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REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION FOR
TRANSMISSION LINE USING FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of the degree
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (CONTROL SYSTEMS)
Submitted by
KRISHNA KISHORE M S
(ROLL NO. 2209/06)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Prof. SATHANS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KURUKSHETRA
(DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
KURUKSHETRA-136 119 (HR)
2006-2008
 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KURUKSHETRA
(DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
(2006-2008)

CERTIFICATE
IHis is to certify that this BonaficCe record of the dissertation entitCed "REACTIVE
POWER COMPENSATION FOR TRANSMISSION LINE USING FUZZY LOGIC
CONTROLLER" is 6emg su6mitted6y Mr. KRISHNA KISHORE M S with roCCno. 2209/06.
This report is Being suBmitted to the 9fationa[ Institute of TechnoCogy Kjiru^hetra (Deemed iJniversity)
towards partiaC fuCfiCCment of the requirements for the award of the degree of MASTER OF
TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (CONTROL SYSTEMS).

Prof. SATHANS
Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT KURKSHETRA
 I express my profound sense of gratitude to my guide. Prof Sathans, Department
of Electrical Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra, for his systematic guidance and valuable
advices. His encouragement and suggestions were of immense help to me throughout the
tenure of my dissertation work.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. A. Swarup Professor and Chairman,

Department of Electrical Engineering, N.I.T Kurukshetra, for providing me with all the
necessary facilities for the work.

I would like to thank all the faculty and staff members of EED, computer center
and library who extended their cooperation for completion of this work.

I would also like to convey my regards to Mr. K.Sreenivasulu,

Mr. P.Sarathkumar, Mr. Y.Vijaykumar, Mr. B.R.N.Kirankumar, Mr. K. Ashokkumar,
Mr. A.G.Subramanyam and all my beloved friends for their suggestions and
encouragement for the successful completion of this thesis work.

I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my parents and family

members for their constant encouragement and blessings.

Finally I would like to thank the almighty for providing me with this opportunity
to be at NIT Kurukshetra.

KRISHNA KISHORE M S
Roll no: 2209/06
M.Tech (Control systems)
Electrical Engg. Dept.
N.I.T Kurukshetra.
 ABSTRACT

Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) is a technology, which is based on power

electronic devices, used to enhance the existing transmission capabilities in order to make the
transmission system flexible and independent operation. The FACTS technology is a promising
technology to achieve complete deregulation of Power System i.e. Generation, Transmission and
Distribution as complete individual units. The loading capability of transmission system can also
be enhanced nearer to the thermal limits without affecting the stability. Complete close-loop
smooth control of reactive power can be achieved using shunt connected FACTS devices. Static
VAR Compensator (SVC) is one of the shunt connected FACTS device, which can be utilized
for the purpose of reactive power compensation. Intelligent FACTS devices make them
adaptable and hence it is emerging in the present state of art.

Fuzzy logic control for SVC is used in order to achieve better, smooth and adaptive
control of reactive power. Fuzzy logic is a paradigm for an alternative design methodology,
which can be applied in developing both linear and non-linear systems for embedded control.
Fuzzy control provides a convenient method for constructing nonlinear controllers via the use of
heuristic information. Such heuristic information may come from an operator who has acted as a
"human-in-the-loop" controller for a process. In the fuzzy control design methodology, one asks
the operator to write down a set of rules on how to control the process, and then one incorporates
these into a fuzzy controller that emulates the decision-making process of the human. The
design, modeling and simulations are carried out for Transmission line and the compensation is
placed at the receiving end (load end).

In ac power system, the generation and load must be balance at all times. To some extent,
electrical system is self regulating. Beyond that when propped up with reactive power support
load will go up, frequency keeps dropping and system will collapse. Alternatively, if there is
inadequate reactive power, system can have voltage collapse. Thus reactive power control is an
important control objective of any power system as its unbalance causes voltage variation at the
load end. If the voltage variation is more than the pre specified valve the performance of
equipment suffers and life of most of equipment is sacrificed. Hence maintaining voltage within
reasonable limits is an important objective of power system control.

The conventional methods available for reactive power control are shunt capacitor, series
capacitor, tap changing transformers and synchronous modifier. But these are operated by
mechanical switches; hence do not offer fast and continuous control. Thus comes into picture
FACTS devices to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission
system including series impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle and the
damping of oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency .mechanical switches
cannot overcome these constraints without lowering the transmission capacity instead of FACTS
controllers can enable alien to carry power closer to its thermal rating. According to IEEE terms
FACTS means-alternating current transmission system incorporation power electronics-based
and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability.

The various types of FACT controllers include the shunt connected, series connected
controllers and a combination of these two. Of these we have used the shunt connected controller
i.e. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)-can be said as a shunt connected Static VAR generator or
absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitor or inductive current so as to maintain or
control specific parameters (bus voltage) of the electrical power system. TCR-FC is an SVC
device which offers fast, effective and continuous control of voltage which compensates both for
over voltage and under voltage.

My dissertation is mainly concentrated on the importance of SVC in achieving continuous

and automatic reactive power control using fuzzy logic controller. From the previously obtained
values of voltage, currents and alpha values, fuzzy rules were set in order to obtain the desired
firing angles of SVC so as to obtain a flat voltage profile in transmission network. The standard
test system is simulated in MATLAB along with fuzzy logic controller. The results obtained
were found to be proving trustworthy and can be implemented for the real time control of
reactive power in any power system.
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objective of the thesis
1.3 Outline of the thesis

2. Overview of FACTS devices 5

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of FACTS controllers
2.3 Principles of the series controllers
2.3.1 Static series synchronous compensator (SSSC)
2.3.2 Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

2.4 Principles of the shunt controllers

2.4.1 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

2.4.2 Static VAR compensator (SVC)

2.5 principles of the combined series- series controllers

2.6 Combined shunt-series controllers

2.6.1 Unified power flow controllers (UPFC)

2.6.2 Basic operating principle and characteristics

3. Design and modeling of Transmission lines 14

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Representation of the Transmission lines

3.3 Surge Impedance
3.4 Ferranti-effect
 3.5 Flexible AC transmission systems Methods of transmission
Line compensation

3.5.1 Compensation methods

3.5.2 Uncompensated line
3.5.3 Shunt compensation
3.5.4 Series capacitance compensation

3.5.5 Phase angle control

4. Operating principles and modeling of SVC 25

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Operating principles and modeling of SVC

4.3 Fixed capacitor and thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR)

4.4 Firing pulse generation

4.5 Losses and output characteristics

5. Fuzzy logic controller 37

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Definition of fuzzy sets

5.3 Fuzzy set operations

5.4 Fuzzy controller model
5.4.1Fuzzification
5.4.2 Knowledge base (KB)
5.4.3 Inference mechanism
5.4.4 Defuzzification

5.4.5 Fuzzy logic controller

IV
6. Matlab simulation 46

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Simulation of Transmission line
6.3 Simulation of FC-TCR block
6.3.1 TCR block
6.4 Simulation of firing circuit
6.5 Design and Simulation using fuzzy logic controller
6.6 Algorithm for fuzzy controller

7. Results 53

7.1 Matlab simulation Waveforms

8. Conclusion 59

Bibliography 61
Nomenclature

I = current flowing through the conductor

V'r = the receiving end under no load condition

Vr = the receiving end voltage under full load condition

L = Line inductance

C = line capacitance

I = wavelength

V = velocity of the wave

f = frequency of the supply

Zs = surge impedance

V(t) = crest of the voltage

it = current in the reactor

CO = the angular frequency of the applied voltage

L = the inductance of the thyristor - controlled reactor

V = the amplitude of the applied voltage

a = conduction angle

a = delay angle

BL(a) = admittance

ILF (a) = fundamental current

BL = admittance of reactor

Vcmax = voltage limit of capacitor

Be = admittance of capacitor

» Lniax = maximum voltage limit of TCR

^Cniax = maximum capacitive current limit

iLinax = maximum inductive current limit

OLmax = maximum inductive admittance of TCR

VI
FLC = fuzzy logic control (FLC)
MF = membership fUnction

mB(yj)= membership function of the jth strip

Xi Corresponding Crisp value of jth strip

P number of strips
KB = Knowledge Base output distribution B

IR Load current (receiving end current)

VR = Load voltage (receiving end voltage)

Vs = Supply voltage (sending end voltage)

GND = Ground

Q2 = Output 2 inverted

Qu = Output U

Qi = Output 1 inverted

» sync ~ Synchronizing input

Qz = Output Z

R9 = Ramp resistance

Cio Ramp capacitance

V,, = Control voltage (DC)

C,2 = Pulse extension

L Long pulse

Q Output 1 (Main o/p)

Vs Supply voltage
U Junction temperature

Tstg = Storage temperature

Is Synchronizing input current
f operating frequency

VII
Ambient temperature range
Inductance per unit length (H/km)
No. of pi sections
Capacitance per unit length (F/km)
Length of the line (km)
Resistance per unit length (Q/km)
the voltage at the midpoint of the line is taken to be
The real power
The line absorbs reactive power
angle, between the busbar voltages,
the reactive power generated by the compensator,
the line reactance as,
the capacitance reactance,

the overall line reactance,, becomes XL-XQ X=XL(l -s),

degree o/compensation s = XC/XL O < 5" < 1
the series capacitance
generator voltage

VIII
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction

Electrical energy is the superior form of energy out of all energy forms in the world. It is
easily transformable and controllable into various others forms (light, heat, motion...) of energy.
Electrical energy is becoming the basic necessity for the man in serving his industrial and
domestic needs. This energy form is produced at generating stations, and it reaches the user
tluough power transmission and distribution system.

The basic control objectives of a power system are system voltage control, system
frequency control, protection and economic operation. Reactive power control is a subset of
overall system control and stability. A power system is said to be well designed if it gives a good
quality of reliable supply. By good quality is said meant the voltage levels are maintained within
the reasonable limits. If the voltage variation is more than a pre specified value, the performance
of the equipment suffers and the life of most of the equipment is sacrificed. When power is
supplied to a load through transmission line keeping sending end voltage constant, the load
voltage undergoes variations depending upon the magnitude of the load. The higher the load
greater is the voltage variation.

The voltage variation at a bus is the indication of the unbalance of reactive power
generated and consumed at that bus. If reactive power is greater than that consumed, the voltage
goes up and vice versa. Whenever the voltage level of a particular bus undergoes variation this is
the unbalance between the VARs at that bus. This voltage variation causes under voltage or over
voltage. Severe under voltages cause damage to motors and severe over voltages cause insulation
damage. Hence maintaining vohages within reasonable limits is an important control objective.

The operation of a power system can be problematic due to voltage instability and
dynamic over voltage. A better coordination of VAR sources is desired under such conditions.
 The transmission line distributed parameters throughout the line, on light loads or at no
loads become predominant and consequently the line supplies charging VAR (generates reactive
power). In order to maintain the terminal vohage at the load bus adequate, reactive reserves are
needed. FACTS devices like SVC can supply or absorb the reactive power at receiving end bus
or at load end bus in transmission system, which helps in achieving better economy in power
transfer.

A Static VAR Compensator (or SVC) is an electrical device for providing fast -acting
reactive power compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. SVC are used
both on bulk power transmission circuit to regulate voltage and contribute to steady state
stability, they also are useful when placed near high and rapidly varying loads such as arc
furnaces where they can smooth flicker voltage.

In this thesis the first generation FACTS controller SVC is considered with the fuzzy
controller. The fuzzy control has emerged as one of the most active and fruitful areas for
research in the applications of fuzzy set theory.

Fuzzy control is based on fuzzy logic - a logical system which is much closer in spirit to
human thinking and nature language than traditional logical system. The fiizzy logic controller
(FLC) provides a means of converting a linguistic control strategy based on an expert knowledge
into an automatic control strategy. Knowledge acquisition in FLC application plays an important
role in determining the level of performance of a fuzzy control system. FLC based on the fuzzy
model of a process is needed when higher accuracy and reliability are required. Only small
efforts have been expended in applying fuzzy logic as a controller to damp out the small signal
oscillations for the FACTS based stabilizers as closed-loop.
1.2 objective of the thesis

In this thesis transmission line (^8) is simulated using 4 n line segments by keeping the
sending end voltage constant. The receiving end voltage fluctuations were observed for different
loads. In order to maintain the receiving voltage constant, shunt inductor and capacitor are added
for different loading conditions.

SVC is simulated by means of Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-
TCR) which is placed at the receiving end. The firing angle control circuit is designed and the
firing angles are varied for various loading conditions to make the receiving end voltage equal to
sending end voltage.

Fuzzy logic controller is designed to achieve the firing angles for SVC such that it
maintains a flat voltage profile. All the results thus obtained, were verified and were utilized in
framing of fuzzy rule base in order to achieve better reactive power compensation for the
Transmission line (X/S).

Based on observed results for load voltage variations for different values of load
resistance, inductance and capacitance a fuzzy controller is designed which controls the firing
angle of SVC in order to automatically maintain the receiving end voltage constant.

1.3 Out line of the thesis

The present chapter introduces the importance of reactive power compensation of

transmission line and also lay down the motivation of the work carried out in this thesis.

Chapter 2 introduces overview of Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS). The

concepts of FACTS envisage the use of power electronic equipment to improve system operation
by fast and reliable control. The FACTS controllers directly or indirectly control three
parameters viz., voltage, reactance or phase angle difference. FACTS devices enhance the
capacity of the transmission lines. These controllers are fast and increase the stability operating
limits of the transmission systems when there controllers are properly tuned.

In Chapter 3 design and modeling of transmission line are discussed. An Electrical

transmission line can be represented by a series combination of resistance, inductance and shunt
combination of conductance and capacitance. Representation of transmission line, Ferranti
effect, surge impedance and Flexible AC transmission systems methods of compensation are also
discussed.

Chapter 4 discusses operating principle and modeling of SVC, Fixed capacitor and
thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR), firing pulse generator and loss versus output
characteristics of FC-TCR.

Chapter 5 the fundamentals of the fuzzy logic controller have been discussed. The
various components of fuzzy logic controller are discussed in brief

Chapter 6 presents MATLAB simulation, simulation of transmission network in

MATLAB, firing circuit, TCR block and algorithm for fiizzy controller.

Chapter 7 concludes the significant contributions of the thesis with simulation waveforms
and identifies the future scope of work in this area.
 Chapter 2
OVERVIEW OF FACTS DEVICES
2.1 Introduction

The power system is an interconnection of generating units to load centers through high
voltage electric transmission lines and in general is mechanically controlled. It can be divided
into three subsystems: generation, transmission and distribution subsystems. Until recently all
three subsystems were under supervision of one body within a certain geographical area
providing power at regulated rates. In order to provide cheaper electricity the deregulation of
power system, which includes separate generation, Transmission and distribution companies, is
already being implemented. At the same time electric power demand continues to grow and also
building of the new generating units and transmission circuits is becoming more difficult because
of economic and environmental reasons. Therefore, power utilities are forced to rely on
utilization of existing generating units and to load existing transmission lines close to their
thermal limits. However, stability has to be maintained at all times. Hence, it is necessary to
operate power system effectively, without reduction in the systems security and quality of
supply, even in the case of contingency conditions. The contingency may be such as loss of
transmission lines and/or generating units, which occur frequently, and will most probably occur
at higher frequencies. So a new control strategies need to be implemented, to take care
of such expected situations.

In the late 1980s the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has introduced a new
Technology program known as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS). The main idea
behind this program was to increase controllability and optimize the utilization of the existing
power system capacities by replacing mechanical controllers by reliable and high-speed power
electronic devices.

Power electronic devices have had a revolutionary impact on the electric power systems
around the world. The availability and application of thyristors has resulted in a new breed of
thyristor-based fast operating devices devised for control and switching operations. Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS) devices are new comings, which have found a wide spread
application in the power industry for active and reactive power control.

FACTS devices enhance the capacity of the transmission lines. These controllers are fast,
increases the stability, operating limits of the transmission systems and are properly tuned. These
devices provide control of the power system through appropriate compensation of network
parameters, such as line series impedance, line shunt impedance, current, voltage, and real and
reactive power. They help the operation of the power network closer to its thermal limits. The
FACTS technology encompasses a combination of various controllers, each of which can be
applied individually or in a co-ordination with other devices to control the interrelated
parameters of the system. In recent years, environment, right of way and high cost problems have
delayed the construction of new transmission lines. This has highlighted the need to change the
traditional system concepts and achieve better utilization of existing lines.

Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) technology is based on the use of power

electronic controlled devices for allowing transmission circuits to be used to their maximum
thermal capability. In particular the FACTS devices aim principally to control the three main
parameters directly effecting AC power transmission namely voltage, phase angle, and
impedance. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission is parallel technology using
power electronics and is not normally included as a FACTS technology.

> Constraints preventing use of full thermal capability on conventional AC circuits are
• Poor power sharing in parallel circuits under different network operating conditions.
• Transient, dynamic and voltage instability.
• Voltage control and associated reactive power flow problems.
• Fault level constraints.
> Technologies available for improving circuit utilization
• Changes to network configuration.
• HVDC.
• FACTS.
 > Advantages of FACTS technology over other solutions to netv^ork reinforcement
• Has potential to control flow as required.
• Less environmental impact than most alternative techniques of transmission
reinforcement.
• Cost is also less than other alternatives.
• Due to the invention of modem power electronic components such as Gate turn
off (GTO) Thyristor, and Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) technology, new
generation of FACTS devices are developed.

2.2 Types of facts Controllers

FACTS controllers can be broadly divided into four categories, which are
• Series controllers
• Shunt controllers
• Combined Series-Series Controllers
• Combined Series -Shunt controllers

1) Series controUer:-
1. Static Synchronous Series Comparator (SSSC)
2. Inter line Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
3. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
4. Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
5. Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR)
6. Thyristor Switch Series Reactor (TSSR)

2) Shunt ControUers:-
1. Static Synchi-onous Compensator (STATCOM)
2. Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)
3. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)
4. Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
5. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
7
 6. Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
7. Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
8. Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
9. Static VAR Generator or Absorber

3) Combined shunt - series connected controllers

1. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).

4) Combined series - series connected controllers

1. Inter Line Power Flow Controller (IPFC).

2.3 Principles of the Series Controllers

A series controller may be regarded as variable reactive or capacitive impedance whose

value is adjusted to damp various oscillations that can take place in the system. This is achieved
by injecting an appropriate voltage phasor in series with the line; this voltage phasor can be
viewed as the voltage across impedance in series with the line. If the line voltage is in phase
quadrature with the line current, the series controller absorbs or produces reactive power, while if
it is not, the controllers absorbs or produces real and reactive power.

7^

Fig. 2.1 Series controller

Examples:
1. Static Series Synchronous Compensator (SSSC).
2. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC).
2.3.1 Static series synchronous compensator (SSSC)

A static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as a

series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with and controllable independently, of
the line current for the purpose of controlling the transmitted electric power. The SSSC may
include transiently rated energy storage by additional temporary real power compensation, to
increase or decrease momentarily the overall real voltage drop across the line.

2.3.2 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

A capacitive reactive compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank by a thyristor

controlled reactor in order to provide a smooth variable series capacitive reactance.

2.4 Principles of the Shunt Controllers

Shunt controllers are similar to the series controllers with the difference being that they
inject current into the system at the point where they are connected. Variable shunt impedance
connected to a line causes a variable current flow by injecting a current into the system. If the
injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the controller adjusts reactive power
while if the current is not in phase quadrature, the controller adjusts real power.

Figure: 2.2. Slsmt controller

Examples:
1. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
2. Static Var Compensator (SVC)
They can be used as a good way to control the voltage in and around the point of connection by
injecting active or reactive current into the system.

2.4.1 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

This is a Static Synchronous Generator operated as a shunt connected static Var

compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of the
ac system voltage.

2.4.2 Static Var Compensator (SVC)

A shunt cormected static Var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange
capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain control specific parameters of the electrical
power system.

• **"

TTJT J

Fig. 2.3 Basic thyristor controlled reactor

2,5 Principles of the Combined Series-Series Controllers.

A combined series-series controller may have two configurations. One Configuration

consists of series controllers operating in a coordinated manner in a multi line transmission
system. The other configuration provides independent reactive power control for each line of a
multi line transmission system and, at the same time, facilitates real power transfer through the
power link.

10
 ^Unef

Figure 2.4: Series-series coiittoller

Example: Interline power flow controllers (IPFC)
This helps in balancing both the real and reactive power flows on the lines.

2.6 Combined Shunt-Series Controllers

2.6.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

A combination of static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static series

compensator (SSSC) which are coupled via a common dc link, allow bidirectional flow of real
power between the series out put terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real and reactive series line compensation
without an external electrical energy source. The UPFC, by means of angularly unconstrained
series voltage injection, is able to control, concurrently, or selectively, the transmission line
voltage, impedance, and angle or, alternatively, the real and reactive power flow in the line. The
UPFC may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.

me
^nAnlWlrfWwi^
jrrfv-y^
ry-inr\

" \ , J**™— "»*wg(/ V ^

STATOOiVI

•2ii»
d c iinH

Figure 2.5: Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

11
 In UPFC fig.2.5, which combines a STATCOM and an SSSC, the active power for the
series unit (SSSC) is obtained from the line itself via the shunt unit STATCOM the letter is also
used for voltage control with control of its reactive power. This is a complete control for
controlling active and reactive power control through the line, as well as line voltage control.

2.6.2 Basic Operating Principle and Characteristics.

The unified power flow controller (UPFC) was devised for the real-time control and
dynamics compensation of ac transmission systems, providing multifunctional flexibility
required to solve many of the problems facing the industry.

Vp(t

\fc
SxDiter cofswsttsr DC tws Booster coHveiter
:kn
l" .II.I.I.I.....J / ^t^anmtm^ J'' ™w»»>Birf

-X)<: E;DC
rt^
p
^I«iMg: sisals

dmvenet firing a«g)e control

k. •ri
m <• 5g "B r f5-
^^-m^ UPFC Cojrtj'wt •i— Mc
Mcaasiined variable s

Fig 2.6 Implementation of the UPFC by two back-to-back voltage sourced converters

In the presently used practical implementation, the UPFC consists of two voltage sourced
converters using gate turn off (GTO) thyristor valve, as illustrated in the above figure . These
converters are labeled as converter 1 and converter 2 in the figure, are operated from a common
dc link provided by a dc storage capacitor. This arrangement functions as an ideal ac to ac power
converter in which the real power can freely flow in either direction between the ac terminals of
the two converters, and each converter can independently generate reactive power at its own ac
output terminal. Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage Vpq

12
with controllable magnitude Vpq and phase angle y in series with the line via an insertion
transformer. This injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source. The
transmission line current flows through this voltage source resulting in reactive and real power
exchange between it and the ac system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminals is
generated internally by the converter. The real power exchanged at the ac terminal is converted
in to dc power, which appears at the dc link as a positive or negative real power demand.

The basic function of converter! is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by
converter! at the common dc link. This dc link power is converted back to ac and coupled to the
transmission line via a shunt-connected transformer. Converter! can also generate or absorb
controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and there by provide independent shunt reactive
compensation for the line. It is important to note that where as there is a closed direct path for the
real power negotiated by action of series voltage injection through converter! and 2 back to line,
the corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied are absorbed locally by converter! and
therefore does not have to be transmitted by the line. Thus, converter! can be operated at a unity
power factor or be controlled to have a reactive power exchange with the line independent of the
Reactive power exchanged by coverter2. This means that there is no reactive power flow through
the UPFC.

13
 Chapter3
DESIGN AND MODELING OF TRANSMISSION LINE

3.1 Introduction

An Electrical transmission line can be represented by a series combination of resistance,

inductance and shunt combination of conductance and capacitance. These parameters are
symbolized as R,L,G and C respectively, of these R and G are least important in the sense that
they do not effect much the total equivalent impedance of the line and hence the transmission
capacity. They are of course very much importance when transmission efficiency and economy
are to be evaluated as they completely determine the real transmission line losses The resistance
of a conductor is given by

power loss in conductor

R= ohm
l2 3.1

Where R is the effective resistance of the conductor and I the current flowing through the
conductor. The effective resistance is equal to the D.C resistance of the conductor only if the
current is uniformly distributed throughout the section of the conductor. Difference in the D.C
resistance and effective resistance to frequencies less than 50 Hz is less than 1 percent for copper
conductors of section less than 350,000 circular mils. The loss on the overhead transmission line
is due to
1. Ohmic loss in the power conductors
2. corona loss
3. leakage at the insulators which support the lines at the towers
The performance of lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of lines.

Power delivered at the receiving end

% Efficiency = — X 100 3.2
Power sent from the sending end

14
 The end of line where load is connected is called the receiving end and where source of
supply is connected is called the sending end.
Regulation of a line is defined as the change in the receiving end voltage, expressed in
percent of full load voltage, from no load to full load, keeping the sending end voltage and
frequency constant. Expressed mathematically,

(V!r-Vr)
% regulation = X 100 3.3
Vr

Where V! r is the receiving end under no load condition and Vr the receiving end voltage under
full load condition .it is to be noted here that V!r and Vr are the magnitudes of voltage.

3.2 Representation of transmission lines

A transmission line is a set of conductors being run from one place to another supported
on transmission towers. Such lines, therefore, h^ve four distributed parameters, series resistance
and inductance and shunt capacitance and conductance. The voltage and current vary
harmonically along the line with respect to the distance of the point under consideration. This
observation is very important in representing the lines of different lengths. It is to be noted that
the electrical power is being transmitted over the overhead lines at approximately the speed of
light .in order to get one full wave variation of voltage or current on the line, the length of the
line for 50 Hz supply will be given by

V = fX 3.4
where f is the frequency of supply ,
X is wavelength i.e the length of the in this case and
V the velocity of the wave i.e the velocity of light

I = v/f = 6000 Km 3.5

15
Transmission lines have been classified as long, medium and short lines depending on the length
of the lines. These are
1. Short Transmission lines (up to 80 km).
2. Medium Transmission lines (80 to 160 km)
3. Long transmission lines (above 160 km)

The transmission system selected for our study is a long transmission line with a five pie
network representation. The resistance of a line has been neglected and the line is considered to
be purely reactive. It means that I r losses are neglected. This is because the dissertation is
mainly concerned with the reactive power control, and the resistance has no effect on the reactive
power absorbed or generated by the system. The load is considered purely resistive.

3.3 Surge Impedance

The surge impedance of a typical overhead line is 400K. The transmission network is so selected
as to satisfy these conditions. The transmission network studied is shown in figS.l.
The surge impedance of a line is calculated from the formula

Zs = V (L/C) 3.6

Where Zs=surge impedance

L=line inductance
C=line capacitance
For the selected network L=14.8mh and C=20Mf
Substituting these values in the formula for Zs we get

Zs= V(L/C)=368.2K

This value is nearly equal to the value ought to be for an overhead line.

16
 Hence from the above two cases it is clear that the selected network is near to a practical
long transmission line. The transmission line is shown in fig 3.1.

-'rtV •—L,-nfOT-^j—^^iV —L^ jfljp.,

Fig 3.1 Transmission line test system

3.4 Ferranti-effect

When a long line is operating under no load or light load condition, the receiving end
voltage is greater than sending end voltage, this is known as Ferranti effect. Ferranti-effect can
be given by approximating the distributed parameters of the line by lumped impedance shown in
figure below. Since usually the capacitive reactance of the line is quite large as compared to the
inductive reactance, under no load or light loaded condition the line current is of leading p.f. The
charging current produces drop in the reactance of the line which is in phase opposition to the
receiving end voltage and hence the sending end voltage becomes smaller than the receiving end
voltage.
Ferranti-effect is based on the net reactive power flow on the line .it is shown that if the
reactive power generated at a point is more than the reactive power absorbed, the voltage at that
point becomes higher than the normal value and vice versa. The inductive reactance of the line is
a sink for the reactive power where as the shunt capacitances generate reactive power.

In fact, if the line loading corresponds to the surge impedance loading, the voltage is
same everywhere as the reactive power absorbed than equals the reactive power generated by the
lines. The SIL, therefore, gives definite meaning to the terms lightly loaded or fully loaded lines,
if the loading is less than SIL, the reactive power generated is more than absorbed, therefore the

17
receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage. This explains, therefore, the
phenomenon due to Ferranti effect

Ic
i^MVMHVVH^t^

iC'A^

vs 4\ Vs 7h
vr ic IcR
J—^
Vr
Fig 3.2(a) Line representation under no load Fig 3.2(b) phasor diagram

3.5 Flexible AC transmission systems Methods of transmission Line compensation

3.5.1 Compensation methods

The model used for assessing the effects of compensation methods on transmission
capability is shown in Fig. 1 (without any compensation). A number of simplifying assumptions
have been made in order to clearly illustrate the relative performance of the FACTS controllers.
In particular the effects of line capacitance and resistance have been ignored, and it is assumed
that sending and receiving end bus bar voltages are maintained at constant magnitudes (these
voltages are assumed to be maintained by terminal generators). Power is being exported along
the line from the sending end bus bar (left hand side) towards the receiving end bus bar (right
hand side) as shown by the direction of the line current, 1. In the analysis of transmission
networks for design and operational purposes it is often necessary to include a more rigorous line
representation particularly where longer transmission distances are involved. This may include
lumped line parameters (series reactance, series resistance and shunt capacitance) or where a
more exact representation is required these parameters can be distributed. Also the assumption of
adequate reactive power control at the receiving end to maintain a constant voltage will not in
general apply where the receiving end represents a load centre with little or no generation.
Fig. 3.2 shows the voltage variation at the receiving end of a transmission line assuming a
constant lagging power factor load and distributed network parameters. Three cases are

18
illustrated: (a) with no compensation, (b) with distributed compensation to provide a flat profile
and (c) with limited capacitive compensation at the receiving end. Under light load conditions
the receiving end voltage can rise higher than the sending end voltage due to the effects of the
line capacitance (Ferranti effect).

Uncompensated line

Referring to the simplified model of the uncompensated system of Fig. 3.3 a & b the
voltage at the midpoint of the line is taken to be VM, the real power P, exported along the line is
given as:

rX
sin6
3.7

X/2 X/2 Voltage

^m^> ^m^
Vs Vr
Vm

Power

Fig 3.3(a) Simple power system model Fig 3.3(b) Voltage variation at a
receiving end bus bar as a
function of power Flow

Imaginaiy

Fig 3.4 Phasor diagram for simple model shown in Fig. 3.3

19
Assuming that I Vsl = I VRI = I VI. From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4, we can see that:

M*i = »/ = 2 -s-»n-~ - 38
2 2V X I

The line absorbs reactive power, Q, as a function of the line current:

X 2 X 2 ' ^-^

This can be expressed as:

g = i ^ ( l -.40.«# 3.10
X

2Pmax

P.Q.

Pmax

4)
Fig. 3.5 Power transmission characteristic for simple model shown in fig. 3.3 (a)

3.5.3 Shunt compensation

We see in Fig. 3 that the voltage profile of the uncompensated transmission line (i.e. how
the voltage magnitude varies along the line length) is a maximum at the line ends, V, and a
minimum at the mid point, VM,. If the line was naturally loaded (note: we would, have to
consider shunt capacitance), then the voltage profile would be flat (i.e. the voltage magnitude
would be equal at all points along the line) and no compensation would be required. Thus, the
application of line compensation can be seen as a means of approximating a flat voltage profile.
20
This, however, implies that the compensation is distributed along the line which is cleariy
impractical. However, the next best approach is to provide compensation at the mid point; this, it
will be seen, effectively divides the line into two sections. Fig. 3.5 shows the arrangement of the
ideal mid-point shunt compensator which maintains a voltage, equal to the bus bar voltage such
that Vs] = IVRI= I VMI = IVI. It can be seen that the compensator does not consume real power
since the compensator voltage VM and its current IM are in quadrature. Clearly, the power, P,
transferred from S to the mid-point is equal to the power transferred from the mid-point to R, and
is given by:

2_ 3.11
P = — »n —
7-

The reactive power generated by the compensator, Q, is given generally by Q? = IMVM = IMV

• ^ KM 5
3.12

Adapting eqn. 2 to replace, we can express Qp as:

2V%in SL
Ov, = 4,v^, = 2/w sin - V = ? 2,. sin ^ V 3.13
• 4 X 4
2

This can be arranged as

Qp = —-•: -sm — = -—~2sn — =--^—(I -cos—) 3.14

X 4 X ^ X ?

4PtTiax

? 2Pmax

Pmax
\^>^
n/2

Fig 3.6 Phasor diagram for shunt-compensated line

21
With long transmission lines a single midpoint compensator may not be adequate to prop up the
line voltage and several shunt compensators connected at intervals down the line may be needed.
The line would then be a closer approximation to the fully distributed solution discussed above.

3.5.4 Series capacitance compensation

Fig. 3.7 shows the arrangement of series compensating the line using a midpoint
capacitor to reduce the overall line reactance. This method does not improve the voltage profile
but makes the line appear much shorter, electrically, than is the case. Denoting the line reactance
as XL, and the capacitance reactance as Xc, the overall line reactance becomes XC-XL or,
alternatively, X = XL (1 -s), where S is the degree of compensation given by:

s ^ ^ 0<s& i ..— 3.15

The real power, P, can now be expresses as,.

P= — sinS = - . stnfi 3.16

X X^(l -5)

The reactive power supplied by the series capacitor is given by Qc = I2XC.

f ^t _i rz<
^ i n _ — ^-..—^^. •••: 3 . \ /

2 V

This can be rearranged as:

2Vstn
Is. 2_ - 3.18

Thus, Qc can be expressed as:

Q^ ^ ilX^ ^ . 1 sX, 3.19

Xf(1 -if

This reaiTanges to give

22
 21/ s
3.20
Xt (1 - s )

xa X/2
X 01 i -^ '^02
^m^y -)h- -)i—-m^
A^ Vs Vm -i^ Vr

Fig 3.7 Simple model with series capacitive compensation

Imaginary

Fig 3.8 Phasor diagram for series compensator model shown in fig. 3.6

SPmax 0.46

P.Q. 2Pmax p X..,.

A 0.3
Pmax
.^ jr^^-^

0:16
0.1

ns
Fig 3.9 Power transmission characteristic for series compensation model

23
3.5.5 Phase angle control

The line compensated by a phase shifter, located at the sending end bus bar. The vohage
from the phase shifter, Vpq is adjustable in phase and magnitude. The action of the phase shifter
is to inject a voltage such that generator voltage, VG and the receiving end bus bar voltage, VR
are kept at an angle that gives the maximum power transfer along the line.

Note that the phase shifter does not increase the maximum power transfer capability of
the line, but in the simple model allows the maximum power transfer to occur at any generator
angle. However, the main application of phase shifters is to control the power flow distribution
in a network and thereby prevent circuit overloading.

24
 Chapter 4
OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND MODELING OF SVC

4.1 Introduction

Static Var Compensator is an electrical device for providing fast -acting reactive power
compensation on high-voltage electricity transmission network. Svc are the part of the flexible ac
transmission system (FACTS) family of devices. The svc is an automated impedance matching
device if the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the svc will use reactors to
supply VAR's to the system, bringing the system closer to unity power factor and lowering the
system voltage. A similar process is carried out with an inductive (lagging) condition and
capacitor bank's. Thus providing a power factor closer to unity and consequently a higher system
voltage svc's are used both on bulk power transmission circuits to regulate vohage and
contribute to steady state stability. They also are useful when placed near high and rapidly
varying loads, such as are furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage.

The term "static" refers to the fact that the svc has no moving parts other than circuit
breaks and discormects, traditionally, power factor correction has been done with synchronous
condensers, enormous externally-excited motors. Whose excitation determines whether they
absorb or supply reactive power to the system. Generally static var compensation is not done at
line voltage; a bank of transformers steps the transmission voltage (for example 230kV) down to
a much lower level (for example 9.5 kv) this reduces the size and number of components needed
in the svc, although the conductors must be very large to handle the high currents associated with
the lower voltage.

The dynamic nature of the svc lies in the use of thyristors (also called valves), disc-
shaped semiconductors several inches in diameter. The thyristors usually located inductors in a
valve house, can switch capacitors or inductors in and out of the circuit on a per-cycle basis
allowing for very fast and fine control of system voltage. The thyristors are electrically
controlled and signaling is carried out via fiber-optic links or pulse transformers either of which
isolates the low voltage control electronics from the high voltages in the thyristor area.
25
Thyristors like all semiconductors generates affair amount of heat and deionized water is
commonly used to cool them.

Static var controllers can provide a quick control over the reactive power. The static var
systems or compensators were initially used for load compensation where the objective is to
dynamically control the reactive power demand of large fluctuating loads such as rolling mills
etc. These are used to prevent annoying vohage flickers caused by industrial loads such as arc
furnaces, which cause very rapid changes in the reactive power and also introduce a fluctuating
load unbalance between three phases. SVC's provide a dynamic voltage regulation to enhance
the stability of the interconnection between two ac systems. They were subsequently used for
voltage control applications in transmission systems, where by maintaining voltage support at
specified locations, it is possible to provide increased power transfer capability, control of
dynamic over voltages damping of oscillations.

The SVC's include TCR and TSC. A typical FC-TCR is shown in the fig(l.l). The TCR
is operated from a low voltage bus. If thyristors with suitable high voltage ratings are available,
in future they may be directly used on HV bus, by controlling the firing angle of the back to back
connected thyristors, the current in the reactor can be controlled. The reactor in series with the
fixed capacitor is controlled from maximum value with thyristors phased off(small conduction
angle) and to minimum value with thyristors phased full 'on'. The delay angle in the range 0 to
90 deg has no control over the inductor current. A TCR through slightly larger than TSC
provides continues control of vohage.

> Advantages:

1. SVC's include fast, precise regulation of voltage unrestricted, largely

transient- free control.
2. SVC's over simple mechanically switched compensation schemes is their near
instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage, for this reason they are
often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power
correction they can rapidly provide when required.
26
4.2 Operating principles and modeling of SVC

A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange

capacitive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system
(typically voltage bus). SVC is based on thyristors without the gate turn-off capability. It
includes separate equipment for leading and lagging vars, the thyristor-controUed or thyristor-
switched reactor for absorbing reactive power and thyristor-switched capacitor for supplying the
reactive power.

It has long been recognized that the steady-state transmittable power can be increased and
the voltage profile along the line controlled by appropriate reactive shunt compensation. The
purpose of this reactive power compensation is to change the natural electrical characteristics of
the transmission line to make it more compatible with the prevailing load demand. Thus, shunt
connected, fixed or mechanically switched reactors are applied to minimize line over voltage
under light load conditions, and shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are
applied to maintain voltage levels under heavy load conditions.

The ultimate objective of applying reactive shunt compensation in transmission is to

increase the transmittable power .this may be required to improve the steady-state transmission
characteristics as well as the stability of the system. Var compensation is thus used for voltage
regulation at the midpoint (or some intermediate) to segment the transmission line and at the end
of the (radial) line to prevent voltage instability, as well as for dynamic voltage control to
increase transient stability and dap power oscillations

An elementary single phase thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) shown in Fig 4.1 consists
of a fixed (usually air core) reactor of inductance L and a two anti parallel SCRs. The device
brought into conduction by simultaneous application of gate pulses to SCRs of the same polarity.
In addition, it will automatically block immediately after the ac current crosses zero, unless the
gate signal is reapplied. The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (SCR
closed) to zero (SCR open) by the method of firing delay angle control. That is, the SCR
conduction delayed with respect to the peak of the applied voltage in each half-cycle, and thus
27
the duration of the current conduction interval is controlled. This method of current control is
illustrated separately for the positive and negative current cycles in Fig 4.2 where the applied
voltage V and the reactor current ItCa) at zero delay angle (switch fully closed) and at an
arbitrary a delay angle are shown. When a =0, the SCR closes at the crest of the applied voltage
and evidently the resulting current in the reactor will be the same as that obtained in steady state
with a permanently closed switch. When the gating of the SCR is delayed by an angle a (0 < a <
Till) with respect to the crest of the voltage, the current in the reactor can be expressed as follows

V(t) = V cos cot. —-- 4.1

XL = (1/L) J"' V(t)dt = (V/a)L)(sin cot -sin a) 4.2

Since the SCR, by definition, opens as the current reaches zero, is valid for the interval a
< cot < 7t-a. For subsequent negative half-cycle intervals, the sign of the terms in equation (4.1)
becomes opposite.

In the above equation (4.1) the term (V/coL) sin a = 0 is offset which is shifted down for
positive and up for negative current half-cycles obtained at a = 0. Since the SCRs automatically
turns off at the instant of current zero crossing of SCR this process actually controls the
conduction intervals (or angle) of the SCR. That is, the delay angle a defines the prevailing
conduction angle Q{I3 = %-2a). Thus, as the delay angle a increases, the corresponding increasing
offset results in the reduction of the conduction angle o of the SCR, and the consequent
reduction of the reactor current. At the maximum delay of a = TI 12, the offset also reaches its
maximum of V/coL, at which both the conduction angle and the reactor Current becomes zero.
The two parameters, delay angle a and conduction angle a are equivalent and therefore TCR can
be characterized by either of them; their use is simply a matter of preference. For this reason,
expression related to the TCR can be found in the literature both in terms of a and a.

28
 — ^ / Re&cXat

Controlled
\

Till

Thyretof

Fig 4.1 Basic Thyristor Controlled Reactor

Fig 4.2 Operating waveforms

It is evident that the magnitude of the current in the reactor varied continuously by delay
angle control from maximum (a=0) to zero (a=7i/2) shown in Fig 4.2, where the reactor current
lL(a) together with its fundamental component iLF(a) are shown at various delay angles a.
However the adjustment of the current in reactor can take place only once in each-half cycle, in
the zero to 7i/2 interval. This restriction result in a delay of the attainable current control. The
worst-case delay, when changing the current from maximum to zero (or vice versa), is a half-

29
cycle of the applied ac voltage. The amplitude ILF (a) of the fundamental reactor current ILF (ot)
can be expressed as a function of angle a.

ILF (a) = V/coL (1 - (2/71) a - (I/TI) sin (2a)) 4.3

Where V is the amplitude of the applied voltage, L is the inductance of the thyristor-controlled
reactor and co is the angular frequency of the applied voltage. The variation of the amplitude
ILF (a), normalized to the maximum current iLFinax, (lLFmax=V/coL), is shown plotted against
delay angle a shown in Fig 4.3.

t I , p C^O p.u

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 C^O d e g r e e

Fig 4.3 Amplitude variation of the fundamental TCR current with the delay angle (a)

It is clear from Fig 4.3 the TCR can control the fundamental current continuously from
zero (SCR open) to a maximum (SCR closed) as if it was a variable reactive admittance. Thus,
an effective reactance admittance, BL(a), for the TCR can be defined. This admittance, as a
function of angle a is obtained as:

BL(a)=1 /coL( 1 -(2/7i)a-( 1 /7i)sin(2a)) 4.4

30
 Evidently, the admittance BL(a) varies with a in the same manner as the fundamental
current lLF(a).The meaning of equation (4.4) is that at each delay angle a an effective admittance
BtCa) can be defined which determines the magnitude of the fundamental current, ILFCCI), in the
TCR at a given applied voltage V. In practice, the maximal magnitude of the applied voltage and
that of the corresponding current limited by the ratings of the power components (reactor and
SCRs) used. Thus, a practical TCR can be operated anywhere in a defined V-I area, the
boundaries of which are determined by its maximum attainable admittance, voltage and current
ratings as illustrated in the Fig 4.4(a). The TCR limits are established by design from actual
operating requirements. If the TCR switching is restricted to a fixed delay angle, usually a = 0,
then it becomes a thyristor switched reactor (TSR). The TSR provide a fixed inductive
admittance and thus, when connected to the ac system, the reactive current in it will be
proportion to the applied voltage as the V -1 plot in the Fig 4.4(b).

k
^T '
Lmax
V
Lmax

/ 1

L i — * •

Lmax 0 Lmax

Fig. 4.4 Operating V-I area of (a) For TCR (b) For TSR

Vtmax = maximum voltage limit,

Lmax = maximum current limit
Bbmax = maximum admittance of TCR,
BL = admittance of reactor

31
4.3 Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor-ControUed Reactor (FC-TCR)

A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected) capacitor with
a Thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally in fig 4.5. The current in reactor
is varied by previously discussed method of firing delay angle control. The fixed capacitor in
practice is usually substituted, fully r partially, by a filter network that has the necessary
capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the reactive power required, but
it provides low impedance at selected frequencies to shunt the dominant harmonics produced by
the TCR.

The fixed capacitor, Thyristor-controlled reactor type var generator may be considered
essentially to consist of a variable reactor (controlled by delay angle) and a fixed capacitor, with
an overall var demand versus var output characteristics as shown in fig 4.6. As seen the
capacitive var generation of the fixed capacitor is opposed by the variable var absorption of the
Thyristor controlled reactor, to yield the total var output required. At the maximum capacitive
var output, the Thyristor Controlled Reactor is off (a=90). To decrease the capacitive output, the
current in the reactor is increased by decreasing delay angle a. At zero var output, the capacitive
and inductive currents become equal and thus capacitive and inductive current cancel out. With a
further decrease of angle (assuming that the rating of the reactor is greater than that of capacitor),
the inductive current becomes larger than the capacitive current, resulting in a net inductive var
output. At zero delay angle, the Thyristor controlled reactor conducts current over the full 180°
interval, resulting in maximum inductive var output that is equal to the difference between the
vars generated by capacitance and those absorbed by the fully conducting reactor.

The control of Thyristor controlled reactor in the FC-TCR Type var generator needs to
provide four basic functions.

• Synchronous timing
• Reactive current to firing angle converter
• Computation of required fundamental reactor current
• Thyristor firing pulse generation
32
 The first function is synchronous timing which is usually provide by a phase locked loop
circuit that runs in synchronism with the ac system voltage and generates appropriate pulses
w.r.t. the peak of that voltage.

The second function is the reactive current to firing angle conversion. This can be a real
time circuit implementation of the mathematical relationship between the amplitude of the
fundamental TCR current versus delay angle alpha relationship. The another is a digital "look up
table" for the normalized fundamental TCR current versus alpha function which is read at regular
intervals starting from a=0 until the requested value is found, at which instant a firing angle the
delay angle corresponding to the required fundamental TCR current. The actual firing instant is
then determined by a timing circuit 'measuring' alpha from the peak of the voltage.

A basic VAR generator arrangement using a fixed capacitor with a thyristor controlled
reactor (FC-TCR) shown in Fig 4.5. The current in the reactor is varied by the previously
discussed method of firing delay angle control. A filter network that has the necessary capacitive
impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the reactive power required usually
substitutes the fixed capacitor in practice, fully or partially, but it provides low impedance at
selected frequencies to shunt the dominant harmonics produced by the TCR.

The fixed capacitor thyristor-controlled reactor type VAR generator may be considered
essentially to consist of a variable reactor (controlled by a delay angle a) and a fixed capacitor.
With an overall VAR demand versus VAR output characteristic as shown in Fig.4.6 in constant
capacitive VAR generator (Qc) of the fixed capacitor is opposed by the variable VAR absorption
(QL) of the thyristor controlled reactor, to yield the total VAR output (Q) required. At the
maximum capacitive VAR output, the thyristor-controlled reactor is off (a= 900). To decrease
the capacitive output, decreasing delay angle a. At zero VAR output increases the current in the
reactor, the capacitive and inductive current becomes equal and thus the capacitive and inductive
VARs cancel out. With a further decrease of angle a, the inductive current becomes larger than
the capacitive current, resulting in a net inductive VAR output. At zero delay angle, the thyristor-
controlled reactor conducts current over the full 180° interval, resulting in maximum inductive

33
VAR output that is equal to the difference between the VARs generated by the capacitor and
those absorbed by the fully conducting reactor.

i I (^^

SXAf

Fig 4.5 Basic FC-TCR type Static Generator

iI
Q I = V X 1
LF

Vr

Q=QL-QC
^ / Qc demand

y Q L demand 8
.y-
i .,
'Lmax 'L
Qc=V)(lc

Fig. 4.6 VAR demand versus VAR output Fig 4.7 V-I characteristics of the
characteristic FC-TCR typeVAR Generator

In Fig 4.7 the voltage defines the V-I operating area of the FC-TCR VAR generator and
current rating of the major power components. In the dynamic V-I Characteristics of SVC along
with the Load lines showed in the Fig 4.8 the load characteristics assumed straight lines for
Dynamic studies as easily seen that the voltage improved with compensation when compared
without compensation.

34
 Loads
' I¥MLtxm
G compeasatiofl

Without
comp$nmtiQfi

Fig 4.8 Dynamic V-I Characteristics of SVC with Load lines

Vcmax = voltage limit of capacitor

Be = admittance of capacitor
VLmax = voltage limit of TCR
Icmax = capacitive current limit
Itmax = inductive current limit
Btmax = maximum inductive admittance

4.4 Firing pulse generation

This is accomplished by a firing pulse generator circuit which produces. Necessary gate
current pulse for the thyristors to turn on in response to the output signal provided by the reactive
cun-ent to firing angle converter. The gate drive circuits are sometimes at ground potential with
magnetic coupling to the thyristor gates; more often, however, they are at (high) potential level
of the thyristors. In the later case, in order to provide sufficient insulation between the ground
level control and the gate drive circuits, the gating information is usually transmitted via optical
fibers ("light pipes").

35
4.5 Losses versus output characteristics

In addition to the dynamic perfonnance, the loss versus var output characteristic of a var
generator in a practical application is of major importance. In the FC-TCR type var generator,
there are three major constituents of losses encountered.
1. the capacitor or capacitor filter losses (these are relatively small about constant)
2. the reactor losses (these increase with the square of the current)
3. thyristor losses (these increase almost linearly with the current)

Thus, the total losses increase with increasing current and consequently decrease with
increasing capacitive var output. In the FC-TCR arrangement zero output is obtained by
canceling the fixed capacitive vars with inductive vars. This, of course, means that the current in
the capacitor is circulated through the reactor via the thyristorr valve, resulting in appreciable no
load or standby losses (about one percent of rated capacitive var output. These losses decrease
with increasing capacitive var output (reduced current) in the TCR and conversely further
increase with inductive var output (the TCR current is made large than the capacitive current to
produce a net inductive var output). As shown in fig 4.9 This type of loss characteristic is
advantageous when the average capacitive var output is relatively high as, for example, in the
case of dynamic compensation of power transmission systems

Fixed loss due to the losses

necessary caucellatioii
of fixed capacitor cxireut

Capacitive Inductive

Fig 4.9 Loss versus output characteristics of FC-TCR

36
 Chapter 5
FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
5.1 Introduction

Most of the real-world processes that require automatic control are non-linear in nature.
That is, their parameter values alter as the operating point changes over time or both. In case of
conventional control schemes, as they are linear, a controller can only be tuned to give good
performance at a particular operating point or for a limited period of time. The controller needs
to be retuned if the operating point changes with time. This necessity to retune has driven the
need for adaptive controllers that can automatically retune themselves to match the current
process characteristics.

Analytical techniques may fail to give a precise solution in a controlling process. Where
as an expert or a skilled human operator, without the knowledge of their underlying dynamics of
a system can control a system more successfully. So it is worth simulating the controlling
strategy based upon intuition and experience can be considered a heuristic decision or rule of
thumb decision. This can be possible through the Fuzzy controller.

Fuzzy logic is an innovative technology that enhances conventional system design with
engineering expertise. Using fuzzy logic, we can circumvent the need for rigorous mathematical
modeling.
A human operator is far more successful in controlling a process than a controller
designed by modem analytical technique. So it is worth simulating the control strategy based
upon intuition and experience and can be considered as heuristic decision or rule of thumb
decision.
In academic and technological arena, Fuzzy is a technical term that deals with ambiguity
or vagueness based on human intuitions.

Professor Lotfi A Zadeh introduced the concept of fuzzy sets, according to him. Fuzzy
logic is a mathematical imprecise description.

37
 During the past several years, FLC has emerged as one of the most active area of research
for the appUcation of fuzzy set theory. A fuzzy set is a generalization of the concept of an
ordinary set in which the membership function (MF) values can be only one of the two values, 0
and 1. A fuzzy set can be defined as below.

Fuzzy set A in a universe of discourse U is characterized by a MF |J,A: U -^ [0] [1] and

associates with each element x of U a number jIA (x) in the interval [0 1] representing the degree

of membership of x in A.

5.2 Definition of Fuzzy Sets

Let X is a collection of objects, and then a fuzzy set is defined to be a set of ordered pairs.

A = {(x, jiA(x)), x e X}, where |1A(X) is called the membership function x in A. The numerical

interval X that is relevant for the description of a fuzzy variable is commonly named as universe

of discourse. The membership function |lA(x) denotes the degree to which x belongs to A and is

normally limited to values between 0 and 1. A value of jIA(x) close to one means it is very likely

for x to be in A and a value of |J.A(x) near to zero denotes non-membership. In case that the

values of membership function are limited to zero or one, then A becomes a crisp or non-fiazzy
set.

5.3 Fuzzy Set Operations

It is well known that the membership functions play an important role in fiazzy sets.
Therefore it is not surprising to define fuzzy set operators based on their corresponding
membership functions. Operations like AND, OR and NOT are some the most important
operations of the fuzzy sets.

Suppose A and B are two fuzzy sets with membership functions \lA(x) and |-IB(X)

respectively then.
38
a) The AND operator or the intersection of two fuzzy sets is the membership
functions of the intersection of these two fuzzy sets.
C = (AHB), is defined by

)ic(x) = min { |lA(x), |J,B (x)}, x s X 5.1

b) The OR operator or the union of two fuzzy sets is the membership function of the union of
these two fuzzy sets.
D (A*B), is defined by

|a,c(x) = max { |IA(x), (XB (x)}, x s X 5.2

The NOT operator or the complement of a fuzzy set is the membership

function of the complement of A is A1 is defined by

|IA' (x) = {1 - JLIA (x)}, X s X 5.3

c) Fuzzy relation:
A fuzzy relation R from a and b can be consider as a fuzzy graph and characterized by
membership function )xR (x, y) which satisfies the composition rules as follows.

|J,R (x) = max {min [)J,R (X, y), |i,A (x)]}, x s X 5.4

5.4 Fuzzy Controller Model

Fuzzy modeling is the method of describing the characteristics of a system using fuzzy
inference rules. The method has a distinguishing feature in that it can express linguistically
complex non-linear system. It is however, very hand to identify the rules and tune the
membership functions of the reasoning. Fuzzy Controllers are normally built with fuzzy rules.
These fuzzy rules are obtained either from domain experts or by observing the people who are
currently doing the control. The membership fiinctions for the fuzzy sets will be derivefi-omthe
information available from the domain experts and/or observed control actions. The building of
such rules and membership functions require tuning. That is, performance of the controller must

39
be measured and the membership functions and rules adjusted based upon the performance. This
process will be time consuming.

The basic configuration of Fuzzy logic control based as shown in Fig. 5.1 consists of four main
parts i.e.
(i) Fuzzification,
(ii) knowledge base,
(iii) Inference Engine and
(iv)Defuzzification.

DataBase

1 '
''
•^ De fuzzifier
Fuzzifier Inference Engine
1 L i k

Rule base aad ktiowledge

base

^-.oraroue a :>ysiQm

Fig. 5.1 Structure of Fuzzy Logic controller

5.4.1 Fuzzification

Fuzzification maps from the crisp input space to fuzzy sets in certain, input universe of

discourse. So for a specific input value x, it is mapped to the degree of membership |IA(X). The

fuzzification involves the following functions. Measures the value of input variables.
1. Performs a scale mapping that transfers the range of values of input variables into
corresponding universe of discourse.
2. Performs the function of fuzzification that converts input data into suitable Linguistic
variables, which may be viewed as labels of fuzzy sets.

40
 The input variables to fuzzifier are the crisp controlled variables. Selection of the control
variables relies on the nature of the system and its desired output. It is more common in the
literature to use the output error and the derivative of output. Each of the fuzzy logic control
(PLC) input and output signal is interpreted into a number of linguistic variables. The number of
linguistic variables specifies the quality of control which can be achieved using the fuzzy
controller. As the number of linguistic variables increases, the computational time and required
memory increases.

Therefore a compromise between the quality of control and computational time is needed
to choose the number is seven. Each linguistic variables NB, NM, NL, ZE, P, PS, PM, PB which
stands for negative big, negative low, zero, positive, positive small, positive medium, positive
big respectively. For simplicity it is assumed that the membership fiinctions are symmetrical and
each one overlaps the adjacent functions by 50% i.e., triangle shaped function, the other type of
functions used are trapezoidal-shaped and Bell-shaped. Figure 3.2 shows the seven linguistic
variable and the triangular membership function with 50% overlap and the universe of discourse
from - a to a.

Univiisi of cfisoiyfis •

Fig 5.2 Triangular membership fiinctions

5.4.2 Knowledge Base (KB)

Knowledge base comprises of the definitions of fuzzy MFs for the input and output
variables and the necessary control rules, which specify the control action by using linguistic
terms.
41
It consists of a database and linguistic control rule base.
1. The database provides necessary definitions, which are used to define linguistic control rules
and fuzzy data, manipulation in a FLC.
2. The rule base characterizes the control goals and control policy of the domain experts by
means of a set of a set of linguistic control rules.

5.4.3 Inference Mechanism

The Decision - Making Logic Which plays an essential role and contains a set of fuzzy
if-then rules such as
IF X is A and y is B then z is C
Where x, y and z are linguistic variables representing two input variables and one control
output: A, B and C are linguistic values.

It is kernel of an FLC, it has the capability of simulating human decision making based
on fuzzy control actions employing fuzzy implication and the rules of inference in fuzzy logic.

In general, fuzzy systems map input fuzzy sets to output fiizzy sets, fuzzy rules are the
relation between input/output fuzzy sets. They are usually in the form if A. (set of conditions are
satisfied) then B, (set of consequences can be inferred). Each rule defines a fuzzy path in the
Cartesian product A x B (system state space). The antecedents of each fiazzy rule describe a
fuzzy input region in the state space.

For a system of two-control variable with seven linguistic variables in each range, this
leads to a 7x7 decision table. The knowledge required to generate the fuzzy rules can be derived
from an off- line simulation, an expert operator and/or a design engineer. Some knowledge can
be used on the understanding of the dynamic system under control. A lot of effort has been
devoted to the creation of the fuzzy rules.

Normally rule definition is based on the operator's experience and the engineer's
knowledge. However, it has been noticed in practice that for mono tonic systems a symmetrical
42
rule table is very appropriate, although some times it may need slight adjustment based on
behavior of the specific system. If the system dynamics are not known or if the system is highly
non - linear, trial and error procedure and experience play an important role in defining the rules.

5.4.4 Defuzzification

Defuzzification coverts the linguistic variables to determine numerical values. Centroid

method of defuzzification is used in this study.
(1) A scale mapping, which converts the range of values of input variables into
corresponding universe of discourse.
(2) Defuzzification, which yields a non-fuzzy control action from an inferred fuzzy
Control action.

We defuzzify the output distribution B to produce a single numerical output, a single

value in the output universe of discourse Y = {yl, y2...yp}. The information in the output
waveform B resides largely in the relative values of membership degrees. The simplest
deuzzificatioin scheme chooses that, element Ymax. That has maximal membership put in the

output fuzzy ser B. me (ymax) = max me (yj); 1 < j <k

The maximum membership defuzzificatioin scheme has two fundamental problems. First,
the mode of the B distribution is not unique. In practice B is often highly asymmetric; even if it
is unimodal infinitely many output distributions can share the same mode. The maximum
membership scheme ignores the information in much of the waveform B. The natural alternative
is the fuzzy centroid defuzzificatioin scheme. The regions in which the control actions are
overlapped depending upon their membership function. The area thus obtained is divided into
narrow strips of equal width of each vertical line, the membership function and the
corresponding point on the universe of discourse is evaluated. The centroid is calculated using
the formula given below. The graphical representation of centriod is shown in Fig. 5.3 below.

B= PEJH Yj niB (y^) / Plj=,mB (yo 5.5

43
Where niB(yj) = membership function of the j " ' strip, yj = Corresponding Crisp value of jth strip.

p = number of strips.

A 1

Til ft Ceiitti^d

0
Crisp oiilpyt
Fig. 5.3 A graphical representation of centriod

This value is actually the deterministic input required to regulate the process. The entire
universe of discourse is then divided into seven triangles, equal in area, each representing the
region of the linguistic variables as in fuzzification.

The fuzzy centroid is unique and uses all the information in the output distribution B. Computing
the centroid is only step in the defuzzification process, which requires simple division.

5.5 Fuzzy Logic Controller

Fuzzy logic is a new control approach with great potential for real time applications.
Fig 5.1 shows the structure of the fuzzy logic controller (FIS-Fuzzy inference system) in
MATLAB Fuzzy logic toolbox. .Load voltage and load current taken as input to fuzzy system.
For a closed loop control, error input can be selected as current, voltage or impedance, according
to control type . To get the linearity triangular membership function is taken with 50% overlap.
44
The output of fuzzy controller taken as the control signal and the pulse generator provides
synchronous firing pulses to thyristors. The Fuzzy Logic is a rule based controller, where a set of
rules represents a control decision mechanism to correct the effect of certain causes coming from
power system. In fuzzy logic, the five linguistic variables expressed by fuzzy sets defined on
their respective universes of discourse. The rule of this table can be chosen based on practical
experience and simulation results observed from the behavior of the system around its stable
equilibrium points. The rules are shown in Table-I.

Input I

looor
Load Voltage
FLC
Control
(Ivlamdani)
Rule
Output
Firing
angle
Based

Input n
Inference
Engine
xxxx
Load Current

Fig 5.4 Structure of a fuzzy logic controller used in the transmission line

Table I 5.1 Rules

Load voltage
NL NM P PM PB

Load NL PB PB NM NM NL
ciuTent
MM PB PB NM P NL

P P PM NM NM P

?M NM P NM NM PM

PB NL NM NM NL NL

45
 Chapter 6
MATLAB SIMULATION
6.1 Introduction

Matlab is an interactive software system for numerical computations and graphics. As the
name suggests, Matlab is essentially designed for the matrix computations such as
• Solving systems of linear equations
• Computing eigen values and eigen vectors
• Factoring matrices etc

Matlab has a variety of graphical capabilities and can be extended through the programs
written in its own programming language. A number of these extend Matlab's capabilities to
nonlinear problems, such as the solution of initial value problems for ordinary differential
equations.

Matlab is designed to solve problems numerically, that is, in finite precision arithmetic.
Therefore it produces approximate rather than exact solutions and should not be confused with a
symbolic computation system (SCS) such as Mathematical or Marple. It should be understood
that this does not make Matlab better or worse than an SCS: it is a tool designed for different
tasks and it is therefore not directly comparable.

For our problem FC-TCR we have used the Power System Block set of the simulink
library. Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating and analyzing dynamical
systems. It supports linear and non-linear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time or
a hybrid of the two. Systems can also be a multi rate, i.e. have different parts that are sampled or
updated at different rates.

For modeling, simulink provides a graphical user interface. Simulink includes

comprehensive blocks libraries of sinks, linear, non linear components and connectors. We can

46
create our own blocks. Models are hierarchical with increasing levels of model details. This
approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact.
After a model is defined, we can simulate it using a choice of integration methods, either
from the simulink menus or by entering command in the Matlab command window. The
simulation results can be seen in the scopes and display block while simulating.

Matlab analysis tools include linearization and trimming tools which can be accessed
from command line, plus many tools in Matlab and its application tool boxes. And because
Matlab and simulink are integrated, we can simulate, analyze and revise our models in either
environment at any point.

6.2 Transmission Line

The transmission line used in the network is a 750 km transmission line. A pi model is
used for representing the transmission line. There are four pi sections in 750 km long line. The
values of the different parameters of the transmission line are shown in table I 6.1

cr' -<^ •
Scope
CRMG1 "Oto

rQ-
:h czi

^H
]HPi Saotion^Linol
Pi 8oction LinQS Pi Section Line Pi Soaion Lino2
Ri_eq Continuous
RMS

CRMS
-K3
*•>'»•'

('V) AC Village Souice

T
4
>

From

E>-

47
 Fig 6.1 Representation of transmission line

Table I 6.1 The transmission parameters are

Resistance per imit lengrli( Q/kin) 0.01

Iiichictance per unit length(H/km) 0.1 e-3
Capacitance per unit length(F/km) 0.1e-6
Length of the line (km) 750
No. of pi sections 4

6.3 Simulation of FC-TCR block

Initially the TCR block is designed and simulated using matlab. The firing angle circuit
designed is included in the TCR model, this TCR mode is connected to the transmission network
simulated as a whole.

6.3.1 TCR Block

The TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) block consists of two thyristors in an anti-
parallel connection. This setup is connected to a reactor of a fixed value. By changing the firing
angles the effective value of inductance is changed , thus the reactive power absorbed by the
reactor is changed leading to a change in the receiving end voltage. The TCR block is designed
in matlab is shown in fig 6.2.
The block named thyristorl (tl) is the positive cycle thyristor and thyristor2 (t2) is the negative
cycle thyristor. The firing angle value is given in block of the fuzzy logic controller.
"Control voltage", the parameter of the repetitive sequence is
Output values [0,180]
Time values [0,0.01]
(Time values given in seconds 0.01s i.e. 10ms).

48
 The value of inductor to be used in series with the back to back thyristors and is having
the value of 230*230/1 SO.The forward resistance of the thyristor is given as le-9 ohms and
reverse resistance as le+6 ohms. Thus the thyristor is almost short circuit during conduction and
open when not in conduction. The firing angles are generated by the block "firing generator"
which gives the firing angle alpha for one cycle and 180+a during the negative cycle, The block
diagram is as shown fig 6.3.

Conird

QD'"^

ThyristoiS
Thyrtstoi2

J |-
C'2~)(n2

Series RLC Bunch

k

Fig 6.2 Representation of TCR block

The value of the inductance used is O.IH. The inputs, Inl and In2 come from the firing
circuit.
The whole system is simulated in matlab in this last part of the dissertation. The model so
designed is shown in fig "Network simulating diagram". The block named TCR is shown in
fig 6.3 and formed as a subsystem. The block shown as the Transmission line is the actual long
transmission line system which has been used in the subsystem. The input 1 of the block TCR is
49
given the actual modal voltage VQ, which is the voltage applied to the thyristors in the block. The
input 2 port of the TCR is given the firing angle a, and the third input port of the TCR block is
given the reference sinusoidal wave from the supply. These various display meters connected in
the circuit refers to the rms values of load voltage, load current, capacitive current and inductive
current. The block named "fixed capacitor" is the fixed capacitor connected in parallel to the
TCR. In later part the constant block of the firing angle is replaced by the fuzzy logic controlled
firing angle generator block as shown in the figure. This fuzzy logic controller block senses the
load current and load voltage. It gives the firing angle as the output for any particular load.

6.4 Simulation of firing Circuit

The firing pulses are generated by the block "firing circuit" which gives the firing angle a
for one cycle and 180 - a during the negative cycle. The inputs to this block are the receiving
end voltage of the line and a control value (firing angle). The parameters of the repetitive
sequence are:
Output values [0, 180].
For the required system the firing angle should be varied from 90 to 180.

M
Pulse
'\ AND Scopes
y AND
Logical
Operatof Opstat3i2

Constant
ReMlionai
M Scupel

AND
AMD
Logical

Opeiatof!

/H ReUtiori^l
Ref.8Jtirig
2.5 Opetator2

Con5t3rrt1

Fig 6.3 Representation of Firing pulse generator circuit

50
6.5 Design and simulation using fuzzy logic controller

The simulation has been done by taking the elements from sim power systems, tags, some
commonly used blocks in Simulink. The transmission line has pre designed and firing circuit has
kept in a subsystem. The fuzzy logic controller is designed using fuzzy tool box.

SofM R :s;

-nsTiH-Mrjy
Series RLC BranohS
Double clid( hete foi details Corisiant

Ccfitifigous

Fig 6.4 Network simulation in Matlab along with FC-TCR

51
6.6 Algorithm for Fuzzy logic Controller

The calculation of the control action in the fuzzy algorithm is composed of the following
steps.
1. Calculate IR.
2. Convert IR values into fuzzy variables such as NL, NM, P, PM, PB.
3. Evaluate the decision rules using the compositional rule of inference.
4. Calculate the deterministic input required to regulate the process.
5. The control rules are formulated in linguistic terms using fuzzy sets to describe the
magnitude of IR and the magnitude of firing angles a. The ranges of IR and a are
quantized into a set of labels in the look-up table.
6. The decision rules are developed heuristically for a particular control task and
implemented as a set of fuzzy conditional statements.
7. Membership functions for input quantities and outputs are chosen with suitable ranges
as shown in the figure .
8. The rule - box showing various values written for its control in represented in fig.
9. For testing the fuzzy outputs for the given inputs we have selected the above diagram.
After verifying the results the fuzzy block is kept in the actual control loop for generating
firing angles.

The fuzzy toolbox in the MATLAB is used to design the fuzzy controller. The designing
of the fuzzy controller is done on the basis of the rules given before. The load current is taken as
an input for the fuzzy controller. The firing angle is obtained as the output.

Triangular membership functions are used for the input and the output. The range of
input and output is specified as [0.33, 4.5] and [104, 176] respectively. The rules are decided on
the basis of readings taken, given in the table - 1. They are tested and changed suitably to
improve the performance of the system i.e. such that the voltage at the receiving end matches
that at the sending end.

52
 Chapter 7
RESULTS
TEST RESULTS

The transmission line without any compensation was not satisfying the essential
condition of maintaining the voltage within the reasonable limits. The effect of increasing load
was to reduce the voltage level at the load end. At light loads, the load voltage is greater than the
sending end voltage as the reactive power generated is greater than absorbed. At higher loads the
load voltage drops, as the reactive power absorbed is greater than generated, as shown in Table I
7.1. and Fig 7.1.

53
Table I 7.1 Load voltage before and after compensation

Transmission line Before Compensation After Compensation

Parameters
For Vs = 230V p-p ForL = 0.1H
R = 0.01Q,
C = 8)aF
L = 0.1mH/km
Vs = 230 Vp-p
C = 0.1|^F/km

R Vs Vr Ir Vr Ir a

Q (rms) V (rms) V (rms) A (rms) V (rms) A

500 162.6 270.8 0.54 162.1 2.032 90

400 162.6 268.10 0.67 162.4 2.036 100

300 162.6 268.0 0.89 162.0 2.099 102

200 162.6 261.10 1.30 162.7 2.182 103

180 162.6 258.10 1.43 162.4 2.198 105

160 162.6 256.10 1.59 162.3 2.232 106

140 162.6 250.30 1.78 162.8 2.299 108

120 162.6 243.80 2.03 161.8 2.357 109

100 162.6 234.20 2.34 162.4 2.459 112

80 162.6 219.50 2.74 163.3 2.651 117

60 162.6 195.80 3.26 162.3 3.071 128

54
MAT LAB SIMULATION WAVE FORMS:

Fig. 7.1 Firing pulse circuit waveforms

BEB
^m pss>fi A r a s s

Fig 7.2 Wave-forms without compensation for light loads VR>VS as the reactive power
generated is greater than absorbed
55
&m PPP MEIES EBB

IIMB|taH^kL.

Fig 7.3 Wave-forms without compensation for heavy loads VR<VS as the reactive power
absorbed is greater than generated
> Scope

mm p ^ ^ A S H B

® IS^ ' E l 2 Mk . > 3 MATLAB

Fig 7.4 Uncompensated RMS Voltage for heavy load

56
-* Scope

. BS 2 Microso,' 1^ Instantenio..

Fig 7.5 Compensated RMS voltage

Fig 7.6 Compensated instantaneous voltage for light load

57
 ' iM P ^ P AESES B
B^«

Fig 7.7 Compensated instantaneous and RMS voltage for heavy load

i Scope

m p^^ AHii 0

H ^ IS- ^^ ' / 6 MATLAE sonatech paper 3 plain text final repo..

Fig 7.8 Compensated waveforms with fuzzy control

58
 8. CONCLUSION

This dissertation presents an "online Fuzzy control scheme for SVC and it can be
concluded that the use of fuzzy controlled SVC (FC-TCR) compensating device with the firing
angle control is continuous, effective and it is a simplest way of controlling the reactive power of
transmission line. It is observed that SVC device was able to compensate both over and under
voltages. Compensating voltages are shown in wave forms . The use of fiizzy logic has
facilitated the closed loop control of system, by designing a set of rules, which decides the firing
angle given to SVC to attain the required voltage. With MATLAB simulations and actual testing
it is observed that SVC (FC-TCR) provides an effective reactive power control irrespective of
load variations.

The network without any compensation was not able to satisfy the essential condition of
maintaining voltage within reasonable limits. The effect of increasing load led to a reduction of
voltage at the load end. At light loads the load end voltage is greater than sending end voltage
because of Ferranti effect. At higher loads the load voltage drops because the reactive power
absorbed is greater than generated.

With the FC-TCR introduced the compensation of load voltage is fully controlled. The
under voltages were compensated with greater firing angles while the over voltages at lower
loads were brought to the required level by lowering firing angles. This is explained by the fact
that for higher firing angles the angle or the time for which the inductor is in the circuit for the
cycle of output voltage is lesser. For lower firing angles the inductor absorbs more reactive
power and vice- versa.

The output waveforms from MATLAB simulation clearly show the effect of introducing
the inductor at the instant of firing. The voltage up to the firing instant was influenced by the
network parameters and the fixed capacitor but from the instant of the firing angle the inductor
also had its effect on the system voltage. It was observed that with FC-TCR in the circuit the
load level up to which flat voltage profile is achieved is increased. If TCR alone is used without
the fixed capacitor the compensation device would have been able to compensate the over
59
voltages only. But due to the FC in circuit the SVC device was able to compensate for both over
and under voltages.

The Fuzzy logic block is developed using the data obtained from MATLAB simulation.
The Fuzzy logic block senses the load current and accordingly gives the firing pulse delay to
achieve the desired voltage at the load terminals. The use of Fuzzy logic has facilitated closed
loop control. By using a simple set of rules the Fuzzy logic block decides by itself the firing
angle to be given to attain the required voltage.

The Fuzzy logic block controls the firing angle circuit designed in MATLAB. The device
FC-TCR is able to achieve flat voltage profile only for firing angles greater than 90 degrees. For
firing angles less than 90 degrees FC-TCR is not able to control the voltage. The TCR model so
designed is connected to the network to form the complete system with compensation. From the
tabular forms and waveforms it is observed that the FC-TCR provides for an effective reactive
power control irrespective of load variations.

It can be finally concluded that the use of FC-TCR compensating device with Fuzzy logic
block serving the purpose of firing angle control is a continuous, effective and simplest way of
controlling reactive power.

60
BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Narain. G. Hingorani, "Understanding FACTS, Concepts and Technology Of flexible AC

Transmission Systems", by IEEE Press USA.
[2] Bart Kosko, "Neural Networks and Fuzzy Systems A Dynamical Systems Approach to
Machine Intelligence", Prentice-Hall of India New Delhi, June 1994.
[3] Timothy J Ross, "Fuzzy Logic with Engineering Applications", McGraw-Hill, Inc, New
York, 1997.
[4] Laboratory Manual for Transmission line in Electrical Engineering Department, NIT
Kurukshetra.
[5] SIM Power System User Guide Version 4 MATLAB Manual Periodicals and Conference
Proceedings:
[6] S.M.Sadeghzadeh M. Ehsan " Improvement of Transient Stability Limit in Power System
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[7] Chuen Chien Lee "Fuzzy Logic in Control Systems: Fuzzy Logic Controller". Part I and Part
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[8] A.M. Kulkarni, "Design of power system stabilizer for single-machine system using robust
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March 2003. Technical Reports: Papers from Conference Proceedings unpublished):
[9] U.Yolac,T.Talcinoz Dept. of Electronic Eng.Nigde 51200,Turkey "Comparison Compariiison
of Fuzzy Logic and PID Controls For TCSC Using MATLAB" June 1985.
[14] S. E. Haque and N. H. Malik, "Analysis and performance of a fixed Filter-thyristor
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309, May 1987.
[15] ] L. S. Czarnecki and S. M. Hsu, "Thyristor control susceptances for Balancing
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Applicat, vol. 141, no. 4, pp. 177-185, July 1994.
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[17] L. S. Czarnecki, G. Chen, Z. Staroszczyk, and S. M. Hsu, "Compensators With thyristor
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[18] N.V.Srikanth and D.M.Vinod Kumar, "A fuzzy controller based power system stabilizer",
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century.pp.71-76, Feb 2001.
[19] Line drop compensation, high side voltage, secondary voltage control- why not control a
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IEEE.
[20] "Static var compensator control for power systems with non-linear loads". J.su and C.chen,
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62