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Dynamic performance of shear-thickening fluid damper under long-term

cyclic loads
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 Smart Materials and Structures

Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007 (9pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/aaf079

Dynamic performance of shear-thickening

fluid damper under long-term cyclic loads
Kun Lin1 , Hongjun Liu1, Minghai Wei2 , Annan Zhou3 and Fanrui Bu1
1
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055,
People’s Republic of China
2
Department of Construction and Engineering Management, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang
110168, People’s Republic of China
3
Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001,
Australia

E-mail: liuhongjun@hit.edu.cn

Received 17 September 2018, revised 29 October 2018

Accepted for publication 13 November 2018
Published 20 December 2018

Abstract
An experimental study on the effects of loading cycles on the performance of STF dampers
(STFDs) are presented. The rheological properties of a STF sample are investigated under both
ascending and descending loads. A smart damper is then developed and manufactured by
employing the STF sample. Two series of cyclic tests were conducted to investigate the
behaviour of the STFD under various sinusoidal loading conditions with a constant amplitude of
20 mm. Eight different loading frequencies (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 Hz) were
imposed to research on the effect of frequency. Three different loading frequencies (1, 2 and
3 Hz) were applied to the STFD under a constant amplitude (20 mm) with long-term loading
(200 cycles). The energy dissipation and dynamic properties of STFD were investigated by
analysing the force-displacement and force-velocity curves. The STF damping force is found to
decay exponentially as the loading cycles increase. An equation is proposed for the description
of STFD force at different loading cycles and frequencies.
Keywords: STF damper, cyclic test, dynamic performance, loading frequency, long-term
cyclic load

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction Recent studies show that the shear-thickening mechanism

Shear-thickening fluid (STF) is a non-Newtonian fluid, the
rheological properties of which change abruptly when the
fluid encounters impact loads [1]. The change in viscosity can
be very distinct when it undergoes a high-rate impact, which
may transform the fluid from a liquid-state suspension into a
solid state. Such a change in viscosity is reversible and related
to the rate of the impact.
The STF has been utilized to generate novel structure for
impact protection or vibration control, including STF fiber
cloths [2, 3], STF rotational brakes [4] and STF dampers
(STFDs) [5, 6]. Various STFDs have been widely used in in
many areas, such as vehicles, civil infrastructure, medical
apparatus and polishing devices recently because of their
large resilience output and adaption to the existing structures.
is dependent on various factors such as the particles (i.e.
aspect ratio, etc), the liquid medium and loading conditions.
Maranzano [7] found that critical shear rate decreases as the
particle size increases. Wetzelet et al [8] found that an
increase in the particles’ aspect ratio allows thickening to
occur even with lower particle loadings. Qin [9] found that
STFs based on higher-molecular-weight fluid exhibit greater
viscosity because the movement of adjacent layers of fluid
relative to each other is blocked by longer molecular chains.
Since the STFDs usually work under cyclic loading
conditions, many studies have been conducted to examine the
dynamic performance of the STFs and STFDs. For example,
Fischer [10, 11] integrated STFs into composite structures
with the aim of tuning part stiffness and damping capacity
under dynamic deformation. Zhou [12] fabricated a novel

0964-1726/19/025007+09$33.00 1 © 2018 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007 K Lin et al

prototype STFD and proposed a dynamic model to describe

its nonlinear behaviour in a shear-thickened state. Yeh [13]
studied the behaviour of the STFDs’ damping coefficient and
the energy dissipation with various stoke and vibration fre-
quencies. Zhang [5] fabricated a prototype damper and per-
formed an experimental evaluation of its dynamic
performance. The STFDs’ damping and stiffness capabilities
were reflected by an equivalent linear model via effective
elastic stiffness and viscous damping. To improve the STFD’s
performance, Yang [14] produced magnetorheological STF
by immersion of micron-sized carbonyl iron particles
amongst the STF base. The dynamic performance of a damper
filled with magnetorheological STF exhibited both the MR Figure 1. STF samples.
effect and the shear-thickening effect. Zhao [15] studied the
dynamic performance of the STFD and found that the Bouc–
Wen hysteresis model can be better used to describe its
nonlinear stiffness, nonlinear damping and rate-dependence.
However, the existing research works have been restricted to
limited number of cycles but do not consider the long-term
dynamic loading with hundreds of cycles.
Although the influence of long-term cyclic loads has
been seldomly reported in the research on the STFDs, it has
been studied for MR dampers [16, 17], fluid viscous dampers
[18, 19] and ER dampers [20, 21]. The studies [16–21] have
shown that the damper force decrease as the loading cycles
increase. Hence, to evaluate the long-term performance of the
STFDs, the influence of loading cycles should be considered
as well. An accurate understanding of the influence of loading
cycles of STFDs is also essential to comprehending and
evaluating its energy dissipation.
In this study, nanoparticle-based STF samples were Figure 2. Viscosity versus shear rate under ascending and
fabricated and studied first. Then, the dynamic properties of descending load.
the STFD employing nanoparticle-based STF were studied in
laboratory under different loading frequencies with con- well dispersed in the mixture, the samples were shaken using
tinuous loading. The energy absorption capabilities and ultrasonic processing for 1∼2 h. Then, the STF samples
dynamic properties of the STFD under various loading cycles were vacuum-dried at 80 °C for 24 h.
were compared.
2.2. Rheological behaviours of STF

2. Properties of STF
2.1. Synthesis of STF
The STF suspensions in this study were based on fumed silica
(SiO2), which has a primary particle size of 12 nm and a
relative density of 2.319 to 2.653 g ml−1 (obtained from Lijie
Chemical Company, China). The carrier fluid used in this
study was ethylene glycol (PEG200, HOCH2CH2OH), the
hydroxyl value of which is from 510 to 623 mgKOH g−1
(obtained from Shandong Usolf Chemical Reagent Co Ltd,
China).
The fumed silica particles were vacuum-dried at 55 °C
for 24 h before use. Both the fumed silica (SiO2) and carrier
fluid (PEG200) were calculated and prepared accurately with
an electronic scale. The carrier fluid PEG200 was prepared in
a beaker fixed in the center of the agitator. The agitator’s
mixing speed was set to 1000 r min−1. The SiO2 was then
added slowly to the carrier fluid. To ensure that the particles
STF samples with a mass fraction of 20% were used for
rheological tests (see figure 1).
The STF rheology under both static and dynamic loading
conditions are measured used a parallel-plate rheometer
(MCR 301, Anton Paar Companies, Germany). The diameter
of the parallel plate is 20 mm, the thickness of the parallel
plate is 0.2 mm. The viscosity was measured at 25 °C. Both
ascending and descending loading are applied to measure the
viscosity of the STF. The rheological experimental results are
presented in figure 2.
The curve with dot points (see the ‘ascending curve’ in
figure 2) represents the viscosity of the STF when the shear
rate increases from 1 to 1000 s−1. The curve with square
points (see the ‘descending curve’ in figure 2) stands for the
viscosity of the STF when the shear rate decreases from 1000
to 1 s−1. Regarding the ascending curve, the viscosity for the
STF shows three different stages. The first stage is the ‘shear
thinning stage’. At a low shear rate, the shear thinning
behaviour was observed but not distinct. The second stage is

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Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007
Figure 3. Photographs of the STFD components.
the ‘shear-thickening stage’. As the shear rate increases, a
sharp increase in viscosity at a critical shear rate (γc, see Point
C, in figure 2) can be observed. The maximum value of the
viscosity can be achieved at the yield shear rate (γp, see Point
P). The third stage is the ‘post-yield stage’. When the shear
rate exceeds the yield shear rate, the viscosity decreases again.
As shown in figure 2, the descending curve almost coincides
with the ascending curve, indicating that the STF exhibits
excellent reversibility in viscosity.
3. The STFD and experimental procedures
3.1. The STFD
An STFD was designed and manufactured for the proposed
experimental study. The STFD consists of double-ended
piston rod and an annular gap. Figures 3 and 4 show the
prototype and a schematic of the designed STFD in this
research. The cylinder, end cover, guild sleeve and piston
were made of Cr40 (a kind of structural alloy steel) after
annealing and tempering. They were specially handled on
surface to improve the hardness, wear resistance and sealing
performance. To ensure the straight movement of the piston
rod, two guide sleeves were placed at both ends of the
cylinder. Rubber seal rings were attached to the piston rod to
enclose the STF in the cylinder chamber. As the piston
velocity increases, the viscosity of the STF increases.
Therefore, the STFD’s output force can increase abruptly. A
piston with a diameter of 70 mm was used in this study. The
annular gap was set to be1 mm. The piston rod was 40 mm
long and the diameter of the piston rod was 26 mm. The
maximum stroke of the STFD is 45 mm.
3.2. Experimental procedures
The mechanical testing and simulation (Type: MTS 793
series) was used to apply the cyclic loads to the STFD. One
end of the STFD was fixed to the MTS, and the other end was
fixed to a frame fixed to the reaction frame. Figure 5 shows
the schematic configuration and a photograph of the exper-
imental setup for the cyclic testing.
Numerous cyclic tests were conducted to investigate the
behaviour of the STFD under various sinusoidal loading
conditions with a constant amplitude of 20 mm. The sampling
frequency is 1000 Hz. The first group of loading cases is to
investigate the properties of the STFD under different loading
frequencies. Eight different loading frequencies (0.01, 0.1,
3
K Lin et al
0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 Hz) were imposed. The second
group of loading cases is to investigate the dynamic perfor-
mance of STFD under long-term loading conditions with
different loading frequencies. Three different loading fre-
quency inputs (i.e. 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 Hz) were employed in this
study. For each frequency, 200 cycles were applied. To
ensure the recovery of the shear-thickening performance, the
time interval between each loading was set to be 3 h. Ver-
ification tests (amplitude, 20 mm; loading frequency, 1 Hz)
were carried out before each test to ensure the recovery of the
STFD performance.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. The effect of frequency on the STFD force
The force-displacement curves were measured (see figure 6)
to investigate the effect of frequency on the STFD. As shown
in figure 6, the damping force of the STFD is very sensitive to
the frequency, which indicated that the dynamic property of
STFD is frequency-dependent. As the loading frequency
increases, the fluctuation of the damping force becomes more
distinct (see figure 6). In addition, when the loading frequency
is low (e.g. 0.01 Hz), there is almost no loading velocity for
the damper. The hysteretic loop of damper force seems to be a
rectangle, which can be attributed to the friction between
piston and cylinder of the damper. When the loading fre-
quency increases to 0.1 Hz, the damper force starts to increase
to 5.41 kN when the loading velocity exceeds the threshold
value. As the loading frequency increases, the STFD exhibits
significant shear-thickening behaviour and the damper force
reaches a maximum value of 18.25 kN under the frequency of
2.0 Hz. After the loading frequency exceeding 2.0 Hz, the
damper force decreases owing to the decrease of the viscosity
of the STF (i.e. the post-yield stage).
The damping forces of the STFD under various loading
frequencies can be summarised in figure 7, which can be fitted
by using following equation.
F ( f ) = Fint + a · f + b · f 2 , (1 )
where f is the loading frequency (Hz); Fint is the initial
damper force (kN); and a and b are two fitting parameters.
The initial damping force is related to the friction between
position and cylinder of damper. For this study,
Fint=3.46 kN. For fitting procedures, the Broyden–Fletcher–
Goldfarb–Shanno algorithm combined with universal Global
Optimization (BFGS-UGO) was used in this paper. When the
difference between the χ2 values obtained in two successive
iterations is lower than a given tolerance (10−10), the fitting is
considered to have converged. The maximum number of
iterations is set to 1000.
By using the BFGS-UGO, equation (1) can be specified
as
F ( f ) = 3.46 + 12.38 · f - 2.69 · f 2 . (2 )
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007
Figure 4. Dimensions of the STFD.
Figure 5. Schematic photograph of experiment setup.
Figure 6. Typical hysteresis loops under different loading frequency.
4
K Lin et al
Figure 7. STF damper force under different loading frequencies.
The correlation coefficient (R2) is 0.99 and the root mean
square error (RMSE) is 0.57. The comparison between the
experimental results and the fitting results by equation (2) is
presented in figure 7, which indicates that the simulation
agrees well with the experimental data. However, as the
equation (2) is fitted using experimental results, the
equation (2) can only be used among the loading frequencies
(0.01–3.0 Hz).
4.2. Dynamic behaviour of STFD
To investigate the dynamic performance of STFD under long-
term loading conditions with different loading frequencies.
We employed three different loading frequency inputs (i.e.
1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 Hz) and, for each frequency, 200 cycles were
applied. The force-displacement curves obtained from the
above tests are presented in figure 8. A significant dete-
rioration in damping capacity of STFD can be observed for
three loading frequencies. To analyse the STFD’s deteriora-
tion behaviour, the force-displacement curves and the force-
velocity curves for six different scenarios (n=1, 2, 5, 10,
100, 200 cycles) are presented separately for three different
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007
Figure 8. STFD force-displacement loops for various frequencies.
loading frequencies (see figures 9–11 for 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 Hz,
respectively).
Both the load-displacement and the load-velocity curves
of all cycles for all the loading frequencies show good
5
K Lin et al
symmetric behaviour, which indicate the STFD exhibit
excellent reversibility all through the loading in viscosity as
mentioned above. As the increase of loading frequency, the
fluctuation of load-displacement and load-velocity curves
increased. For all the loading frequency cases, as the loading
cycle increases, the maximum damper force decreases and the
hysteretic curve becomes slimmer.
For the initial loading cycle, the STFD shows distinct
plastic behaviour at three different loading frequencies. The
plastic behaviour is enhanced as the increase of loading fre-
quency, while the plastic behaviour becomes weakened when
the loading cycles increase.
For both 1 and 2 Hz cases (see figures 9(a) and 10(a)), as
the increase of loading cycles, the hysteretic loop curve gra-
dually changes from a rectangle to an ellipse. This change
indicates the behaviour of damper changed from frictional
viscosity into linear viscosity. However, for the 3 Hz case, as
the increase of loading cycle, the hysteretic loop curve
remains a rectangle even after final loading, indicating the
STFD still showed frictional behaviour after 200 cycles.
The energy dissipation capacity of STFD is also dis-
cussed here. Table 1 shows the dissipated energy per cycle of
STFD under different loading frequencies and cycles. As
shown in table 1, the energy dissipation of 1 Hz case is lowest
for each cycle. In this case, the STF in damper did not reach
the peak viscosity, and therefore the STFD did not behave the
maximum damper force. The energy dissipation of 2 and 3 Hz
are quite similar. When the loading frequency is higher than
2 Hz, the STF material has already achieved the maximum
viscosity and the damper force of STFD almost keeps con-
stant. Although the value of energy dissipation for 2 and 3 Hz
cases are similar, the STFD exhibit different energy dissipa-
tion mechanisms under these two cases. The different
mechanisms will be discussed by load-velocity curves as
follows.
As shown in figures 9(b)–11(b), the force-velocity curves
become plump when the loading frequency increases.
As the load-velocity curves exhibit excellent symmetry,
the behaviour with positive velocity was chosen here for
analysis. Three different stages can be identified from the
observed the force-velocity curves (we use 2 Hz case as an
example): (1) stiffness initialization (SI) stage. After the
velocity change from negative to positive, the damper force
increases slightly (from −15 to −10 kN) as the velocity
increase from 0 to about 180 mm s−1, because the STF mat-
erial exhibits shear thinning behaviour in this stage. (2)
Stiffness hardening (SH) stage. A sharp increasement can be
found in damper force (from −10 to 12 kN) as the velocity
increases from 180 to 250 mm s−1. In this stage, the STF
exhibits shear-thickening behaviour. The slope of this stage is
nonlinear, which is caused by the change of viscosity of STF
material. (3) Stiffness constant (SC) stage. As the velocity
reverses, the damper force almost keeps as a constant until
velocity reduced to 0 mm/s. In this stage, the STFD exhibits
velocity independence behaviour, because the STF exceeds
the peak velocity and shows solid behaviour. This is a typical
frictional behaviour.
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007 K Lin et al

Figure 9. Dynamic performance of the STFD under 1 Hz loading.

Figure 10. Dynamic performance of the STFD under 2 Hz loading.

Figure 11. Dynamic performance of the STFD under 3 Hz loading.

Loading stages change with the change of loading cycles.
We use 2 Hz case for example. SI stage was diminished at
150 mm s−1, 100 mm s−1 and 60 mm s−1 for n=2, 5 and
10 cycles, respectively. When n=100, and 200, SI stage was
eliminated, and the damper force increased linearly as the
velocity increase, indicating the STF exhibits linear viscous
behaviour without shear-thickening behaviour. As the
increase of loading cycle, the slope of the curve in SH stage
reduced. The reduction is caused by the cycle effect of
loading, which is common for other damper infilled material
as mentioned above. As the loading cycle increases, the
maximum damper force decreased. A distinct change is that

6
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007 K Lin et al

the hysteretic loop becomes slimmer. For example, when the

load cycle n=10, the area enveloped by the load-velocity
curves reduced to 3.2% of the first cycle but the maximum
damper force almost the same. This indicates the behaviour of
STFD has changed from frictional to viscous. The behaviour
of STFD changed from plastic (n=1–2) to nonlinear elastic
(n=5–10) and finally to linear elastic behaviour
(n=100–200).
Although there are some differences in the specific
values, the general behaviour and SI/SH/SC stages are
similar for three different cases (i.e. 1, 2 and 3 Hz). It is noted
that the maximum damper force is almost the same for the
three cases after 200 loading cycles.

4.3. Decline of STFD force

Figure 12 shows the change of measured forces along with

the increase of loading cycles, under different frequencies.
The envelopment curves of STFDs under various loading
frequencies can be achieved according to figure 12 and are
marked with a dash–dot line with symbol in figure 13.
A decline in STFD force with the increase in loading
cycles can be found in figure 13. The STFD force can be fitted
using equation (3).

k + + k-
F (n) = F0 - sgn (F0) · k · ln (n) and k = , (3 )
2

where n is the number of loading cycles; F0 is the initial

damper force under each loading frequency, which can be
calcualted according to equation (2); k+ and k− are two
parameters reflect the degree of the decline of damper force in
positive and negative part respectively; k is the average of k+
and k−; sgn(F0) is a sign function of F0.
The experimental results of both positive and negative
envelopment curves are used to do the parameter fitting. The
BFGS-UGO algorithm was used in all fitting procedures. The
parameters that appear in equation (1) can been obtained and
listed in table 2. When the difference between the χ2 values
obtained in two successive iterations is lower than a given
tolerance (10−10), the fitting is considered to have converged.
The maximum number of iterations is set to 1000. Table 2
presents the fitting parameters and the correlation coefficients.
In all cases, the correlation coefficients (R2) were at
least 0.974.
According to table 2, the relationship between k and
damper force F0 can be obtained as following.

k = 0.106 F0. (4 )

Substituting equation (4) into equation (3), the decline of Figure 12. Force-cycle curves for various loading frequencies.

STFD can be obtained as follows

F (n) = sng (F0) · [1 - 0.106 · ln (n)] · F0. (5 )

7
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007 K Lin et al

Table 1. Energy dissipation of STFD under different loading The force decreased to 7.52 kN (a 56% drop from its
frequencies and cycles. (kN mm). original value) at the final loading cycle (200).
Loading frequency (iv) For the 3 Hz excitation, the maximum damper force
declines by 41% from 16.96 to 9.93 kN, corresponding
Cycles 1 Hz 2 Hz 3 Hz
to the increase in loading cycles from 1 to 50. The force
1 860.66 1131.05 1077.26 decreases to 6.84 kN (a 60% drop from its original
2 837.68 1085.30 1041.97 value) at the final loading cycle (200).
5 834.70 968.54 1000.67
10 752.39 910.87 959.45 It is clear that the loading cycles change the damper
100 441.46 499.75 524.60 force, and the effects are attenuated with the increases in
200 359.04 412.78 430.64 loading cycles and excitation frequencies. The force decreases
with increase in loading cycles, which is properly caused by
the temperature increase of STF. As the loading cycles
increase, the STF temperature increase. In our current
research the temperature of cylinder has a significant increase
(from 20.5 °C to 39.5 °C) after long-term loading. As the
increase of temperature, the viscosity of STF will be reduced
significantly according to previous research [22–24].
Therefore, the influence of loading cycles on the damper
force should be included in the study of STFD mechanics
under continuous loading.

5. Conclusions

In this study, STF samples were fabricated by nano-fumed

silica and polyethylene glycol. The rheological behaviour of
STF were investigated under both ascending and descending
loading are applied to measure the viscosity of the STF. The
prepared STF shows shear-thickening property and excellent
reversibility in viscosity.
Figure 13. Comparison between experimental results and formula
fitting. A smart STFD was designed and manufactured, and its
dynamic performance was examined by MTS under various
sinusoidal loading conditions with a constant amplitude of
Table 2. Parameters for various load cases. 20 mm. The damper force is found to show logarithmic
Loading fre- attenuation as the loading cycles increase. An equation of
quency (Hz) F0 (kN) k+ k− R2 k long-term STFD force with different loading frequencies and
cycles was proposed and fitted by experimental results. The
1 12.66 1.286 1.338 0.991 1.312 results show that the proposed equation is more suitable for
2 17.04 1.781 1.873 0.984 1.827
describing the STFD’s decay performance, and the effect of
3 16.96 1.868 1.736 0.974 1.802
loading cycles on the damper force should be included in the
study of STFD mechanics during seismic events.

Figure 13 shows a comparison between the experimental

results and the calculations. The comparison indicates that the Acknowledgments
simulation agrees well with the experimental data. Because
the envelopment curve is nearly symmetric, only the positive This work is support by the National Nature Science Foun-
part is chosen for analysis. dation of China (Grant Nos. 51608153, 51608335,
51508135), the Shenzhen Knowledge Innovation Programme
(i) In general, the maximum damper force declined as the
(Grant Nos. JCYJ20170413105418298,
loading cycles increase for all frequencies.
JCYJ20170811153857358).
(ii) For the 1 Hz excitation, the maximum damper force
declined by 37% from 12.66 to 7.82 kN, corresponding
to the increase in loading cycles from 1 to 50. The force
ORCID iDs
decreased to 5.58 kN (a 56% drop from its original
value) at the final loading cycle (200).
Kun Lin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3550-9443
(iii) For the 2 Hz excitation, the maximum damper force
Minghai Wei https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6331-8927
declines by 40% from 17.04 kN to 10.27 kN, corresp-
onding to the increase in loading cycles from 1 to 50.

8
Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019) 025007
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