Example: Take X  R define d : R  R  R by d ( x, y)  x  y , then d is a metric on R and it

is called usual metric on R.

Example: Take X  R 2 . Let x , y  R 2 , then x  ( x1, x2 ), y  ( y1, y2 ) define d : R2  R2  R

by d ( x, y)  ( x1  y1 )2  ( x2  y2 )2 , then d is a metric on R 2

Open Interval:
Let a, b  R such that a  b , then set consisting of all x  R such that a  x  b is called an open
interval or segment and it is denoted by (a, b)
That is (a, b)   x : x  R, a  x  b  R
Closed Interval:
Let a, b  R such that a  b , then set consisting of all x  R such that a  x  b is called an open
interval or segment and it is denoted by [a, b]
That is [a, b]  x : x  R, a  x  b  R
Half Open Interval:
Let a, b  R such that a  b , then set consisting of all x  R such that a  x  b or the set
consisting of all x  R such that a  x  b are called an open interval.
First is denoted by (a, b] and the second by [a, b)
That is (a, b]  x : x  R, a  x  b  R
[a, b)  x : x  R, a  x  b  R

Neighbourhoood of a point
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space. Let x0  X and let r  0 be a real number. Then the set
x : x  R, d ( x, x0 )  r is called a neighbourhood of x0 with radius r and is denoted by N r ( x0 )
That is  Nr ( x0 )  x : x  R, d ( x, x0 )  r
Example: Let X  R , d : R  R  R is given by d ( x, y)  x  y ,  x , y  R
1
Let x0   R r  4 , then
2
1  1 
N 4     x : x  R, x   4 
2  2 
 1 
  x : x  R,  4  x   4 
 2 
 7 9
  x : x  R,   x  
 2 2
 7 9
  , 
 2 2
Thus we noted that neighbourhood in R are open intervals provided that metric on R is usual
metric.

Limit Point of a set:

Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and let E  X . A point p  X is called a limit point of E if every
neighbourhood of p contains at least one point of E other than p.
That is Nr ( x0 )  E /{ p}  
1 
Example Let X  R with usual metric let E   : n  J  be the subset of R. Then 0  R is a
n 
limit point of E.
Verification: let   0 , then N (0)   x  R : x  0     ( ,  ) . Since   0 , therefore by
Archimedean property of real numbers there exists n  J such that
1 1 1 1
n  1    or   further     implies  ( ,  )
n n n n
Remarks:
(i) Limit point of a set E may or may not be in the set E.
 (ii) Let X  R with usual metric and E  (a, b) . Then every point of E as well as a & b
are limit points of E.
(iii) A set may not have a limit point.
(iv) A set may have finite number of limit points
(v) A set may have infinite number of limit points
Closed Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and let E  X , E is called closed subset of X. If every limit point
of E belongs to E.

 1 1 1 
Example Let X  R with usual metric and E  0,1, , ,. . . , , . . . is closed subset of R
 2 3 n 
because 0 is the limit point of E and 0  E .

Example Let X  R with usual metric and E  (a, b)  R is not closed subset of R because a
and b are the limit points of E but a, b  E .

Example Let X  R with usual metric and E  [a, b]  R is closed subset of R.