CEMENT

CEMENT
• It can be defined as material having adhesive and cohesive
properties which make it capable of bonding material fragments in
to a compact mass.

• Cement is obtained by burning together, in a definite proportion, a

mixture of naturally occurring calcareous (containing calcium
carbonate or lime) and argillaceous (containing alumina) material to
be partial fusion at high temperature about 1450◦c.

• The product obtained on burning called clinker, is cooled and

ground to the required fineness. During grinding of clinker gypsum
(CaSO4) is added to it to adjust the setting time and to improve the
soundness of cement.

• The soundness of cement refers to the stability of the volume change

in the process of setting and hardening. If the volume change is
unstable after setting and hardening, the concrete structures will
crack, which can affect the quality of buildings or even cause
serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability.
• Classification of cements
• 1. Natural cement
- burning limestone containing 20-40 % clay and crushing it to powder.
- brown in colour and sets very quickly when mixed with water.

2. Artificial cement

(i) portland cement - ordinary portland cement

- rapid hardening cement
- low heat cement

(ii) special cements – quick setting cement

- high alumina cement
- blast furnace cement
- calcium chloride cement
- white cement
- coloured cement
- expanding cement
- super sulphate cement
- sulphate reisting cement
• Early History of Cement

• In ancient times, Romans, Egyptians and Indians used some kind of

cementing materials in their construction
• Egyptians used burnt gypsum (CaSo4) as cementing materials

- the analysis of mortar used in Great pyramid showed that it contained

81.5% of calcium sulphate and about 9.5% of calcium carbonate

• Not much is known about the cementing materials used by Indians in the
construction of cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

• Early Romans & Greeks used cementing materials obtained by

calcinations (burning) of lime stone.
• Latter Romans & Greeks learnt that cementing materials may be
obtained by mixing volcanic ash and tuff with lime stone, sand and water.
- the tuff used in the mix was found in the village Pozzuoli near the mount
pozzolona. Afterwards any material natural of artificial having the same
properties as those of tuff or ash was called pozzolona.
• Early History of Cement……

• In the absence of natural volcanic ash, Romans used powdered pottery or

tiles as pozzolona,
• In India Surkhi (brick powder) has been used as pozzolona in mortar
• Romans added milk, blood & lard in the mix to improve the workability
• The blood Hemoglobin is a powerful air entraining agent and plasticizer.

• After 1756, John Smeaton carried out extensive experiments to find out the
best material to withstand severe action of sea water.
• In 1796 hydraulic cement was produced by burning the nodules of
argillaceous lime stones
- in 1800 it was given the name Roman cement
- it was in use till 1850 then ordinary Portland cement was introduced
• History of OPC
• Invented in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a brick layer of Leeds (Yorkshire)
England
- Prepared by heating a mixture of finely divided clay and hard lime
stone in furnace until CO2 had been driven off.

• 1845 – modern cement was made by Issac Johnson

• In India,OPC was first manufactured in 1904 near madras
• Bet’n 1912 & 1913, the India cement Co.was established at Porbander
produced 1000 tons(1914).
• By 1918 three more cement factories were established in India and
produced about 8500 tons every year
• During 1951 -56 production rose from 2.69 million tons to 4.6 million tons.
• By 1969 the production of cement in India was 13.2 million tons (9th place
in the world USSR being the first with production of 89.4 million tons)
• In 2002 the production in India crossed 100 million tons (2nd position after
China)
 Raw materials
Oxide % Function
Lime, CaO 60-65 Bulk to cement,
Lesser - sets quickly and reduction in strength
More - unsound, expansion & disintegration
Silica, SiO2 17-25 Imparts strength

Alumina, Al2O3 3-8 Setting, imparts quick setting, excess make weak
Iron oxide, Fe2O3 0.5-6 Grey colour, strength to cement & hardness

Magnesia, MgO 0.5-4 soundness

Sulphur trioxide, 1-2 Reduce the setting time, combined with lime
SO3 gives calcium sulphate
Soda(Na2O) and 0.5-1 react with agg. Cause disintegration of concrete,
Potash (K2O) affect the rate of gain of strength
(alkalis)
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT
 Major compounds of cement

Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2) C3S 54.1%

Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) C2S 16.6%
Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) C3A 10.8%
Tetra calcium alumino ferrite
(4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3) C4AF 9.1%

The calculation of main compounds in cement

C3S = 4.07(CaO) - 7.6(SiO2) - 6.72(Al2O3) - 1.43(Fe2O3) - 2.85(SO3)
C2S = 2.87(SiO2) - 0.754(C3S)
C3A = 2.65(Al2O3) - 1.69(Fe2O3)
C4AF = 3.04(Fe2O3)
 Manufacturing of Cement By Dry and Wet Process

The process, by which cement is manufactured, depends upon the technique

adopted in the mixing of raw materials. Therefore, on the basis of mixing the raw
materials, the processes may be classified as:-
1.WET PROCESS
2.DRY PROCESS
1.WET PROCESS
When the raw materials are soft , then the wet process is preferably to be used.

Mixing of Raw Materials:

▪ In the wet process, there are two raw materials i.e. calcareous and argillaceous.
Initially, Calcareous materials are crushed using crushers and argillaceous
material are washed With water in the container.
▪ After crossing the lime stones are stored in silos similarly after washing the clay
is stored in basins.
▪ The crushed materials from different silos and basins are drawn in correct
proportions in a channel called wet grinding mills. Both the materials are
intimately mixed in the presence of water and to form a fine thin paste known as
slurry.
▪ Slurry is then stored in another silo may be called as slurry silo where it is
constantly stirred. The composition of raw materials is checked again and, if
required, corrected by adding clay or chalk materials as desires.
i) Drying Zones : In the wet process, the drying zone is comparatively larger than
dry process. In is because the raw material in slurry form is directly fed into the kiln
which has more amount of water. As shown in the figure it is the upper portion of the
kiln . In this zone, water is evaporated at temperature 100-400°C.

(ii) Formations of modules: As the slurry gradually descends in the kiln , the
carbon di oxide from slurry evaporates and small lumps formed which may be called
as modules.

(iii) Burning Zone:- The modules enter in this zone where temperatures is kept
about 1400-1500° C. The modules are converted into dark greenish balls and the
product obtained in the kiln , known as clinker, is of varying size 5 to 20 mm. The
clinkers are very hot when come out from this zone.

(iv) Cooling of Clinkers:- As shown in figure another rotary kiln is provided in an

opposite direction which is also inclined. It is used for cool down the clinkers up to
about 90°C.

Grinding: The cooled clinkers are finally ground in ball mills or tube mills.

Also, the gypsum is added during grinding about 2-4% . The gypsum acts as a
retarder and so allows the cement to mix with sand or aggregate and to be placed in
postion. i.e. it increases the initial setting time of cement.
 DRY PROCESS
When the available raw materials are quite hard, then this process is used .

Mixing of Raw Materials : The raw materials i.e. argillaceous and calcareous
materials are undergo the following stages :-

Crushing : The raw materials , first of all , are broken in crushers to small
fragments that vary in size.

Drying: The crushed materials are dried by heating at a sufficiently high

temperature. It may be done in drying kilns.

Reduction of size: The drying materials are then grind by using ball mills and
tube mills to reduce the size of materials to find powder.
Mixing in correct proportion : The finely dried materials are mixed in exact
proportions . The mixing may be done either mechanically or by pneumatic
methods(eg. pumped under pressure).

Burning and Grinding: These operations are same as for wet process. Except
for the mixing of raw materials. In the dry process, the raw materials mixed, fined
and then fed into kiln whereas in the wet process, the raw materials are crushed
separately and then directly mixed in correct proportion in the presence of water
to make a fine thin paste known as Slurry.
 Difference between dry and wet process
Dry process Wet process
1. Mixing of raw material in dry state in 1. Mixing of Raw materials in wash mill
blenders. with 35 to 50% water.
2. The dry materials exiting the mill are 2. Materials exiting the mill are called
called “kiln feed”. “slurry” and have flowability
characteristics.
3. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 100 kg 3. Fuel consumption is high i.e., 350 kg of
of coal per tonne of cement produced coal per tonne of cement produced

4. Cost of production is less. 4. Cost of production is high

5. Capital cost is high due to blenders. 5. Capital cost (Cost of establishment) is
comparatively less
6. Size of the kiln needed for 6. Size of the kiln needed for
manufacturing of cement is smaller. manufacturing of cement is bigger.

7. Difficult to control mixing of Raw 7. Raw material can be mixed easily, so a

materials, so it is difficult to obtain a better homogeneous material can be
better homogeneous material. obtained
Which one is better?
If we consider the quality and rate then wet process is better and if we consider fuel
consumption and time of process then dry process is better.
 What is Cement Clinker?
❑ Clinker is a nodular material produced in the kilning stage during the
production of cement and is used as the binder in many cement
products.
❑ The lumps or nodules of clinker are usually of diameter 3-25 mm and
dark grey in color.
❑ It is produced by heating limestone and clay to the point of liquefaction
at about 1400°C-1500°C in the rotary kiln.
❑ Clinker, when added with gypsum (to control the setting properties of
cement and ensure compressive strength) and ground finely, produces
cement.
❑ Clinker can be stored for long periods of time in a dry condition without
degradation of quality, hence it is traded internationally and used by
cement manufacturers when raw materials are found to be scarce or
unavailable.
 Composition of clinker, Types & Uses
The four main components of clinker are:

Alite: approximately tricalcium silicate (typically about 65% of the total)

Belite: approximately dicalcium silicate (typically about 15% of the total)

Aluminate: very approximately tricalcium aluminate (typically about 7% of the

total)

Ferrite: very approximately tetracalcium aluminoferrite (typically about 8% of

the total)
 Types of clinker

The most common type of clinker is produced for Portland cement and its
blends. The types of clinker vary depending on the type of cement for which
the clinker is produced. Aside from the Portland cement blends, some special
types of cement clinker are listed below:

Sulfate Resistant Clinker

Low Heat Clinker
White Clinker
Low-alkali Clinker
Belite Calciumsulfoaluminate Ternesite (BCT)
 Uses of clinker

➢ Clinker, combined with additives and ground into a fine powder, is used as a
binder in cement products.
➢ Different substances are added to achieve specific properties in the produced
cement. Gypsum added to and ground with clinker regulates the setting time
and gives the most important property of cement, compressive strength.
➢ It also prevents agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls
and mill wall.
➢ Some organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are
added as grinding aids to avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives
sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid, and dodecyl-benzene
sulphonate.
 Hydration of cement
• Upon hydration, both C3S and C2S give the same product called calcium silicate
hydrate (C3S2H3) and calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2)
2 C3S + 6 H --------> C3S2H3 + 3 Ca (OH)2

2 C2S + 4 H ------ > C3S2H3 + Ca (OH)2

Note:C3S2H3 – mainly responsible for strength for bond and strength

Ca (OH)2 is responsible for sulphate attack , to compensate this add poz.mat

• Tricalcium silicate(C3S ) giving a faster rate of reaction accompanied by greater heat

evolution develops early strength.
• On the other hand, dicalcium silicate (C2S) hydrates and hardens slowly and
provides much of the ultimate strength.
• C3S and C2S need approximately 24% and 21% water by weight respectively for
chemical reaction but C3S liberates 2 times as much calcium hydroxide on hydration
as C2S. however C2S provides more resistance to chemical attack.
• The amount of Ca(OH)2 is not a desirable product in the concrete mass as it is
soluble in water and may get leached out making the concrete porous, weak and not
durable.
• Ca(OH)2 also reacts with sulphates present in water or soil to form calcium
sulphates which further reacts with C3A and cause deterioration of concrete

• The only advantage of calcium hydroxide is that it being alkaline in nature,

maintains the pH value of water around 13 in the concrete which reduces the
corrosion of reinforcement.

• The reaction of C3A with water is very rapid and produces enormous heat. The
hydrated product obtained is calcium alumina hydrate (C3AH6) which will bind
the materials.
The approximate reaction being
C3A + 6 H -----> C3AH6

The reaction of C4AF with water gives a product called calcium ferrite hydrate
(CFH) in addition to calcium alumina hydrate. It does not contribute any
strength to concrete. The calcium ferrite hydrate shows a comparatively higher
resistance to attack of sulphate than the hydrates of calcium aluminates. The
reaction being
• C4AF + 7 H -----> C3AH6 + CFH
 Curing of Concrete

Curing of Concrete is a method by which the concrete is protected against loss of

moisture required for hydration and kept within the recommended temperature
range. Curing will increase the strength and decrease the permeability of hardened
concrete. Curing is also helps in mitigating thermal and plastic cracks, which can
severely impact durability of structures.

A curing practice involves keeping the

concrete damp or moist until the
hydration of concrete is complete and
strength is attained. Curing of concrete
should begin soon after initial setting
time of concrete or formwork/shuttering
is removed and must continue for a
reasonable period of time as per the
specified standards, for the concrete to
achieve its desired strength and
durability.
 Curing of Concrete

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE FOR CONCRETE TO CURE?

The entire curing period of concrete takes about a month, but your concrete will
be ready for use sooner. Each project will vary slightly due to differences in the
weather, concrete mix and placement and finishing techniques.

When waiting for concrete to dry, keep these timeframes in mind:

24 to 48 hours - after inital set, forms can be removed and people can walk on
the surface
7 days - after partial curing, traffic from vehicles and equipment is okay
28 days - at this point, the concrete should be fully cured

Why Curing of Concrete is Necessary?

•Enhance Hydration of Concrete to achieve desired Strength

•Improved durability of concrete by reducing cracks
•Higher serviceability performance by increasing abrasion resistance
•Improved microstructure by developing better hydrate gels and solid mass.
 Setting Time of Cement.

When cement mixed with water to form a paste the chemical reaction starts which
is known as hydration, due to hydration the mixture starts changing from fluid state
to a solid state this is known as initial setting of cement. it should be not less than
30 minutes without additive. Continuous reaction of cement with water will
increase the temperature of the paste because of heat of hydration, when the
paste reached to the maximum peak of temperature this is known as final setting
of cement. For Ordinary Portland Cement, The Final Setting Time is 600 min.
 What is the purpose of adding gypsum in cement?

Gypsum is a mineral and is hydrated calcium sulfate in chemical form. Gypsum

plays a very important role in controlling the rate of hardening of the cement.
During the cement manufacturing process, upon the cooling of clinker, a small
amount of gypsum is introduced during the final grinding process.

Gypsum is added to control the “setting of cement”. If not added, the cement
will set immediately after mixing of water leaving no time for concrete placing.
 Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRC)
C3A is restricted to less than 5 %
2 C3A + C4AF lower than 25%
use of SRC is particularly beneficial in such
conditions where the concrete is exposed to the risk
of deterioration due to sulphate attack.
Ex: in contact with soils and ground waters
containing excessive amounts of sulphates as
well as for concrete in seawater or exposed directly
to seacoast.
Sulphate attack
• The Ca(OH)2 react with sulphate gives calcium sulphate
resulting in the formation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
with an increase in volume of solid phase by 124%

This calcium sulphate reacts with hydrated product of

C3A and C4AF forms calcium sulpho aluminate which
causes expansion of cement ( increase the solid phase
by 227%), hence the disintegration of concretee

This increase in volume by any type of reaction is

called g* attack.
• Applications
– Foundations, piles
– Basements and underground structures
– Sewage and Water treatment plants
– Chemical, Fertilizers and Sugar factories
– Food processing industries and Petrochemical
projects
– Coastal works.
– Also for normal construction works where opc is
used .
How concrete hardens
The dry concrete powder (Portland cement) is a mixture of several compounds.
The two most important ones are tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5) and dicalcium
silicate (Ca2SiO4), because they are the ones that eventually contribute to the
strength of the finished concrete.
When water is added to cement, these compounds undergo hydration.
For example:

2Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate)+7H2O→3CaO⋅2SiO2⋅4H2O(calcium silicate

hydrate)+3Ca(OH)2+173.6 kJ

The reaction releases Ca2+,OH-, and a large amount of heat. The mixture
reaches pH 11.

Eventually, the system becomes saturated, and Ca(OH)2 starts to crystallize along
with calcium silicate hydrate.

You end up with a thick mass of crystals interlocked with each other and all the
other substances present.
The effect of CO2
Carbon dioxide from the air reacts with the calcium
hydroxide in concrete to form calcium carbonate.

Ca(OH)2+CO2→CaCO3+H2O

This reaction, called carbonatation, is a slow and

continuous progression from the outer surface inward.
Carbonatation increases the mechanical strength of
concrete, but it also decreases the pH.

Below pH 10, the passivated surface of the steel rebar

dissolves, and the rebar starts to corrode.
Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening
and setting mechanism. These are-

-Hydraulic Cement
-Non-hydraulic Cement

Along with these main types, depending on the composition and

characteristics there are many types of cement. Followings are the other
cement types:

-Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

-Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
-Rapid Hardening Cement
-Quick Setting Cement
-Low Heat Cement
-Sulphate Resisting Cement
-Blast Furnace Cement
-High Alumina Cement
-White Cement
-Colored Cement
-Air Entraining Cement
-Expansive Cement
-Hydrophobic Cement
Hydraulic Cement
As the name indicates, hydraulic cement is those which harden by hydration
in the presence of water. Limestone, clay, and gypsum are the main raw
material to produce non-hydraulic cement. This raw material is burned at a
very high temperature to manufacture Hydraulic Cement.

Non-Hydraulic Cement
The non-hydraulic cement doesn't require water to get harden. It gets with
the help of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. This type of cement needs dry
conditions to harden. Lime, gypsum plasters, and oxychloride are the
required raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement. Example: slaked
lime is a non-hydraulic cement.
 Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

– OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic

materials in certain proportions either inter-grinding
or grinding separately and thoroughly blending
– Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material containing
silica in a reactive form, no cementitious properties,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide to form
stable calcium silicates which have cementitious
properties.
– PPC produces less heat of hydration and offers
greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters