude. Due to the specialist
skills and associated costs, this work is typically commissioned to a commercial con-
tractor. A number of HES Properties in Care have been captured via airborne LiDAR
through the Rae Project, at resolutions between 50 and 25 points per m 2. For sites that
are linked, such as the properties within the archaeological landscape of Kilmartin
Glen, the LiDAR covers both the monuments and the surrounding terrain.
SUAS Photogrammetry
Small unmanned aircraft systems (SUAS) are typically equipped with a digital cam-
era capable of recording high-resolution still images or video sequences. High-spec
systems used with a robust fight plan can be capable of achieving very high levels
of coverage and spatial resolution for a variety of natural landscapes, including large
rock faces.
At Holyrood Park and Edinburgh Castle, we commissioned SUAS photogrammet-
ric surveys to digitally document the natural rock faces at the sites as a baseline for
future condition monitoring. This aerial data supplemented terrestrial laser scanning
with a total station and GNSS-based control survey. Both data sets are comprised
of approximately 10K full-frame mirrorless camera images, achieving a spatial sur-

face resolution between 1–5 mm with detailed texture maps. Figure 1.3 shows several
views of the Edinburgh Castle rock (and upstanding walls) data set. The high reso-
lution allows inspection of masonry and geological features, including their condi-
tion, in a way that would otherwise not be possible or require costly or riskier access
solutions.
FIGURE 1.3 (A) Perspective view of a textured 3D model for Edinburgh Castle surround-
ing rock and upstanding walls. (B) Mid-range up view of data set showing surface detail.
(C) Close-up detail of the 3D model masonry wall surface.
Site and Monument Scale Digital Documentation

The Rae Project sets out our remit to digitally document all 336 properties under
the care of HES. These sites vary signifcantly in size, complexity, chronology and
location across Scotland. This variation amongst our estate can be classifed into
six categories: (A) roofed monuments that are occupied or in use; (B) roofed monu-
ments that are unoccupied; (C) unroofed monuments with high masonry above 1.5
m; (D) unroofed monuments with low masonry below 1.5 m; (E) standing stones
and carved stones; and (F) feld monuments (HES, 2015). Our approach to digitally
documenting these sites remains fexible but with the objective of capturing robust,
survey specifcation 3D data to support their conservation. We have also worked
with a number of external partners to digitally document important cultural heri-
tage sites with similar objectives, and this, likewise, includes subsequent use of the
data for engagement, interpretation and accessibility. One example of this is our
recent collaborative work with the National Trust for Scotland on The Hill House
in Helensburgh, designed in the 20th century as a private residence by architect
Charles Rennie Mackintosh. We continue to develop our methodologies with the
aim of allowing us to capture more information for these sites (including in some
cases additional types of data, such as thermographic) with greater coverage, reso-
lution and accuracy.
Survey Control
To provide a stable frame of reference for Rae Project surveys, permanent sur-
vey markers (PSMs) are installed on properties and recorded within the control
survey. This supports condition monitoring work across our estate and facilitates
the alignment of future surveys. This process is carried out primarily by HES’
Building Conservation Technologists with Scheduled Monument Consent in
place.
Large (and even ‘medium scale’) sites can invite compound error due to their
size. Sequential alignment of terrestrial laser scans and photogrammetry images
throughout a site should be supported with the use of a control survey with the
aim of reducing and managing overall error. The control survey should be con-
ducted to within tolerances expected from the overall data set and incorporate all
PSMs installed at the property. We primarily use two systems to construct a control
survey:
• Total Station—survey instrument with high angular accuracy, enabling

point-to-point survey over great distances
• Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)—using satellite constellations,
including GPS and GLONASS, to provide geolocated British National Grid
(OSGB36) coordinates for PSMs
Coordinate values can be processed to accommodate an Ordnance Survey scale fac-

tor and depend on the distance to the central meridian. For large sites, this may lead
to discrepancy between the GNSS values for control points and their ‘local grid’
coordinates acquired via a total station. The scale factor used must be explicitly
noted in project metadata to ensure appropriate reuse.
Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) provides the ability to digitally document interior
and exterior environments to a high degree of 3D accuracy and resolution. Systems
vary signifcantly in specifcation, including speed, accuracy, range and the quality
of on-board imaging. We factor in all of these attributes when deciding which scan-
ning systems may be suitable for a specifc role, and the following considerations:
• Size and portability, particularly for use in confned spaces or at height

• Integration with control survey via targets and control points
• Levelling, stability and compensation of the system
• Workfow requirements at the data processing stages
As part of the Rae Project, in May 2019 we digitally documented Fort George, a vast
18th-century coastal military fort (Figure 1.4). The site covers 42 acres and includes
signifcant defensive features including outworks, ditches and bastions accessible
from the fort’s ramparts. Fort George continues to serve as an active military gar-
rison, home to the Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland. To
capture the full site exterior and a number of interior spaces, TLS was used exten-
sively as the primary data capture technique, in tandem with a control survey. Over
900 scans were carried out, with a total of over 26 billion points for the fort’s exterior
spaces point cloud.
Ground and aerial photogrammetry were also captured for selected buildings
including the Regimental Chapel (the leftmost free-standing building pictured in
Figure 1.4). The Regimental Chapel 3D model is shown in Figure 1.5 with rendered
lighting. Considerations for this combined scanning and photogrammetry data cap-
ture approach include:
FIGURE 1.4 Fort George terrestrial laser scan data viewed from above in an orthographic
projection.
FIGURE 1.5 3D model of the Regimental Chapel at Fort George captured via TLS, ground
and aerial photogrammetry during survey.
• Weather conditions and time-of-day leading to lighting differences between

laser scans and photogrammetry
• High and unpredictable winds causing potentially diffcult fying condi-
tions, as a coastal site surrounded by fat terrain
• Flight permissions, approval and safe access (particularly as an active mili-
tary site)
Object and Architectural Detail(s) Scale Digital Documentation

Most of HES’ collections objects and architectural details (such as carved stones
associated with properties) typically have a much smaller envelope for digital docu-
mentation. These can range in size from several meters for large carved stones and
metalwork, to several millimetres for coins and pins. The required level of detail
to properly document these items necessitates high tolerances for 3D capture, well
within sub-millimetre resolution and accuracy.
The number of items and their complexity in terms of material properties (which
may often be highly refective, transparent or translucent) can make collections items
challenging to digitally document. Care is taken in the handling of objects, using
gloves and conservation specifcation materials to support the objects. To estab-
lish a chain of custody of the items within the organisation, an object transfer form
records the specifc items transferred for 3D capture with direct liaison with the
Collections Team. Objects that are located on-site or ‘in situ’ at a Property in Care
are noted ahead of a Rae Project survey and digitally documented with the appropri-
ate methodology.
Photogrammetry
The fexibility of photogrammetry as a technique allows the adaptation of existing
camera equipment for close-range capture. One of the key advantages of photogram-
metry is its accurate and extremely high-quality image texture mapping relative to
the 3D geometry produced. The choice of lens and capture technique is tailored to the
scale of the item. Control of the photographic environment allows the use of motorised
solutions to rotate the object and manipulate the camera position, triggering the cam-
era and managing the image pipeline. Figure 1.6 shows an example of a 3D model of
a collections item we captured with a ‘turntable’ style photogrammetry setup. The
system can be tweaked to improve data capture of smaller items to a greater level of
consistency and accuracy, with the following considerations:
• Macro lenses, extension tubes or reverse lens mounts can enable a lower focus dis-
tance to subject and be used with the focus-stacking technique to allow reliable
capture of macro-scale items
• Lighting should be controlled, either using ‘hot lights’ (continuous) with high CRI
(colour rendering index) or strobe type lights with diffusers. For sensitive items, lux
values should be monitored as light exposure may affect their condition
• Colour-calibration of the camera and lighting confguration will improve the colour
accuracy of photography and, therefore, 3D model textures
• Calibrated scale bars with coded targets improve the scaling accuracy and speed
FIGURE 1.6 A photogrammetric 3D model of a prisoner’s jewellery box from Dumbarton

Castle. Note the glazing covering the fne quilled paper panels. Item accession number
‘DUM146’.
• For ‘turntable’ capture, masking of the input images is often essential to prevent
alignment errors arising from the difference in movement between the tabletop and
backdrop
Structured Light Scanning

Capable of generating measurable 3D data quickly in real time, structured-light scan-
ning can also accurately record objects in challenging conditions such as in low-light
levels or for smooth fat surfaces. Calibrated systems that use real-time tracking to
facilitate data capture allow us to quickly capture data in diffcult circumstances, such
as limited physical access, confned spaces or working at height.
• Accuracy tolerances of the equipment should be known prior to capture, including

target resolution and swathe size
• During any post-processing, fltering and fnal geometry generation stages should
be aware of the upper limits of the capture hardware or risk introducing character-
istic noise as patterned interference
• The presence of strong ambient light can interfere with white light and infrared
systems, reducing their performance during capture
In 2019, HES assisted with the conservation works for the bronze cast of William
Wallace at The National Wallace Monument in Stirling (Figure 1.7). The cast stands
6 m in height from its supporting corbel to the tip of the sword and is situated on the
southwest corner of the building within a niche, 14 m above the ground level. Due to
the immediate need for an accurate, measurable data set to inform the conservation
strategy, we opted to use structured light scanning to digitally document the bronze.
The initial data capture of the bronze was conducted at height with the use of a mobile
elevated work platform (MEWP) and later with scaffold access, using an Artec EVA
and Artec Leo 3D scanner. The initial results were used to aid inspection, calculate
estimated weight values and ultimately help inform the engineering solution used to
remove the bronze from the monument for conservation.
Data Processing and Management

To facilitate the processing of raw scanner or image data, we use a range of open-
source and proprietary software. Typically, these are unique to the scanning system
or manufacturer and are designed to interpret and process the raw fles, which may
be proprietary formats with unique fle structures. Interoperability is often limited
and varied between software packages, in many cases requiring a ‘pipeline’ across
several software packages to fully register and output a completed data set. Software-
specifc workfows are used to prepare the data, with the use of various algorithms
designed to process the data ready for alignment and further use. A general overview
of this workfow is shown in Diagram 1.2. Some scanning systems require the com-
plete raw-to-deliverable workfow to be completed in their native software, whilst
others can allow export after pre-processing to compatible fle formats.
To ensure consistent results across a range of projects at the sites and monuments
scale, we combine processed scans into a central software package to produce a data-
base with fltered, clean laser scan data from a range of systems and with support to
bring in photogrammetric and SLAM data. During the registration stage, the scan
data is aligned using either control (from scanned targets and control survey sources,
FIGURE 1.7 Structured-light scan data of the National Wallace Monument bronze cast.
such as total station and GNSS) and/or ‘feature’- based alignment. This uses planar
and other geometric features from the point cloud, manually selected ‘pick points’
and/or visual placement to guide alignment algorithms. The use of the control survey
further allows precise georeferencing of the site-scale data to the British National
Grid (OSGB36), and accurately control for error at sites of signifcant scale.
Alignment of 3D scan data with photogrammetric images can be achieved using
a growing number of software packages. We use RealityCapture to bring together
pre-registered terrestrial laser scanning data sets with aerial and ground-based pho-
togrammetry images. This ensures that the registration characteristics (geolocation
DIAGRAM 1.2 General software-independent workfow stages.
and scan to scan alignment) is maintained as a foundation to align the photography.

An essential requirement in this scenario is strong overlap between the two data sets,
typically under similar lighting and weather conditions. Some key practices include:
• Inspection of alignment and reconstructing small sectioned areas to pre-

view mesh quality
• Use of manually or automatically identifed control points to improve any
alignment issues between the images and the laser scanning
• Quality control including review of alignment statistics and the mesh and
texture quality; artefacts such as ‘ghosting’ or a ‘doubling-up’ in the textur-
ing and stepping within the 3D geometry can indicate misalignment
• Selection of best available data; where poor photogrammetry images or
redundant scans may be excluded if detrimental to the overall data set or
better alternatives exist
• Reconstruction of mesh within the tolerances of the laser scanning and pho-
togrammetry capture
Digital Preservation and Archival Considerations

Ensuring future access to the digital documentation data is essential for its continued
use and reuse. As a digital record, the data should remain healthy and accessible to
continue to be a valuable asset, enabling research and condition monitoring over
extended periods of time. Maintaining stable and secure data are common goals
for the digital preservation of information, and specifc guidance and advice is pub-
lished by the UK-based Digital Preservation Coalition.5
We advocate general data management principles including:
• The use of open, non-proprietary formats where possible

• Avoiding poorly supported compression algorithms
• Migration of databases to updated stable versions of core software (such as
Leica Geosystems Cyclone)
• Storage and organisation of all raw data, project fles and outputs generated
during the digital documentation project
• Intuitively structured directories and fle management

• Retain original metadata and generate summary metadata reports (includ-
ing feld notes and supporting documents)
Backup of all data is an essential requirement to mitigate the impact of data loss
from a wide range of possible sources. This can include fle corruption from physical
damage to the storage medium and encryption from malware. It is equally important
to practice version control for new iterations to source data or working data sets to
ensure that any working projects do not overwrite raw or original data or otherwise
erase hard work.
HOW WE USE DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION DATA

This section will look more closely at some of the digital documentation projects
with applied outputs undertaken by the Digital Documentation and Innovation
Teams at HES. Our work and the data we produce supports a range of diverse
topics, including condition monitoring, interpretation for sites and collections
and education and engagement with cultural heritage. The following examples
illustrate where we have used our 3D data in recent projects or collaboratively
with external partners to facilitate research or promote access to our sites using
digital technologies. For further examples of our case studies, please see our
‘Short Guide: Applied Digital Documentation in the Historic Environment’
( Frost, 2018).
CONSERVATION RESEARCH
We take a collaborative approach to the use of digital documentation data to sup-
port scientifc inspection and non-destructive materials analysis. From our strong
scientifc foundations, we continue to work closely with our Conservation Science
Team on numerous projects, in the feld and in the production of project and research
outputs. This includes specifc conservation work at some properties in care, such
as 17th century Skelmorlie Aisle monument in Largs, and other examples of built
heritage including Rosslyn Chapel in Roslin (Wilson et al., 2012) and The Hill House
in Helensburgh.
Moisture measurement analysis research recently conducted in Argyle Tower at
Edinburgh Castle made use of digital documentation data to visualise the results
(Orr et al., 2019). The research aimed to address the potential variation between
several moisture measurement techniques, usually caused by the presence of sub-
stances such as salts, voids or metals. The approach used an innovative ‘data fusion’
methodology, combining several data sets into a single index that would factor in the
technique characteristics to improve interpretation of the results. The work would
also try to identify the presence and possibly the source of moisture ingress within
the tower vaulted roof structure.
An excerpt of the results of the work can be seen in Figure 1.8, which shows
visual plots of the moisture levels with a simple gradient map. The gradient plots rep-
resent the ‘homogeneity indices’ from three combined techniques: Protimeter elec-
trical resistance, Protimeter capacitance and microwave moisture meter. It is also
FIGURE 1.8 (A) Moisture at ‘surface’ and ‘depth’ level indices overlaid on 3D data of
Argyle Tower at Edinburgh Castle. (B) Section style cutaway of Argyle Tower showing the
location of the sampling.
Source: Image adapted from Orr et al. (2019)
established that using and interpreting the results requires considerations, such as the
mode of construction and materials of the built element and also weather conditions
affecting paths of ingress prior to inspection.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL EROSION MONITORING

With a wide geographic spread across Scotland, many of our properties in care are
located adjacent to or near coastal areas. HES’ Climate Change Risk Assessment
(HES, 2018) highlights that approximately 10% of our properties are exposed to
coastal fooding and erosion in a way that is deemed unacceptable. Approximately
7% of the sites record a ‘very high’ risk of coastal erosion. Our digital documentation
work supports the Scottish Government initiated Dynamic Coast project to establish
an evidence base of national coastal change.6
Skara Brae is an important settlement that constitutes part of the UNESCO Heart
of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site. The Neolithic village was initially occupied
between 3500–2100 BCE and was later partially exposed in the mid-19th century AD
through a destructive storm event. It is located on the Bay of Skaill on the west coast
of mainland Orkney. Its location puts it at risk from a variety of environmental fac-
tors including storminess and sea level rise, both directly related to ongoing climate
change. A sea wall defence was erected in the early 20th century (and later strength-
ened) to mitigate erosion of the site. However, this does not protect the adjacent dune
areas, which are unprotected and exposed and may contain unexcavated archaeology.
To help monitor coastal erosion at the site, the HES Digital Documentation Team
has undertaken biennial terrestrial laser scanning with specifc focus on the coastal
22
3D Imaging of the Environment
FIGURE 1.9 Recent 3D changes at Skara Brae compared with historical changes to MHWS.
Source: © Crown Copyright
area. Scanning epochs in 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016 and 2018 have produced data sets
that act as a baseline for deviation mapping to indicate material gain and loss within
this area. Figure 1.9 shows an illustration produced by the Dynamic Coast project
team using data HES TLS gathered between 2014 and 2016. The gain and loss of
material is shown relative to the mean high water spring (MHWS), showing the
changing sea level relative to the coast. As part of the Rae Project, this commitment
will continue to produce data to aid the monitoring of the coastal area and serve as
a crucial baseline for identifying changes and trends to the site’s local environment.
ACCESSIBILITY
A practical use of digital documentation data is to facilitate virtual access to sites in
our care. At Maeshowe Chambered Cairn, part of the UNESCO Heart of Neolithic
Orkney World Heritage Site, entry to the small 5,000-year-old chamber adorned
with elaborate Viking runes is via a low 14.5 m long passageway. For some visitors,
this is not physically possible. Additionally, only 20 people can ft snugly inside
the chamber on a guided tour. The popularity of the site means we often cannot
accommodate visitor demand. To address this, we have developed a virtual access
app (Explore Maeshowe) based on laser scan and photogrammetry data captured as
part of the Scottish Ten project. The 3D data was post-processed to produce a photo-
textured model and then dropped into Unity game engine. The result is an explorable
environment where visitors can have a virtual experience of the interior and exterior
of the cairn, fnding out about the site and its place in the rich Neolithic landscape
of Orkney (Figure 1.10). The app is freely downloadable on iOS and Google Play
stores, and at the time of writing has had 5,820 downloads. To accompany the app,
we also have a version available on VR headsets in the Maeshowe visitor centre,
which have been used by our visitor services team to give completely virtual guided
tours. While certainly no replacement for visiting the real site, for those who are not
able to physically access for whatever reason, the app and VR experience provide a
viable alternative, for which we have received very positive feedback.
SUMMARY
At HES, the fundamental driver for our work is how we make digital data use-
ful and meaningful for the understanding, protection and enjoyment of our historic
environment. The use of the digital technologies discussed in this chapter is central
to how we deliver digital projects, data and guidance in alignment with Scottish
Government and HES Corporate priorities. Strategic thinking guides this approach
and is supported by our ability to demonstrate strong practical applications for these
digital technologies within the historic environment. The use and reuse of these digi-
tal documentation data sets enable a diverse range of uses within and outside the
organisation and illustrate the value for money invested in the process.
Conducting and facilitating research and innovation have remained the core pur-
pose around which we deliver projects. It drives our exploration and adoption of
new technologies in the feld and the studio but also helps us tread new ground and
address questions that arise as part of the process. However, a number of challenges
FIGURE 1.10 Explore Maeshowe app, using 3D digital documentation data in a gaming
environment.
remain for us, including upskilling those connected with the discipline, which will
help to support our long-term vision and promote relevant skills and knowledge
within the wider sector. Through our various engagement channels including pub-
lications, collaborative partnerships, traineeships, academic support and our public
programme at The Engine Shed, we are able to widely deliver advice and guidance.
This is integral to our overarching goal of mainstreaming and normalising the use
of digital technologies within the heritage sector. We continue to work towards this
ambition and see the growth and adoption of these digital technologies for the beneft
of the historic environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work of the Digital Documentation and Digital Innovation Teams at HES would
not be possible without the efforts of all of our team members. These are Adam
Frost, James Hepher, Sophia Mirashraf, Al Rawlinson, Alan Simpson and Dr. Lyn
Wilson. We are grateful for the assistance and support we receive from our col-
leagues across the organisation, many of whom we have been able to work with in
the feld as well as the offce.
We would also like to thank our external partners, some of whom have been
featured in the case studies in this chapter. This includes the National Trust for
Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, the National Wallace Monument, University
College London Institute for Sustainable Heritage, The University of Edinburgh,
Heriot Watt University, and The Glasgow School of Art.
NOTES
1. www.engineshed.scot/about-us/the-scottish-ten/
2. www.engineshed.scot
3. https://github.com/CyberbuildLab/masonry-cc
4. Scottish Government, 2017 and www.theforthbridges.org/visit/go-forth-digital-learning-
resources/
5. www.dpconline.org/
6. www.dynamiccoast.com
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2 Mapping the Urban
Environment with
a Handheld Mobile
LiDAR System—A
Case Study from the
UrbanARK Project
Aaron Miller, John Meneely, Ulrich Ofterdinger,
Debra Laefer, Michela Bertolotto, and Anh Vu Vo
THE URBANARK PROJECT

This research project is a tripartite collaboration between Queen’s University
Belfast, University College Dublin and New York University. Its goal is to enhance
food risk management for urban coastal communities using LiDAR applications.
Worldwide, foods are a major threat, with widespread social, economic and envi-
ronmental impacts. Today, over 600 million people live in critical coastal zones,
and nearly 66% of the world’s cities with more than 5 million inhabitants fall
within such areas (McGranahan et al., 2007). This risk is increasing annually, par-
ticularly in coastal areas due to accelerating mean sea-level rises, combined with
increasing population growth coupled with new construction in food-susceptible
areas.
Urban coastal food inundation models are typically based upon coarse digi-
tal elevation models/digital terrain models (DEM/DTM) generated from airborne
LiDAR data. These airborne data sets vary in spatial resolution and, by the nature
of their collection, give little or no information on underground areas or building
facades, missing important details which can be indicative of underground struc-
tures and their dimensions. As a result of this low density of information, many
urban features are not captured, such as street furniture, kerbs or minor variations
in surface elevation.
Previous investigations into the level of detail in these 3D models have illustrated
that small-scale features have a signifcant impact on food propagation and surface
water fooding in urban environments. Surface water inundation is often more rapid
when fner resolution models are used due to the rapid propagation of water along
DOI: 10.1201/9780429327575-2 27
‘channels’ that form at the road edge as a result of the road camber and roadside
kerbs (Fewtrell et al., 2011).
This study will employ handheld mobile laser scanning (HMLS) technology to
map part of the Central Business District (CBD) in Belfast, N. Ireland (Figure 2.1) at
a considerably higher resolution than existing airborne LiDAR, which was last col-
lected in 2006 at a spatial resolution of 0.5 m. Aerial LiDAR covers large areas very
FIGURE 2.1 (A) Study area (red boundary). The light green region is the foodplain pre-
dicted under future climate change scenarios. This is based on a 3D model generated from
airborne LiDAR data collected in 2006 and represents 1-in-200-year coastal food events
(EU food directive report, 2007). (B) Areas within the study area, highlighted in yellow,
with underground structures extracted from planning applications for the period 1973–2018.
(Continued)
Mapping Urban Environment with Handheld Mobile LiDAR System 29
FIGURE 2.1 (Continued)
quickly, but it is very expensive. The 3D food prediction base model produced
from this HMLS data for the study area will be more detailed, less costly (both
fnancially and environmentally), up-to-date and contain information on the loca-
tion and geometry of some underground structures. Other advantages of adopting
this technique include the ability to quickly re-survey areas of new construction,
keeping the model current. Also, narrow streets, covered alleyways, pedestrian
underpasses and street furniture that is diffcult to identify in low-density airborne
LiDAR or even vehicle-mounted LiDAR systems can be included in a 3D model as
these play a signifcant role in modelling food wave propagation and inundation
rates.
Prior to any HMLS street-level mapping, a GIS desk-based study was undertaken
to identify known underground structures in the study area. The data set used to
fnd these locations was supplied by Belfast City Council (BCC). This information
was derived from planning applications provided to BCC by the Department for
Infrastructure (DfI). It contained information regarding all planning applications
between 1973 and 2018 and was supplied as a GIS shape fle containing georefer-
enced polygons with attributes detailing the planning proposal, status, date, location,
coordinates and size. Filtering this data with a search for ‘basement’ and ‘under-
ground’ in the proposal section created a subset of polygons indicating all under-
ground structures that have successfully applied for planning. Information regarding
the actual construction of these approved applications was not included. Figure 2.1
shows the locations of these possible underground structures highlighted in yellow.
SURVEYING EQUIPMENT
The equipment chosen for this survey is the GeoSLAM Zeb Horizon™ mobile
LiDAR scanner. This unit uses simultaneous localisation and mapping (SLAM)
technology to accurately map its surroundings. SLAM-based devices take informa-
tion from a variety of sensors to build a picture of the environment around them and
where they are positioned within that environment. These sensors may use visual
data (camera imagery), non-visible data (sonar, radar or LiDAR) and basic posi-
tional data, using an inertial measurement unit (IMU) or GPS. The device then
uses the information from these sensors to calculate a ‘best estimate’ of where it is
within the environment. By moving its position within this space, all environmen-
tal features (e.g., walls, foors) will move in relation to the device and the SLAM
algorithm can continually improve its estimate with this new positional informa-
tion. SLAM is an iterative process—the more iterations the device takes, the more
accurately it can position itself within that space. In brief—this unit constructs and
updates a map of an unknown environment while simultaneously keeping track of
the scanner’s location within it.
This GeoSLAM Zeb Horizon™ uses a variety of sensors to achieve this, includ-
ing a rotating, time-of-fight, 3D laser scanner and an inertial measurement unit
(IMU), which continually measures its attitude (pitch, roll and yaw) in space. It has
a range of 100 m, with an accuracy of 1–3 cm (depending on the environment) and
collects 300,000 points per second. Each measurement is stored as an x,y,z coordi-
nate with an intensity value and the time of measurement. Intensity, usually recorded
as value between 0–1, is how much of the laser power that was sent out to measure
a point returns from that point. This intensity value can be used for material differ-
entiation, but care must be taken when doing this as it also depends on the angle of
incidence and the distance to a target. These metrics combined with the mobility of
a handheld scanner, where it can effortlessly be taken from street level into a struc-
ture or underground spaces such as carparks, stairwells, underpasses and basements
while continually capturing data, make it suitable for surveying an urban environ-
ment effciently.
Figure 2.2 is an image of the device. It consists of a relatively lightweight scanner
head (1.5 kg), usually held out in front as you walk along, and a data logger (1.3 kg),
which is worn separately over the shoulder or in a backpack. It can also be mounted
on a backpack, bicycle, car or drone. Colour information can also be mapped onto
the scan data during post-processing with the addition of an ‘action’ type camera
placed just below the laser scanning unit or a 360o camera placed on a pole above the
system. Colour information was not collected during this study.
Another random document with
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The doctor took a small bottle out of his pocket, saying, "I must, I
suppose. I would rather have waited for Dr. Haddon."
He mixed a few drops with water, and gave the glass to Mrs. Eyre.
"Flo, you must drink this," Mrs. Eyre said softly. And Flo, having
learned long ago to obey that gentle voice, checked her wild outcry
and swallowed the medicine at once.
"Oh, mamma! is that you?"
"Yes, darling. Lie still; I want you to go to sleep."
"But—the big black dog."
"There is no dog here. Close your eyes, Flo; try to sleep."
Flo obeyed, and slept uneasily for about half an hour. During this
sleep, Mrs. Eyre whispered to the nurse, "Mrs. Dooner, I must just
run down and see what has become of the other children."
Mrs. Dooner did not know that they had gone away, and the doctor
did not hear what was said. Mrs. Eyre left the room.
Poor Hetty, half stupefied with grief and terror, heard her step, and
knew it. The child had ceased to cry. What had happened? She
could not face her kind mistress. She could not bear to hear her say
"Go," as her master had done. She could not bear to hear that the
child was dead. She started up, crept out of the room, and ran out of
the house.
She went to the railway station, and was told that there would not be
another train until seven o'clock—a slow train, the ticket clerk told
her, but she could not understand him, she was so dazed. There was
a seat close by, and she crawled over to it, and sat there until the
train ran in. Then she took her ticket, and got into a third-class
carriage.
The door was opened just as the train was starting, and a woman
got in. At the same moment something white made its appearance.
Zelica sprang into Hetty's lap.
"Is the cat yours?" inquired the porter.
"Oh, Zelica, Zelica!" cried Hetty. "You don't know what we've done."
The man looked at the woman who had just got in, and said, "I hope
the girl's in her right mind."
The woman half rose, but sat down again, saying, "I'm only going to
the next station, and she's but a slip of a girl." And as Hetty sat quite
quiet, she was soon satisfied that there was no danger.
It was a long, weary journey. The train stopped at every station, and
sometimes where there was no station at all. Hetty felt as if she was
dreaming, and could not wake. She did not even cry, and whether
the noise she heard were the whistle of the engine or Flo's screams,
she did not know. But at last they reached B—, and she left the train.
She had a long way to walk, but she did not think of that; she went
slowly along with the cat in her arms. At last she reached the
straggling street of Little Hayes, and then she found herself at her
mother's door.
It was shut, of course, for it was nearly midnight. Hetty tapped with
her hand, and when no notice was taken of this, she tried to call out,
and could not. Then she picked up a little stone and hammered at
the door. She heard the door of the inner room open and her
mother's voice, crying, "Dan! Ned! Get up and come down. The
house must be on fire, the police are knocking at the door."
Dan, however, was so sound asleep that he never heard her, and
Ned only said, "Yes, ma'am, directly," and relapsed into sleep.
Mrs. Hardy and Matty, in their night-gowns, opened the door; and
instead of the policeman they expected to see, there stood Hetty.
The light from Mrs. Hardy's candle fell upon her white face as she
stumbled in, letting the cat fall. Zelica walked over to the fireplace
with an air of dignity, and selected the warmest spot to lie down in.
"Oh, you unfortunate child what's wrong with you now?" said Mrs.
Hardy.
"I have killed Miss Flo!" Hetty answered, in a hoarse whisper. "She's
dead, or dying; the master told me to go home, for he couldn't bear
the sight of me. Mother," holding out her trembling hands, "don't you
hate me, for oh, I'm just dead myself."
Mrs. Hardy made no answer in words. She just took the poor girl in
her arms and kissed her. Hetty clung to her, but neither cried nor
tried to explain; and Mrs. Hardy was very much frightened.
"Matty, get a chair; help me to put her in it. There. Now tell me, Hetty,
my poor child, tell me what happened. I'm very sure you never hurt
Miss Flo a'purpose. Maybe things aren't as bad as you think."
"Yes, I'll tell you all. Where shall I begin? Oh, it was a girl gave me
some shrimps—that was the beginning."
"Well?—go on. Did you give the child the shrimps to eat?"
"No—oh, no! It was—Zelica. She—mother, I can't remember. I'm

worn out. Matty, don't look at me like that—you've no call to be afraid
of me. I'll go away if you like, but take care of Zelica—Miss Flo's pet."
"The girl isn't herself," said Mrs. Hardy. "Help me to get her to bed,
Matty; maybe she'll come to when she has slept."
They made her a cup of tea, and then got her to bed. She fell asleep
at once; and in the morning her mind was somewhat clearer. But she
was not a bit like Hetty. She told her story, but she never once cried
over it. If she had wept and bemoaned herself as usual, her mother
would have had plenty to say to her, but this trembling, silent girl
frightened the good woman out of her wits.
It was on Friday night that Hetty came home, and on Saturday she
was too ill to get up; but Mrs. Hardy made inquiries, and found out
that the child was certainly alive. On Sunday Hetty dressed herself,
and said, "I'll go up to Adelaide Terrace. Maybe Mrs. Goodenough
may know something."
"I'll go with you," said Matty. "I'll be back in time for church, mother."
The two sisters walked together, almost in silence. The door was
opened by Mrs. Goodenough. This worthy creature had questioned
Lina, and had a general idea as to what had happened.
"Well!" said she, "I think, in your place, Hetty Hardy, I'd have had the
decency to stay away."
"Have you heard how Miss Flo is?"
"Just alive—that's all. There's that boy crying again! Master John, if
you don't stop, I'll spank you! The master brought the three home,
and said I must stay here and take care of them."
"Troublesome they are, too—but of course I couldn't refuse."
"They're all crying," said Hetty miserably. "Mrs. Goodenough, let me

come in and mind them."
"Let you come in! The master says to me, says he, 'Mrs.
Goodenough, I look to you—I've turned Hetty Hardy out for bad
conduct, and if she comes here, send her about her business;
character she'll get none,' says he, 'and I'll send a policeman after
her if the child dies, for it's manslaughter, if not murder!' So good-
bye, Hetty; don't be coming here any more. It's my turn to shut the
door with you on the wrong side of it now."
She shut the door accordingly.
"Hetty dear, the half of that is not true. Mr. Eyre never spoke like that.
You never meant to hurt the child, and—"
"No, I did not. But it's all my fault. Nothing's too bad for me!" And she
turned wearily to walk home again.
On the way they met Fred Smith, who you may remember was
employed in the Little Hayes post office.
"Why, Hetty!" he cried. "Whatever ails you?"
Hetty shook her head and walked on, but Matty lingered to tell Fred
what was wrong.
"Poor Hetty!" he said; "and she is so fond of the child! I'll tell you
what, Matty: I'll go this very moment, and find out about the trains,
and I'll go to R—, and bring Hetty word how the child is."
"But, Fred, it is Sunday!"
"Yes, and my Sunday out, or I could not go. Oh, never you mind,
Matty; I'm sure I am not doing wrong in trying to comfort poor Hetty
when she's in such trouble. I owe her a good turn, for she made me
downright ashamed of myself once."
It was late in the evening when he came to the Hardy's.
"Is that you, Fred Smith?" Mrs. Hardy said. "Dan's out."
"I've brought Hetty good news, ma'am. The little girl is much better,
they think. Mr. Eyre is coming home to-morrow, but Mrs. Eyre is to
stay till the child can be moved."
"Oh, Fred, thank you!" said Hetty. "It's very kind of you to come and
tell me."
"He did more than that for you," Matty said. "He went to R— to
inquire."
"Oh, I like to get a sight of the sea," Fred remarked hurriedly. "Good-
night, ma'am. I must get home."
"It was very kind, all the same," said Hetty again. "Oh, if Miss Flo
gets well, what a load will be off my heart! They can never forgive
me, I know; but I do love Miss Flo."
CHAPTER X.
FORGIVEN.
IT was a very, very sad time for Hetty. She did not know, when she
used to cry and bewail herself over her misfortunes, that she could
be as unhappy as she was now. She longed for news of little Flo,
and many a time did she steal up to Adelaide Terrace to question
Mrs. Goodenough, at times when she knew that Mr. Eyre was out.
Worthy Mrs. Goodenough gave her scant information, and less

comfort. If she might be believed, Mr. Eyre spent a good deal of his
scanty leisure in telling her that he thought Hetty very little better
than a murderer, and that she should never so much as see Miss Flo
again.
Hetty was so dejected that she believed all this, and even thought
that Mr. Eyre did not say a word too much; but Matty stoutly declared
that Mrs. Goodenough invented these speeches for Hetty's benefit.
Mrs. Hardy had no reason to complain of Hetty now, for she worked
hard all day, and never cared to go out, except for her melancholy
pilgrimage to Adelaide Terrace, or to go to church.
Meantime, little Flo was really very ill, and suffering greatly both in
mind and body. Her terror about the big black dog was such that the
doctor said that no questions must be asked about her part in the
day's misadventures, nor must she be in any way reminded of them.
Mrs. Eyre, however, did not forget poor Hetty, and she took some
trouble to find out that the story she had told her master was the true
one. The shrimp-girl, and a lad who had met the poor girl in the lane,
and put her into the right road, confirmed Hetty's story. Not many
women, with little Flo before their eyes, would have taken so much
trouble about poor, heedless Hetty, who certainly was fortunate in
her mistress.
After about a month Flo got better. The pain decreased, and she
became calmer and more like her little self. Of course, Mrs. Eyre was
anxious to get home, for the three children there were both unhappy
and troublesome under Mrs. Goodenough's care. So as soon as it
was at all safe Mr. Eyre came to R—, and Flo was carefully
conveyed home.
Up to this time the child had not spoken of Hetty since her mother
had silenced her constant cry for her. But as she grew stronger, and
returned to her familiar home and her familiar habits, Mrs. Eyre
became aware that there was something weighing on little Flo's
heart,—some question that was often on her lips, though she
seemed afraid to ask it. A little questioning soon made the child
speak out.
"Mamma, you bid me speak no more of Hetty. I know the big dog
must have killed Zelica, but did he kill my dear Hetty too?"
"Oh no, my dear child. Hetty is quite well, and safe in her mother's
house."
"Then why might I not speak of her?"
"You misunderstood me, dear; you kept calling, calling, and I only
meant to quiet you."
"But if Hetty was not hurt, why did she not stay with me and nurse
me, mamma?"
"Well; dear, Hetty was to blame about that day—she had left the hut
while you were asleep, to search for Zelica, I believe; but, indeed, I
do not know exactly what happened. Papa sent Hetty away."
Flo was too well taught to question papa's doings; but that very
evening she began begging him to bring Hetty back.
"I want her so much. I do love Hetty. Just tell her that 'Miss Flo'
wants her, and I know she will come at once. She loves me so."
"My dear, I sent her away because it was through her carelessness
that this accident happened to you. When mamma has time, she will
look about for a nice, kind girl to carry you; and now we'll say no
more about Hetty."
To this hint Flo declined to attend. She was very weak, and mamma
had others to attend to now, and could not devote herself to Flo as
she did while at R—, and Flo cried for Hetty far too often for her own
good, and began to look as bad as ever.
Hetty, no longer daring to come to the house, used now to waylay

Mrs. Goodenough on her way home, to ask about Miss Flo. One day
the old woman did not appear at her usual time; it was quite evening
before she came, but Hetty waited all the time.
"Well, Hetty, here you are, to bother me about that child, that's the
worrit of the whole house! The crossest, complainingest little worry
that ever I did see! Morning, noon, and night, the cry is—"
Here Mrs. Goodenough paused. She had very nearly said the word
"'Hetty,'" but that, she thought, would rejoice the poor girl, so she
substituted "'Zelica.'"
"'Zelica! I want Zelica!' That's always on her lips; little peevish brat! I
wonder how her mother keeps her hands off her!"
"I declare," cried Hetty, "I never thought of that. I suppose they think
Zelica is lost."
"Lost she surely is, and a good thing too. But that redic'lous child
thinks some dog ate her! She was in such a state this morning,
declaring I hurt her lifting her up, that we could get nothing done.
That's why I'm late. Mrs. Eyre's going to get a girl in your place,
otherwise I'd have to quit; but I suppose I shan't be turned out this
time, as you're not there to carry tales."
All this did Mrs. Goodenough say, with the amiable wish to make
Hetty miserable; but this time she failed, for Hetty did not know what
she was saying. She was thinking about Zelica, and Zelica's little
mistress, and now with a hasty "good-evening" she turned away and
went quickly home. Mrs. Goodenough immediately made a kind of
general proclamation that "Hetty Hardy was getting to be a greater
fool every day."
Hetty went home, and procured a sheet of notepaper and Matty's

pen and ink. She then sat down to write. It took her a long time, but
at last, with a deep sigh, she folded up her paper, caught up Zelica
from her comfortable nook by the fire, and ran out into the now
almost dark evening.
The Eyres were at supper, or tea, as they called it. Flo was on her
sofa, looking smaller than ever; presently Lina and Edgar ran off to
play, and Mr. Eyre drew a chair over and sat down near Flo.
"Come, my little girl, you haven't eaten any of the nice bread and jam
I cut for you. Try to eat a little bit, Flo. Why are you crying? You make
poor mamma and me very sad."
"I can't help it, papa. I am so sorry for poor dear Hetty. I do want
Hetty—I love her."
"What is that?" cried Mrs. Eyre, as a slight noise was heard.

"It was the window. I suppose the sash has closed a bit. I must see
to it to-morrow, or it may catch somebody's fingers."
But the sash had not closed—quite the contrary. Some one outside
had pushed it up a tiny bit more, and behold!—in walked, fat, snow-
white, and beautiful as ever, Mrs. Zelica! Purring loudly, she marched
over to the sofa, sprang up, curled herself up in her own particular
place, and looked at the astonished assembly with a condescending
and self-satisfied air. What a fuss a little dog would have been in!
What waggings of the tail, and ecstatic wriggles, mingled with small
strangled squeals of joy at seeing his dear mistress again! But
Zelica, being but a cat, just blinked at them all, and felt important.
"Why! Oh, my Zelica! Is this you? Then he didn't eat you? Where
have you been? Who brought you? Oh, mamma! 'Twas Hetty—my
dear, dear Hetty! Oh, run, call her to me! I do love Hetty!"
Mr. Eyre sprang up and went to the door; but Hetty was gone.
Flo did not know how to make enough of Zelica. But the loving little
heart was not satisfied. Mrs. Eyre, who had gone to the window
when her husband ran to the door, had found poor Hetty's letter, but
she slipped it into her pocket, and said nothing about it until the
children were in bed. Then she said,—
"John, there was a letter left on the window-sill. I have it here. I did
not want to excite poor Flo. Here it is, dear; read it to me."
For she had baby in her arms.
"'My dear mistress,'" began John, in a stern tone of voice, which,

however, softened as he read on,—
"'I hope I may be forgiven for writing to you. Mrs.

Goodenough told me to-night that Miss Flo still cries
after Zelica. I did not know that she was well enough to
care for her yet. I found her at the station that day; she
must have followed me there.'"
"'Dear mistress, try to forgive me. I am too sorry to

know how to say it. I do not feel as if I could ever be
happy any more. After all your kindness, and the
master's, such a return to make and, loving Miss Flo
with all my heart, to be so wicked about her. I know
master was right to send me off, and he never could
trust me any more. I am glad Miss Flo has forgotten
me. I pray continually that she may grow strong and
well, and I hope your new girl will be fond of her, and
patient with her.'"
"'If you could say you forgive me, maybe I could be

more at rest. Sometimes I get stupid, thinking of Miss
Flo; for indeed, ma'am, though you may well not
believe it, I do love both of you, and I think I shall never
forget what I felt when I got back to the hut, and could
not find her.'"
"'I remain, ma'am,'"
"'Your poor, bad servant,'"
"'HESTER
HARDY.'"
"Poor girl," said John Eyre to himself, as he folded up the letter.

"That old Goodenough! Why, Flo thought Zelica was dead; and as to
forgetting Hetty, I wish she had!"
"It would be very ungrateful of her if she had, for Hetty was very
good to her."
"Poor girl!" said the master again.

"John, dear, I must have a girl; and, to be frank with you, I would
rather have Hetty than a stranger. She is so gentle and patient, and
so perfectly truthful. She is a really good girl, and it is not so easy to
find a really good girl. Besides, Flo is too ill to be reasonable, and
she will not like any stranger, because she is longing for Hetty."
"Well, dear, I know I told the girl never to let me see her face again,
but—I suppose we had better make our poor little Flora as happy as
we can while we have her with us. But I tell you fairly, I think we
ought never to lose sight of the girl when she has the cart of Flo. She
is so terribly heedless, though, as you say, a good girl for all that."
"Then I may see her to-morrow?"
"Yes; but don't tell Flo till you are sure of her."
So it came about that once again Mrs. Eyre tapped on the half-
closed door of Mrs. Hardy's house, and was told to "come in."
"Why, if it isn't Mrs. Eyre!" cried Matty joyfully.
"Mrs. Eyre! Matty, you're a—But it is, for all that. Ma'am, I'm nearly
ashamed to face you."
"You have no cause to be, Mrs. Hardy. Hetty is a good girl, and, if
she was heedless, we must remember that she is very young. It was
a great misfortune; but, you know, if the dog had not awakened my
poor little girl, no harm would have been done. Where is Hetty?"
"I sent her into town for some things we wanted, but she must soon
be home. A dog, did you say? I've heard nothing of a dog. Indeed,
Hetty does not rightly know yet what happened to Miss Flora."
"Well, Hetty went, as you, I am sure, know, to look for the little cat.
Zelica led her a regular chase, and when she got back the child was
gone."
"Yes," said Matty, "and the shawls on the path, and the cat's basket
all torn, and some shrimps a girl gave her all mashed up. Oh,
ma'am! she dreams of it often—you never saw the like."
"What had really happened was this. Flo woke up to find the dog—a
big, rough-haired creature-tearing at the cat's basket; and, I confess,
I think it was well for Zelica that she was not in it; but the dog would
not have hurt Flo on any account; in fact, he did not touch her. She
screamed for Hetty, the dog got at the shrimps and tried to eat them,
and while he was at that work my poor little girl got up and tried to
run away. She actually dragged herself some way down the steep
path, when the dog came after her, and she fell. Mr. Eyre thinks that
the creature saved her from falling over the edge, for he was sitting
between her and it, in great distress. He belongs to the
stationmaster, and is a most good-natured dog, very fond of
children."
Matty had seen her sister come in, but Mrs. Eyre did not, her back
being turned to the door. Hetty stood, listening and trembling, and
now seemed about to steal out again; but Matty stopped her.
"Now, Hetty," said she, "you know what really happened."
Mrs. Eyre turned round, and Hetty covered her face with her hands.
Mrs. Eyre fully expected a burst of tears, and "Oh, I'm so sorry,
ma'am!" but there were neither tears nor words.
"My poor girl! My poor Hetty! Have you never a word to say to me?"
"No, not one." Mrs. Hardy spoke for her. "There's something come to
the girl, ma'am, for dear knows her tears and her tongue used to be
ready enough. I used to be tired hearing, 'Oh I'm so sorry, mother!'"
"Oh, I used to say that," said Hetty; "but I was only sorry because
things were broken, or because you were angry. I was not sorry for
my own fault, because I did not think it a fault—only a misfortune.
Though Matty warned me, and made me promise to pray against it, I
never did—I forgot. I thought how unlucky I was to be so
thoughtless; but since I've been at home I've been thinking, and I
see now that it's a sin. Oh, ma'am, if you could only forgive me, I'd
take heart and try to do better. I'll take Matty's way now, for I'm sure
it's the right one."
"You are quite right, Hetty. We are all of us more given to one fault
than to others, and only God can cure us of them. He gives us time,
and grace, and many lessons; some, sad ones. This has been a sad
one to you, but you see it has opened your eyes to your sin. As to
forgiving you, I do indeed, Hetty, and so does Mr. Eyre."
"And Miss Flo? Oh! Does she forget me altogether?"
"Forget you? No, indeed—she is never done crying for you. And she
is so ill and so weak that you must come back to her, Hetty."
Hetty opened both mouth and eyes as wide as ever she could, and
uttered the most extraordinary shout; the poor girl really did not know
what she was doing.
"Hetty! Behave, do! To yell like that in a lady's very ears! Eh! Here
come the tears! I've got my poor Hetty back again. I didn't know that
one with a silent tongue and dry eyes. You're a lucky girl, Hetty, to
have such people to do with as your master and mistress; and
indeed, ma'am, the girl's been breaking her heart after you."
Matty took her sister away into the other room, where she kissed her,
and coaxed her, and cried with her, and altogether contrived to quiet
her so that she was in a fit state to set out at once with her mistress.
"Dan shall bring your things up in the evening, Hetty," said her
mother. "And now, my dearie dear, remember this time as long as
you live, and don't fall back into idle ways. Remember what Matty
said to you: you'll find it's true. These thoughtless doings are real
sins, and it's only God can change your heart. God bless you, Hetty!
I'm glad for you, child."
On the way to Adelaide Terrace Hetty asked many questions about
Flo's state.
"I don't see how you can bear the sight of me, ma'am, nor Miss Flo
either."
"You'll soon know what she thinks about it, Hetty. And you know, if
you had got back and found her still asleep, so that no harm was
done, your fault would have been exactly the same, yet you would
have expected me to forgive you. It seems to me, therefore, that we
ought to forgive you now. You must learn not to measure a fault by
its consequences; you were wrong to leave the child, and it would
have been just as wrong if poor Black Rover had not visited the hut
while you were absent. Do you understand, Hetty?"
"I think I do, ma'am. Oh, I must try very hard."
"Ah! Hetty, trying hard won't do, not by itself. I will talk to you about
this some day soon. But now, here we are at home," Mrs. Eyre said,
as she knocked at the door.
Mrs. Goodenough opened it; her face was really worth seeing when
she recognised Hetty.
"You see, Mrs. Goodenough, I've brought Hetty Hardy back, and you
will be pleased, I hope, to hear that it is partly your doing. She wrote
to me after hearing from you that Miss Flo was still fretting after the
cat. Stay here for a moment, Hetty; I will just say a word to the child
and then call you."
But it was Flo's weak little voice that called—
"Hetty! Oh Hetty! My own good Hetty! Come to me quick!"
It was not for a few days that Mrs. Eyre found time for the talk with
Hetty which she had promised her. But one morning, Flo being
asleep, and the others out, Mrs. Eyre said: "Hetty, you know you and
I were to have a serious talk; for I did not say what I wished to say to
you that evening."
"I remember, ma'am. You were saying that trying hard won't do, by
itself. Ma'am, if you'll believe me, Matty told me that when I was
coming here, that first time, and I never minded. I didn't really
understand. But I do now. I see plain enough that it is not in my own
strength that I can cure my heedlessness. And I know now that it is a
sin, and not just a misfortune, as I used to call it. But indeed, ma'am,
I do not think I could ever forget this lesson."
"Perhaps not. But, Hetty, try to think of what I am going to say to you.
You are an affectionate girl, and so, to please those you love, you
would do nearly anything. When you ran off to search for Zelica, I
know well it was because the loss of the little cat would have grieved
Miss Flo so much. But you see what came of it, and you know now
that you did wrong. Now, had you asked yourself, not what would
please Miss Flo, but what it was your duty to do—then you would
have stayed at your post, and the child would have been safe."
"So it always is, Hetty. The moment our motive is less than the
highest; the moment we act to please this person or that, without
remembering that we have to please God, that moment we go
wrong. I want you to pray, as Matty said to you; but, dear Hetty, pray
that God will give you such a love for Him, your Father, who sent His
Son to save you from your sins, that to please him may become the
first thought of your heart. Will you do this, Hetty? Do you
understand me?"
"I do, ma'am. You've said the like to me before, and so has Matty, but
I didn't heed; I seemed not to understand. But all the time I was so
unhappy about Miss Flo, those thoughts seemed to come back to
me. And I will pray, as you tell me, ma'am. Indeed, I do love Him
even now, though not as I ought; for He has been very merciful to
me. Oh, ma'am!—when I think that she might have been killed! How
could I have borne it, when it was my doing?"
"Indeed, Hetty, we all have much to be thankful for."

Well, if Hetty was not entirely cured of her heedlessness, she was
certainly cured of treating it as a mere misfortune, for which she was
to be pitied. And the best proof of her improvement was that in no
long time Mr. Eyre quite laid aside his distrust of her, and ceased to
be uneasy if she was left in charge of Flo.
Flo was very ill for a long time, and often they thought that a few
weeks more would see the close of her suffering and her life. But
she at last began to improve; and, to the great joy of all who loved
her, she continued to get steadily better, until at last she could walk
about nearly as well as Lina. She grew a great deal, too, and health
brought back her pretty pink colour, and the unchildlike gravity
vanished from her face.
Indeed, if the truth must be told, Miss Flora was rather a troublesome
lassie for a time; for it seemed as if all the fun and frolic she had
missed had to be got through somehow. But she sobered down
again, and is a very good girl, and a great comfort to her parents.
Lina is married, and Flo is the home daughter, helping her mother,
and caring for the younger children.
As to Hetty, after ten years of faithful service, she left her dear
mistress, and still dearer Miss Flo, to become the wife of Fred Smith,
who is now postmaster in the very office where she was once too
late for the London post, thanks to the attractions of Punch and Judy.
And as Fred is a good, steady, God-fearing man, we may hope that
she will be as happy as she deserves to be, I think; even though she
once earned the name of Heedless Hetty.
Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
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3D Imaging of the Environment:

Mapping and Monitoring 1st Edition

Edited by John Meneely

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Chapter 1 Digital Documentation and Digital Innovation in Practice .................1

Chapter 2 Mapping the Urban Environment with a Handheld Mobile

Chapter 3 Using Drones to Map and Visualise Glacial Landscapes .................. 45

Chapter 4 Laser Scanning of a Complex Cave System during Multiple

Chapter 5 Digitizing Giant Skeletons with Handheld Scanning

Chapter 6 Mapping, Monitoring, and Visualising Stone Decay

Chapter 7 Unpiloted Airborne Laser Scanning of a Mixed Forest................... 114

Chapter 8 Digital Mapping and Recording of Inishtrahull Island and

Chapter 9 CHERISH: Development of a Toolkit for the 3D Documentation and

Chapter 10 3D in the Construction of a Full-Scale Replica of St.

Chapter 11 Thermography Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ........................... 175

Chapter 12 Reconstruction of the Ballintaggart Court Tomb

Chapter 13 Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Monitoring and Modelling

Chapter 14 Creating a Virtual Reality Experience of Fingal’s Cave,

Index ...................................................................................................................... 227

Adam Frost Daniel Hunt

Tim Gomes Stuart Jeffrey

Ciaran Lavelle Patrick Robson

Jesse Pruitt Evelyn Vollmer

Anh Vu Vo Lyn Wilson

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

A dedicated Digital Documentation Team was established in 2010 with a focus

RESEARCH AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

may be better used via a network-accessible model viewer. To improve discover-

• Digital access, including discoverability, availability, controls and accessibility

allows us to digitally document items considered to be the most relevant priority

DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION AND VISUALISATION WORKFLOW

• Using techniques with metric tolerances appropriate to the subject scale to

• Spatial (ambisonic) audio

MULTI-SCALAR APPROACH TO DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION

Landscape Scale Digital Documentation

of approximately 10K full-frame mirrorless camera images, achieving a spatial sur-

Site and Monument Scale Digital Documentation

• Total Station—survey instrument with high angular accuracy, enabling

Coordinate values can be processed to accommodate an Ordnance Survey scale fac-

Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry

• Size and portability, particularly for use in confned spaces or at height

• Weather conditions and time-of-day leading to lighting differences between

Object and Architectural Detail(s) Scale Digital Documentation

FIGURE 1.6 A photogrammetric 3D model of a prisoner’s jewellery box from Dumbarton

Structured Light Scanning

• Accuracy tolerances of the equipment should be known prior to capture, including

Data Processing and Management

DIAGRAM 1.2 General software-independent workfow stages.

and scan to scan alignment) is maintained as a foundation to align the photography.

• Inspection of alignment and reconstructing small sectioned areas to pre-

Digital Preservation and Archival Considerations

• The use of open, non-proprietary formats where possible

• Intuitively structured directories and fle management

HOW WE USE DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION DATA

CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL EROSION MONITORING

THE URBANARK PROJECT

FIGURE 2.1 (Continued)

"Oh, mamma! is that you?"

"Yes, darling. Lie still; I want you to go to sleep."

"But—the big black dog."

"There is no dog here. Close your eyes, Flo; try to sleep."

"Is the cat yours?" inquired the porter.