5 Steps to A: AP World History: Modern

(2021) 1, Elite Student Edition Peggy J.

Martin
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 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Introduction: The Five-Step Program

STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Program

1 What You Need to Know About the AP World
History: Modern Exam
Background Information
Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement Exam
What You Need to Know About the AP World History:
Modern Exam
2 How To Plan Your Time
Three Approaches in Preparing for the AP World
History: Modern Exam
When to Take the Practice Exams
Setting Up a Study Group

STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness

3 Take a Diagnostic Exam
AP World History: Modern Diagnostic Test

STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success

4 Tips for Taking the Exam
Multiple-Choice Questions
 Short-Answer Questions
Document-Based Question
Long-Essay Question

STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to

Score High
5 The World History Environment
6 Development of Agriculture and Technology
7 Structure of Early Civilizations
8 Rise of Classical Civilizations
9 Interactions in the Late Classical Era
Summaries: Technological and Environmental
Transformations
Timelines
Key Comparisons
Change/Continuity Chart
Organization and Reorganization of Human
Societies
Timeline
Key Comparisons
10 Origins of World Belief Systems
11 Rise and Spread of Islam
12 Changes in European Institutions
13 Interregional Trade and Exchange
14 Hemispheric Exchange
15 Systems of Slavery
16 Expansion of China
17 Empires in the Americas
18 Empires and Other Political Systems
19 Cultural and Intellectual Changes
Summaries: The Global Tapestry and Networks
of Exchange
Timeline
Key Comparisons
Change/Continuity Chart
Summaries: Land-Based Empires and Trans-
Oceanic Interconnections
Timeline
Key Comparisons
Change/Continuity Chart
20 Revolutions and the Consequences of
Industrialization
21 Demographic and Environmental Developments
22 Political Revolutions
23 Western Imperialism
24 World Trade
Summary: Industrialization and Global
Integration: Revolutions and Consequences of
Industrialization
Timeline
Key Comparisons
Change/Continuity Chart
25 Revolutions, World Wars, and Depression
26 Cold War and the Post-War Balance of Power
27 End of the Cold War and Nationalist
Movements
28 Global Trade
29 Technological Developments
30 Social Changes
31 Demographic and Environmental Developments
 Summary: Accelerating Global Change and
Realignments
Timeline
Key Comparisons
Change/Continuity Chart

STEP 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

Practice Test

ELITE STUDENT EDITION 5 Minutes to a 5

180 Daily Questions and Activities

Glossary
Bibliography
Websites
Maps of the World
Key Individuals
 PREFACE

Welcome to the adventure of Advanced Placement (AP) World

History: Modern. Enjoy the challenges of your studies. During the
course of the year, you should be prepared to read widely in both
your text and readers. Expect to analyze all sorts of primary
documents, from text to political cartoons, photographs, paintings,
maps, and charts; analytical skills are essential to success on both
the multiple-choice and the essay questions. You will write essay
after essay as you not only analyze primary documents but also
compare issues and analyze continuity and change over time. Along
the way, enjoy the fascinating story of humankind and find a little of
yourself among the peoples of other societies.
During the 2019–2020 school year AP World History: Modern
incorporated changes to the curriculum so that there are now four
designated historical periods to cover instead of six: 1200–1450;
1450–1750; 1750–1900; and 1900–present. A new theme—
Technology and Innovation—was added so that there are 9 instead
of 5 thematic units.
Chapters 1 through 9 in this edition cover background
information that may eventually be incorporated into a new AP
World History course with a focus on history before 1200 CE. The
content on the revised exam, however, covers only the years
between 1200 CE and the present. The diagnostic and practice
exams reflect this change. These exams are designed to reflect
mastery of the historical thinking skills cultivated by any AP history
course. Questions that follow each content chapter are designed to
help you recall information, though they follow, in general, the AP
examination format.
There is one major exception to the new periodization: origins
and contributions of major world religions to world history. This
material is covered in Chapters 10 and 11. We have left background
information in the glossary and in the sections on maps and key
individuals. We have included this information with the intent that it
may serve as historical context, review, or reference where
necessary.
This study guide will ease your passage through the challenges
of AP World History: Modern to success on the examination. At first
sight, the amount of material in the AP World History: Modern
course can appear a bit overwhelming. The goal of this manual is to
present that content material and the test-taking skills that will allow
you to approach the AP exam with confidence. As a first step, turn
now to the Introduction to learn about the five-step study program
and how it can help you to organize your preparation.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Grace Freedson and Del Franz for their

encouragement and editing, outside readers for their invaluable
suggestions, and our families for their extraordinary patience.

—Beth Bartolini-Salimbeni
—Wendy Petersen

I would like to thank my husband, Gary, and our children, Sarah,

Keren, Abigail, and Jonathan, and their families for their loving
encouragement throughout the course of this project. Also, I would
like to express my appreciation to my editors, Grace Freedson and
Del Franz, for their guidance during the preparation of the
manuscript.
Special thanks go to our son, Dr. Jonathan S. Martin, for his
comments and suggestions for the manuscript.

—Peggy J. Martin
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

BETH BARTOLINI-SALIMBENI holds degrees in history, Spanish, Italian,

and comparative literature. A former Fulbright scholar and twice a
National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) fellow, she has
taught AP World History, AP European History, and AP Art History at
the high school level as well as history and languages at the high
school and the university levels, both in the United States and in
Italy. Her most recent book is Italian Grammar for Dummies. She is
currently working on a biography of a nineteenth-century Italian
“gentlewoman.” In 2014–2015, she was the recipient of the
American Association of Italian Teachers Distinguished Service
Award (K–12) and the New Mexico Organization of Language
Educators Lifetime Achievement Award for her work in Romance
languages and cultures.

WENDY PETERSEN earned undergraduate degrees in political science

and French before going on to a Master of Arts in political science.
Time spent studying in France and England sparked her interest in
history, and she began her career teaching world history in
southwest Houston in 1997. Since moving to New Mexico in 2000,
she has taught a variety of subjects, including French, AP World
History, and AP United States Government and Politics. In 2014, she
was selected as one of the first teachers to pilot the new Advanced
Placement Seminar course, part of the College Board’s Advanced
Placement Capstone program.

PEGGY J. MARTIN teaches Advanced Placement World History,

Economics-Free Enterprise, and U.S. Government at Del Rio High
School in Del Rio, Texas. She is the author of Kaplan’s SAT Subject
Test: World History and 5 Steps to a 5: AP World History Flashcards
for Your iPod with MP3 Disk. As a consultant in Advanced Placement
World History, she has presented workshops in the southwestern
region of the United States and served as an essay reader for the
Advanced Placement World History Exam since the inaugural reading
in 2002. The mother of four grown children, she and her husband
make their home in Del Rio, Texas.
 INTRODUCTION: THE FIVE-
STEP PROGRAM

Introducing the Five-Step Preparation

Program
This book is organized as a five-step program to prepare you for
success on the exam. These steps are designed to provide you with
vital skills and strategies and the practice that can lead you to that
perfect 5. Here are the five steps.

Step 1: Set Up Your Study Program

In this step you’ll read a brief overview of the AP World History:
Modern exam, including an outline of topics and the approximate
percentage of the exam that will test knowledge of each topic. You’ll
learn:

• Background information about the AP exam

• Reasons for taking the exam
• What to bring to the exam
• Other tips to prepare you for the exam
• How to choose the preparation plan that’s right for you
• Timetables for three suggested plans

Step 2: Determine Your Test Readiness

In this step you’ll take a diagnostic exam in AP World History:
Modern. This pretest should give you an idea of how prepared you
are before beginning your study program.
• Go through the diagnostic exam step-by-step and question-by-
question to build your confidence level.
• Review the correct answers and explanations so that you see
what you do and do not yet fully understand.

Step 3: Develop Strategies for Success

In this step you’ll learn strategies that will help you do your best on
the exam. These strategies cover all four question types: multiple-
choice, document-based, continuity and change-over-time, and
comparative. This part of your preparation program will help you
learn:

• How to read multiple-choice questions.

• How to answer multiple-choice questions, including whether or
not to guess.
• How to analyze primary documents, including texts, photographs,
political cartoons, maps, and charts.
• How to answer the document-based and long essays.
• How to respond to the short-answer questions.

Step 4: Review the Knowledge You Need to

Score High
In this step you’ll learn or review the material you need to know for
the test. This section takes up the bulk of this book. It contains not
only summaries of key events and concepts but also vocabulary lists
and review questions. The material is organized chronologically. Each
unit in this section is followed by a timeline, a list of key
comparisons, and a change/continuity chart. The chart will show you
at a glance key events and issues in the major world regions. It will
also refresh your memory of changes and continuities within each
region during the time covered by the unit.
As you review this material, it may be helpful to work with
others. Find a study pal or form a small study group, and set a time
when you can get together to review.
Step 5: Build Your Test-Taking Confidence
In this step you’ll complete your preparation by testing yourself on a
full-length practice exam modeled after the actual examination. The
test is followed by a discussion of the answers. Be aware that this
practice exam is not simply a reproduction of questions from actual
AP exams, but it mirrors both the material tested and the way in
which it is tested.

• Try the strategies provided in Chapter 4 of this book for each type
of question on the test.
• Pair up with another student and read and critique each other’s
essays.
• Take the time not only to check whether or not your answers are
correct but also to read the explanation for the correct answers.
By doing this, you will review a broad body of concepts in a
shorter period of time.

Finally, at the back of this book you’ll find additional resources to aid
your preparation. These include:

• Glossary of terms
• Bibliography for further reading
• List of websites related to the AP World History: Modern exam
• An appendix of selected maps
• An appendix of key individuals

The Graphics Used in This Book

To emphasize particular concepts and strategies, we use several
icons throughout this book. An icon in the margin will alert you that
you should pay particular attention to the accompanying text. We
use these three icons:
The first icon points out a very important concept or fact that you
should not pass over.

The second icon calls your attention to a strategy that you may want
to try.

The third icon indicates a tip that you might find useful.
 STEP 1

Set Up Your Study Program

CHAPTER 1 What You Need to Know About the AP

World History: Modern Exam
CHAPTER 2 How to Plan Your Time
 CHAPTER 1

What You Need to Know About

the AP World History: Modern
Exam

IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: Learn background information on the AP program and
exam, how exams are graded, what types of questions are asked,
what topics are tested, and basic test-taking information.

Key Ideas
Many colleges and universities will give you credit for exam scores
of 3 or above.
Multiple-choice questions reflect the amount of course time spent
on each of the four AP World History: Modern periods.
 The three types of free-response questions are based on the
broad course themes and are aligned with course skills.

Background Information
What Is the Advanced Placement Program?
The Advanced Placement (AP) program was begun by the College
Board in 1955 to construct standard achievement exams that would
allow highly motivated high school students the opportunity to be
awarded advanced placement as freshmen in colleges and
universities in the United States. Today, there are more than 30
courses and exams with nearly 2 million students taking the annual
exams in May.
There are numerous AP courses in the social studies beside
World History: Modern, including U.S. History, European History, U.S.
Government, Comparative Government, Macroeconomics,
Microeconomics, and Psychology. The majority of students who take
AP tests are juniors and seniors; however, some schools offer AP
courses to freshmen and sophomores, especially in World History.

Who Writes the AP World History: Modern

Exam? Who Corrects the Exams?
Like all AP exams, the World History: Modern exam is written by
college and high school instructors of world history. This group is
called the AP World History Test Development Committee. The
committee constantly evaluates the test, analyzing the test as a
whole and on an item-by-item basis. All questions on the World
History: Modern exam are field-tested before they actually appear on
an AP exam.
A much larger group of college and secondary teachers meets at
a central location in early June to correct the exams that were
completed by students the previous month. The scoring procedure
of each grader (or “reader”) during this session is carefully analyzed
to ensure that exams are being evaluated on a fair and consistent
basis.

How Are Exams Graded?

Sometime in July the grade you receive on your AP exam is
reported. You, your high school, and the colleges you listed on your
initial application will receive the scores.
There are five possible scores that you may receive on your
exam:

• 5 indicates that you are extremely well qualified. This is the

highest possible grade.
• 4 indicates that you are well qualified.
• 3 indicates that you are qualified.
• 2 indicates that you are possibly qualified.
• 1 indicates that you are not qualified to receive college credit.

Individual colleges and universities differ in their acceptance of

AP exam scores. Most will not consider a score below a 3 on any AP
exam. Many highly competitive colleges and universities honor only
scores of 5 on AP exams. To find out which universities offer credit,
and how much for which score, go to the College Board website:
https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/creditandplacement.

Reasons for Taking the Advanced Placement

Exam
There are several very practical reasons for enrolling in an AP World
History: Modern course and taking the AP World History: Modern
exam in May. During the application process colleges look very
favorably on students who have challenged themselves by taking
Advanced Placement courses. Although few would recommend this,
it is possible to take any AP exam without taking a preparatory
course for that exam.
 The higher-order thinking skills that characterize the AP World
History: Modern course provide an excellent preparation for
college and university studies.
—College professor

Most important, most colleges will reward you for doing well on
your AP exams. Although the goal of this manual is to help you
achieve a 5, if you get a 3 or better on your AP World History:
Modern exam, many colleges will either give you actual credit for a
required introductory World History course or allow you to receive
elective credit. You should definitely check beforehand with the
colleges you are interested in to find out their policy on AP scores
and credit; they will vary.
Taking a year of AP World History: Modern (or any AP) course
will be a very exacting and challenging experience. If you have the
capabilities, allow yourself to be challenged! Many students feel a
great personal satisfaction after completing an AP course, regardless
of the scores they eventually receive on the actual exam.

What You Need to Know About the AP World

History: Modern Exam
The AP World History: Modern exam consists of both multiple-choice
and essay questions. The multiple-choice portion is worth 40 percent
of the total exam grade, whereas the three essays together count
equally for the other 60 percent. Your score on the multiple-choice
section is based on the number of questions you answer correctly.
There is no “guessing penalty.” No points will be deducted for
incorrect answers; unanswered questions will be graded as incorrect
answers.

Format of the Exam

The following table summarizes the format of the AP World History:
Modern exam.

Multiple-Choice Questions

This section consists of 55 questions. Each question has four

possible answers. The questions are arranged in sets of two to four
questions per set. Each set begins with a written or visual stimulus.
It is recommended that you use 55 minutes of the total 95 minutes
you are given for Section I of the exam.
The College Board annually publishes material on the breakdown
of questions on the multiple-choice test. However, at press time it
was unknown what that breakdown would be.
 For DBQs, group your information and then analyze all the details.
Find what will actually be useful for your essay. Be clear, concise,
and to the point.
—AP student

Short-Answer Questions
The AP exam contains four short-answer questions: you will answer
questions 1 and 2, and then choose between questions 3 and 4.
Each question will have Parts A and B, and some questions will also
contain a Part C. All questions, regardless of the number of parts,
are worth the same number of points. At least two of the questions
will contain historical texts, maps, drawings, photos, charts, or some
other historical item that you must interpret and evaluate. It is
recommended that you use 40 minutes of the 95 total minutes you
are given for Section I to work on your responses to the short-
answer questions.

Essay Questions

During the remaining 100 minutes of the test you will be asked to
write two essays: a document-based question (DBQ) and a long-
essay question. The essays will be based on the broad themes that
form the background of the AP World History: Modern course.
According to the College Board description of the AP World History:
Modern course, these themes include:

• Human-environmental interaction
• Disease and its effects on population
• Migration
 • Settlement patterns
• Technology
• Cultural development and interaction
• Religions, belief systems, and philosophies
• The arts and architecture
• State-building, expansion, and conflict (Governance)
• Political structures and forms of government
• Empires
• Nations and nationalism
• Revolts and revolutions
• Regional, transregional, and global organizations and structures
• Creation, growth, and interaction of economic systems
• Agriculture and pastoralism
• Trade and commerce
• Labor systems
• Industrialization
• Capitalism and socialism
• Development and change of social structures
• Gender roles
• Family and kinship relations
• Race and ethnicity
• Social and economic class structures
• Technology and innovation

Also essential to success on the essays is the ability to visualize

global patterns and the reactions of societies to global processes.
The ability to interpret the context of a document, as well as to
analyze point of view, is necessary to compose a satisfactory
response to the DBQ.
 For further information on the multiple-choice and essay
questions, refer to Step 3 of this manual.

Taking the Exam

When you arrive at the exam site, you should have brought the
following:

• Several pencils for the multiple-choice questions.

• Several black or blue pens for the essays.
• A traditional, not a smart, watch. Silence any alarms that would
go off during the exam period.
• Tissues.
• Your school code.
• Your driver’s license and Social Security number.

Leave the following items at home:

• A cell phone, beeper, PDA, walkie-talkie, or calculator.

• Books, a dictionary, study notes, flash cards, highlighters,
correction fluid, a ruler, or any other office supplies.
• Portable music of any kind; no MP3 players, iPods, or CD players
are allowed.

Other recommendations:

• Don’t study the night before. Arrive at the exam rested.

• Wear comfortable clothing. It’s a good idea to layer your clothing
so that you are prepared for a variety of temperatures in the exam
room.
• Eat a light breakfast and a light lunch on the day of the exam.
 CHAPTER 2

How to Plan Your Time

IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: The right preparation plan for you depends on your
study habits, your own strengths and weaknesses, and the amount
of time you have to prepare for the test. This chapter recommends
some study plans to get you started.

Key Points
Preparing for the exam is important. It helps to have a plan—and
stick with it!
You should create a study plan that best suits your situation and
prioritize your review based on your strengths and weaknesses.
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP
World History: Modern Exam
It’s up to you to decide how you want to use this book to study for
the AP World History: Modern exam. This book is designed for
flexibility; you can work through it in order or skip around however
you want. In fact, no two students who purchase this book will
probably use it in exactly the same way.
Your study plan should begin with taking the diagnostic test in
Chapter 3. Based on that, you can decide what parts of world history
you need to review. The world history content you need for the
exam is reviewed in Chapters 14–31. Included in each chapter are
test-like multiple-choice questions to help you check your knowledge
and practice for the test. You should also include Chapter 4 in your
study plan; it contains tips and strategies for each type of question
on the exam. Any study plan should culminate with the practice test
at the end of the book.

Plan A: The Full-Year Plan (Beginning in

Summer)

To review for the World History: Modern AP test, I went over the
major concepts and periods in my notes. I also found it helpful to
read outside world history books and sources. Also, practice,
practice, practice on multiple-choice world history questions,
because they are one-half of the AP test. As far as the AP essay
section, DBQ practice all year was great preparation.
—AP student

If you have purchased this book in the summer before your course
begins, you can use it to obtain a basic understanding of world
history prior to 1200 CE. Your AP course officially starts with that
year, but, of course, to understand what’s going on in 1200, you’ll
need some basic knowledge of what’s been happening in the world
before that date. Chapters 5–13 contain that summary. Include that
in your study plan to get up to speed so you can start day one of
your course with the background information you need.
A key step in developing your study plan is to take the diagnostic
test in the next chapter. This is a practice exam that closely mirrors
the actual exam. By taking the diagnostic test, you’ll find out exactly
what you’re up against. You will also see what content you need to
review and what skills you need to practice. Identify your
weaknesses and focus on these first. Plan to take the diagnostic test
in January and the final test in April just before the exam.
Following this plan will allow you to practice your skills and
develop your confidence gradually as you go through the AP course.
Since you purchased this book in the summer, you’ll be able to get
the background reading done to begin your course with an
understanding of world history prior to 1200. This book is filled with
practice exercises; beginning to work through them at the start of
the school year maximizes your preparation for the exam. Since
you’ve practiced the whole year, you’ll be in peak condition to
perform your best on the exam.

The One-Semester Plan

Starting in the middle of the school year should give you ample time
to review and prepare for the test. Of course, if you also need to
prepare for other AP exams, or if you are super-busy with
extracurricular activities, your time will be more limited. You can skip
the background reading sections; they are designed to get you up to
speed when you start the course.
Regardless of how much time you are able to devote to prepping
for the AP World History: Modern exam, you should start by taking
the diagnostic test in the next chapter. This will give you an accurate
idea of what the test is like. You’ll get a sense of how hard the test
will be for you, how much time you need to devote to practice, and
which types of questions and areas of content you most need to
work on. Skip around in this book, focusing on the chapters that
deal with the content you find most difficult. Take the final practice
test a few days before you take the actual test.

The Six-Week Plan

Okay, maybe you procrastinated a bit too long. But this might not be
a problem if you are doing well in your AP World History: Modern
class and just need to review areas where you are relatively weak
and practice with the types of questions on the exam. In fact,
practice with test-like questions is included in most AP World History:
Modern classes. So you may be more ready for the exam than you
realize.
Start by taking the diagnostic test in the next chapter to find out
what the actual test will be like and to identify the content areas and
the types of questions that you most need to practice. If you find the
diagnostic test difficult, try to devote as much time as possible to the
practice questions in the chapters you most need to review. Skip
around in this book, focusing first on the content areas where you
are weakest. Even if you do well on the diagnostic test, you should
take the practice test at the back of this book to practice pacing
yourself within the time limits of the exam.

When to Take the Practice Exams

You should take the diagnostic test in Chapter 3 mid-year or

whenever you begin your test preparation. It will show you what the
exam is like and, based on your performance, you can identify your
strong points as well as the weaknesses you’ll need to focus on.
Take the final practice test a week or so before the actual test. The
practice tests are perhaps the most important part of this book.
Taking them will help you do all of the following:
• Give you practice with all the different types of questions and
tasks on the AP World History: Modern exam
• Allow you to measure progress and identify areas you need to
focus on in your test preparation
• Allow you to practice pacing yourself within the time limits
imposed on the test

Following are some things to remember as you plan your test-prep

effort, regardless of when you start and how long you plan to
practice:

• Establish a calendar of review and start as early as you can.

• Use your mobile phone to time yourself every time you take a
timed test.
• Take advantage of the practice tests in this book. They are your
friends.
• Don’t stay up the night before the test trying to do some last-
minute cramming; this may be counterproductive.

Setting Up a Study Group

One of the most effective strategies in preparing for the AP World
History: Modern Exam is to study with other students preparing for
the exam; however, not all study groups are equally successful. Here
are some important considerations to assist you in the successful
planning and implementation of your study group.

Why?
• Take advantage of others’ strengths and abilities. Different
students will have different insights.
• Lessen the individual workload by delegating specific topics (a
time period, an event, an individual) to each member to present
to the group.
• Increase your likelihood of following through by making
commitments to others.

Get more in-depth with your readings. If you can spark a stronger
interest in the subject, it is much less difficult to retain the
information.
—AP student

Who?
• Keep the group small. Study groups tend to work best when
there are relatively few participants, usually somewhere between
two and five people. Groups that are too large are less efficient
and more easily distracted.
• Consider the composition of the group. Close friends do not
necessarily make the best study partners. All members should be
committed to the success of the group. Think about students who
are interested in the material, are willing to ask questions, and are
prepared and well organized for class.
• Consider, too, how much flexibility members have in their
schedules. Students with many commitments may have trouble
accommodating the study group sessions.

Where?
• Select locations with minimal distractions, where conditions allow
for discussions.
• Provide seating that is comfortable, preferably with a table for
notes and books.
• Some libraries have specific rooms for this purpose.
• Turn off your cell phones.
• Remember that this is a working group, not a potluck. By all
means, bring something to drink or eat if you need to; just don’t
make socializing the focus of the group.

When?
• Plan for sessions to last two to three hours. Any longer and
students will lose focus and be more likely to become distracted.
Much shorter, and it will be difficult to cover material with any
degree of depth.
• If possible, try to plan study sessions for the same day and time.
A regular schedule will help the group remember to meet and
make it seem more of a commitment, like a class. It also gives
members time to prepare in advance.

How?
• For maximum efficiency, have a defined goal or purpose for each
session, and ensure that it is clearly communicated to each
member in advance. Assign each member specific tasks or
responsibilities before meeting. These could include chapters,
eras, or historical themes. By doing so, you increase the
participation of all members.
• Consider assigning a member to be the facilitator, responsible for
managing the time and keeping members focused.

Commitment and discipline in studying are the most important

factors in preparing well for the test.
—AP student
 STEP 2

Determine Your Test Readiness

CHAPTER 3 Take a Diagnostic Exam

 CHAPTER 3

Take a Diagnostic Exam

IN THIS CHAPTER
Summary: In the following pages you will find a diagnostic exam
that is modeled after the actual AP exam. It is intended to give you
an idea of your level of preparation in world history. After you have
completed both the multiple-choice and the essay questions, check
your multiple-choice answers against the given answers and read
over the comments to the possible solutions to the free-response
questions.
Adjusted rubrics for the DBQ and long-essay question are
available on the AP Central website.

Key Ideas
 Practice the kind of multiple-choice and free-response questions
you will be asked on the real exam.
Answer questions that approximate the coverage of periods and
themes on the real exam.
Check your work against the given answers and the possible
solutions to the free-response questions.
Determine your areas of strength and weakness.
Earmark the concepts to which you must give special attention.
AP World History: Modern
Diagnostic Test
ANSWER SHEET
 AP World History: Modern
Diagnostic Test
Section I
Time: 1 hour, 35 minutes

PART A: MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Recommended Time for Part A—55 Minutes

Directions: Each of the incomplete statements or questions is

followed by four answer choices. Select the answer choice that best
answers the question and fill in the corresponding oval on the
answer sheet provided.

Questions 1 to 3 refer to the following image, a frieze of a

Buddhist couple around a stupa with Corinthian columns on
either side, India, c. first century CE.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
majority are fluviatile, one group (Neritodryas) actually occurring in
the Philippines on trees of some height, at a distance of a quarter of
a mile from any water. Navicella is a still further modified form of
Neritina, occurring only on wet rocks, branches, etc., in non-tidal
streams (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13.—Illustrating the development of the fresh-water genus

Navicella, through the brackish-water Neritina, from the marine
Nerita, with corresponding changes in the operculum. 1.
Nerita; 2, 3. Neritina; 4. Neritina, intermediate form; 5, 6.
Navicella.
The great family of the Melaniidae, which occurs in the rivers of
warm countries all over the world, and that of the Pleuroceridae,
which is confined to North America, are, in all probability, derived
from some form or forms of Cerithium. The origin of the Paludinidae,
Valvatidae, and Ampullariidae is more doubtful. Their migration from
the sea was probably of an early date, since the first traces of all
three appear in the lower Cretaceous, while Melaniidae are not
known until Tertiary times. Ampullaria, however, shows distinct signs
of relationship to Natica, while the affinities of Paludina and Valvata
cannot as yet be approximately affirmed.
 (2) Pulmonata.—Intermediate between the essentially fresh-water
and the essentially marine species come the group sometimes
known as Gehydrophila, consisting of the two families Auriculidae
and Otinidae. These may be regarded as Mollusca which, though
definitely removed from all marine species by the development of a
true lung or lung cavity in the place of a gill, have yet never become,
in respect of habitat, genuine fresh-water species. Like Potamides,
they haunt salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and the region about
high-water mark. In some cases (Otina, Melampus, Pedipes) they
live on rocks which are moistened, or even bathed by the spray, in
others (Cassidula, Auricula) they are immersed in some depth of
brackish water at high tide, in others again (Scarabus) they are more
definitely terrestrial, and live under dead leaves in woods at some
little distance from water. Indeed one genus of diminutive size
(Carychium) has completely abandoned the neighbourhood of the
sea, and inhabits swampy ground almost all over the world.
Fig. 14.—Examples of the Auriculidae: A,
Auricula Judae Lam., Borneo; B, Scarabus
Lessoni Blainv., E. Indies; C, Cassidula
mustelina Desh., N. Zealand; D, Melampus
castaneus Mühlf., S. Pacific; E, Pedipes
quadridens Pfr., Jamaica.
 Fig. 15.—An example of
Amphibola (avellana
Chem.), the only true
Pulmonate which
possesses an
operculum.
To this same section Gehydrophila have been assigned two
remarkable forms of air-breathing “limpet,” Siphonaria and Gadinia
(see page 151), and the aberrant Amphibola, a unique instance of a
true operculated pulmonate. Siphonaria possesses a pulmonary
cavity as well as a gill, while Gadinia and Amphibola are exclusively
air-breathing. Siphonaria lives on rocks at or above high-water mark,
Gadinia between tide marks, Amphibola (Fig. 15) in brackish water
at the estuaries of rivers, half buried in the sand. There can be little
doubt that all these are marine forms which are gradually becoming
accustomed to a terrestrial existence. In Gadinia and Amphibola the
process is so far complete that they have exchanged gills for a
pulmonary cavity, while in Siphonaria we have an intermediate stage
in which both organs exist together. A curious parallel to this is found
in the case of Ampullaria, which is furnished with two gills and a
pulmonary chamber, and breathes indifferently air and water. It is a
little remarkable that Siphonaria, which lives at a higher tide level
than Gadinia, should retain the gill, while Gadinia has lost it.
The ultimate affinities of the essentially fresh-water groups,
Limnaea, Physa, Chilina, cannot be precisely affirmed. The form of
shell in Latia, Gundlachia, and perhaps Ancylus, may suggest to
some a connexion with the Otinidae, and in Chilina, a similar
connexion with the Auriculidae. But, in a question of derivation,
similarities of shell alone are of little value. It is not a little
remarkable, for instance, that we should find a simple patelliform
shell in genera so completely distinct from one another in all
anatomical essentials as Ancylus, Patella, Siphonaria, Propilidium,
Hipponyx, Cocculina, and Umbrella.
Some recent authors, on grounds of general organisation, regard
the Limnaeidae and their allies as Opisthobranchs adapted to an
aerial life. It is held[24] that the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs have
given birth to the Pulmonata Stylommatophora or land snails, and
the Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs to the Pulmonata
Basommatophora or fresh-water snails. Such a view seems at first
sight open to some objection from other views than those which deal
simply with anatomy. The Opisthobranchiata are not, to any marked
extent, littoral genera, nor do they specially haunt the mouths of
rivers. On the contrary, they inhabit, as a rule, only the very lowest
part of the littoral zone, and are seldom found, except where the
water is purely salt. In other cases, when the derivation of land or
fresh-water genera is fairly well established, intermediate forms
persist, which indicate, with more or less clearness, the lines along
which modification has proceeded. It has, however, recently been
shown that Siphonaria[25] and Gadinia,[26] which have, as has been
already mentioned, hitherto been classified as Pulmonata, are in
reality modified forms of Opisthobranchiata, which are in process of
adaptation to a life partly marine, partly on land. They may therefore
be regarded as supplying the link, hitherto missing, between the land
Pulmonata and the marine groups from one or other of which the
latter must have been derived. The general consensus of recent
opinion inclines towards accepting these views, some writers[27]
being content to regard the Pulmonata, as a whole, as derived from
the Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs, while others[28] go further and
regard the Stylommatophora as derived directly from the
Basommatophora.

Origin of the Land Fauna

 Gasteropoda.—(1) Operculate. On a priori grounds, one might
predict a double origin for land operculates. Marine species might be
imagined to accustom themselves to a terrestrial existence, after a
period, more or less prolonged, of littoral probation. Or again, fresh-
water species, themselves ultimately derived from the sea, might
submit to a similar transformation, after a preliminary or intermediate
stage of life on mudbanks, wet swamps, branches overhanging the
water, etc. Two great families in this group, and two only, seem to
have undergone these transformations, the Littorinidae and the
Neritidae. The derivation of almost all existing land operculates may
be referred to one or other of these groups.

Fig. 16.—Two rows of the radula of Littorina littorea L., × 72.

The power of the Littorinidae to live for days or even weeks
without being moistened by the sea may be verified by the most
casual observer. In the tropics this power seems even greater than
on our own shores. I have seen, in various parts of Jamaica, Littorina
muricata living at the top of low cliffs among grass and herbage. At
Panama I have taken three large species of Littorina (varia, fasciata,
pulchra), on trees at and above high-water mark. Cases have been
recorded in which a number of L. muricata, collected and put aside,
have lived for three months, and L. irrorata for four months.[29]
These facts are significant, when we know that the land operculates
almost certainly originated in a tropical climate.
The Cyclophoridae, Cyclostomatidae, and Aciculidae, which, as
contrasted with the other land operculates, form one group, have
very close relations, particularly in the length and formation of the
radula, or lingual ribbon, with the Littorinidae.

Fig. 17.—Two rows of the radula of Cyclophorus sp., India, ×

40.
On the other hand, the Helicinidae, Hydrocenidae, and
Proserpinidae are equally closely related to Neritina. The
Proserpinidae (restricted to the Greater Antilles, Central America and
Venezuela) may perhaps be regarded as the ultimate term of the
series. They have lost the characteristic operculum, which in their
case is replaced by a number of folds or lamellae in the interior of
the shell. It has already been noticed how one group of Neritina
(Neritodryas) occurs normally out of the water. This group furnishes
a link between the fresh-water and land forms. It is interesting to
notice that here we have the most perfect sequence of derivatives;
Nerita in the main a purely marine form, with certain species
occurring also in brackish water; Neritina in the main fresh-water, but
some species occurring on the muddy shore, others on dry land;
Helicina the developed land form; and finally Proserpina, an aberrant
derivative which has lost the operculum.[30]
 Fig. 18.—A, Neritina reticularis Sowb., Calcutta (brackish
water); B, Helicina neritella Lam., Jamaica (land); C,
Proserpina (Ceres) eolina Ducl., Central America (land).
Gasteropoda.—(2) Pulmonata. The origin of these, the bulk of
the land fauna, must at present be regarded as a problem not yet
finally solved. Some authorities, as we have seen, regard them as
derived from the Nudibranchiate, others, probably more correctly,
from the Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs.
The first known members of the land Pulmonata (Pupa [?],
Hyalinia) are from the Carboniferous of North America. Similar but
new forms appear in the Cretaceous, from which time to the present
we have an unbroken series. The characteristically modern forms,
according to Simroth,[31] are Helices with thick shells. According to
the same author, Vitrina and Hyalinia are ancestral types, which give
origin not only to many modern genera with shells, but to many shell-
less genera also, e.g. Testacella is probably derived through
Daudebardia from Hyalinia, while from Vitrina came Limax and
Amalia. A consideration of the radulae of the genera concerned
certainly tends in favour of these views.
Godwin-Austen, speaking generally, considers[32] genera of land
Pulmonata with strongly developed mantle-lobes and rudimentary
shell as more advanced in development than genera in which the
shell is large and covers all or nearly all the animal.
 CHAPTER II
LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA, THEIR HABITS AND GENERAL
ECONOMY

The majority of the Land Mollusca are probably more sensitive

than is usually believed. The humidity of the air must affect the
surface of their skin to a considerable extent. Every one has noticed
how the snails ‘come out’ on a damp evening, especially after rain.
As a rule, they wait till rain is over, probably objecting to the patter of
the drops upon their delicate tentacles. Snails kept in captivity under
a bell-glass are acutely sensitive of a damp atmosphere, and will
bestir themselves after rain just as if they were in the open air.
Certain Helices which are accustomed to live in moist places, will
find their way to water, if removed from their usual haunts. A case is
recorded[33] of a specimen of H. arbustorum, kept in a kitchen, which
used to find its way directly under the cold water tap, and appeared
to enjoy the luxury of a douche. How delicately the conditions of life
are balanced in some of these creatures is seen in the case of
Omalonyx, a genus akin to Succinea, which is found in Brazil and
the northern parts of South America. It lives creeping on plants which
overhang the margin of water, but perishes equally, if placed in the
water itself, or removed to a distance from it for any length of time.
[34]

Endurance of Heat and Cold.—The Mollusca are capable, at

least as far as some species are concerned, of enduring severe
extremes both of cold and heat. The most northern pulmonate yet
observed is a fresh-water species, Physa (Aplecta) hypnorum L. This
hardy mollusc, whose shell is so fragile as to need most careful
handling, has been noticed on the peninsula of Taimyr, North Siberia,
in 73° 30’ N. lat, a region whose mean annual temperature is below
10° F. with a range of from 40° F. in July to -30° F. in January.
It is well known that the Limnaeidae, and probably most fresh-
water Mollusca of sub-temperate regions, can continue to live not
merely under, but enveloped in ice, and themselves frozen hard.
Garnier relates[35] that, during the winter of 1829–30, some large
Limnaea auricularia, which had been placed in a small basin, were
frozen into a solid mass, experiencing a cold of -2° F. He supposed
they were dead, but, to his surprise, when the basin thawed, the
Limnaea gradually revived. Paludina vivipara and Anodonta anatina
have been known to resist a temperature of 23° F., and the former
has produced young shortly after being thawed out of the ice.[36] As
far north as Bodø in Norway (67° 37’ N. lat., well within the Arctic
circle) there are found no less than fourteen species of terrestrial
Mollusca, among them being Balea perversa and Clausilia rugosa.
[37]

Vitrina is one of our most hardy molluscs, and may be observed

crawling on bright mornings over the frost-covered leaves of a wood
or copse. V. glacialis is said by Charpentier to live in the Alps at a
height where the stones are covered with snow from nine to ten
months of the year. Many of the Hyaliniae are very hardy. Arion, in
spite of having no external shell to protect it, is apparently less
affected by the cold than Helix, and does not commence hibernation
till a later period in the autumn. The operculate land Mollusca, in
spite of the protection which their operculum may be supposed to
afford, are exceedingly sensitive to cold, and the whole group is
without doubt a product of tropical or semi-tropical regions (see map
at frontispiece). A species of Helicina which inhabits the southern
States of North America has been known to be almost exterminated
from certain districts by the occurrence of an unusually severe
winter.
One of the highest altitudes at which a land shell is known to live
appears to be the Liti Pass (Himalayas, 14,000 ft.). At this enormous
altitude, two species of Buliminus (arcuatus Hutt. and nivicola Bens.)
live on juniper bushes among patches of snow. An Anadenus is said
to have been found in a similar locality at 15,000 ft., while Limnaea
Hookeri has been taken from over 16,400 ft. in Landour. In the
Andes of Peru and Bolivia, five species of Bulimulus, one of Pupa,
and one of Limax occur at an elevation of 10,500 to 15,000 ft.
Several fresh-water Mollusca inhabit Lake Titicaca, which stands at a
height of 12,550 ft. in the Bolivian table-land.
 In certain parts of the desert of Algeria, where there is not a trace
of vegetation to be seen, and the temperature at mid-day is 110° F.,
the ground is sometimes so covered with Helix lactea as to appear
perfectly white. Dr. F. H. H. Guillemard has told me that he noticed,
in somewhat similar surroundings between Fez and Tangier, H.
pisana in such extraordinary abundance that they hung from the low
scrub in bunches the size of a man’s two fists. It is singular that
Mollusca should live, and not only live, but flourish, in localities
apparently so unpromising. Shells which occur in the Algerian
Sahara are actually larger and altogether finer than the ordinary
European form of the same species. In order to protect themselves
to some extent against the scorching heat and consequent
evaporation, desert species are frequently modified in one of two
ways; the shell becomes either white or a light dusky brown, as in
the familiar Helix desertorum, or else it gains immensely in
thickness. Specimens of H. pomatia, recently procured from Fez, are
of extraordinary thickness as compared with forms from our own
chalk downs of Kent and Surrey.
Fresh-water Mollusca are frequently found inhabiting hot springs.
Thus Neritina fluviatilis lives at Bagnères de Bigorre in water at about
68° F. In another hot spring in the eastern Pyrenees a Bithynia lives
at a temperature of over 73° F.; while Blainville mentions another
case of a Bithynia living in water at 122° F.
Hibernation and Aestivation.—As autumn begins to draw on,
and the first frosts to nip vegetation, terrestrial species retire beneath
stones, into cracks in old walls, holes in tree trunks, deep fissures in
rocks, and nooks and crannies of every kind, or else bury
themselves deeply in the earth or in moss and heaps of leaves. They
thus commence their period of hibernation, which varies in length
according to the duration of winter. Frequently masses of Helices
may be found attached to one another, probably not so much for the
sake of warmth, for their temperature is but low, as to share the
comforts of a cosy retreat in common. Slugs generally hibernate
alone, excavating a sort of nest in the earth, in which they encyst
themselves, contracting their bodies until they are almost round, and
secreting a covering of their own slime. The Helices usually close up
the mouth of their shell by the formation of a membranous or chalky
epiphragm, which will be further described below. Both snails and
slugs take care to be in good condition at the time their winter sleep
begins, and for this reason the former are said to be most esteemed
by foreign epicures if captured just at this period.[38]
During hibernation, the action of the heart in land Pulmonata
ceases almost entirely. This appears to be directly due to the effect
of cold. Mr. C. Ashford has related[39] some interesting experiments
made upon H. hortensis and Hyal. cellaria, with the view of
ascertaining the effect of cold upon their pulsations. His observations
may be tabulated as follows:—
Number of pulsations per minute
Helix hortensis Hyal. cellaria At degrees Fahr.
22 21 52°
14 12 44°
10 11 38°
4 9 30°
At low temperatures the character, as well as the number of the
pulsations changed; they became imperfect and intermittent,
although exceptionally at 31° F. a H. rufescens gave five or six
pulsations a minute, very full and deliberate. The result of taking the
Hyalinia suddenly into the heat of a greenhouse was to bring on
palpitations. Further experiments resulted in evidence of a similar
kind. Hyal. radiatula, placed upon a deal table in a room, showed 52
pulsations per minute at 62° F. Placed upon the palm of the hand,
the action soon rose to 108. Hyal. alliaria, similarly treated, rose from
72 pulsations to 110. Floated upon water, the action of the heart of
the latter suddenly fell to 29.
Fresh-water Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate. Unio and
Anodonta, however, bury themselves more deeply in the mud, and
Dreissensia casts off its byssus and retires under the mud in deeper
water.[40] Limnaea and Planorbis have often been noticed to crawl
about under the lower surface of a thick coating of ice. In periods of
prolonged drought, when the water in the ponds dries up, the
majority of genera bury themselves in the mud. I have known
Limnaea peregra bury itself three inches deep, when surprised by a
sudden fall of the water in the ditch on Coe Fen, behind Peterhouse,
Cambridge. Physa hypnorum frequents by preference ditches which
dry up in summer, as does also Planorbis spirorbis, the latter often
forming a sort of epiphragm against evaporation. Ancylus has been
observed to spend the whole winter out of water, and P. spirorbis has
been noticed alive after four months’ desiccation.[41]
True aestivation, however, occurs mainly in the tropics, where
there is no winter, but only a period when it is not quite so hot as the
rest of the year, or on a coast like the Mediterranean, which is
subject to sudden and severe heat. This period is usually rainless,
and the heat is therefore a dry heat. At this season, which may last
for three or four months, most of the land Mollusca enter upon a
period of inaction, either burying themselves deeply in the ground, or
else permanently attaching themselves to the stalks of grass and
other herbage, or the under sides of rocks. For instance, the large
and beautifully painted Orthalicus, Corona, and Porphyrobaphe,
which inhabit Brazil, Ecuador, and eastern Peru, bury themselves
deeply in the ground during the dry season, while in the rains they
climb to the topmost branches of the great forest trees.[42] Thus it
may well happen that a visitor to a tropical island, Ceylon for
instance, or one of the Greater Antilles, if he times his visit to
coincide with the rainless season, may be grievously disappointed at
what seems its unaccountable poverty in land Mollusca. But as soon
as the weather breaks, and the moisture penetrates their retreats,
every bush and every stone, in favoured localities, will be alive with
interesting species.
The Epiphragm.—A considerable number of the land Pulmonata
(and a very few of the fresh-water) possess the power of closing the
aperture of their shell by means of what is known as an epiphragm
or covering of hardened mucus. This epiphragm is habitually formed
by certain species during hibernation or aestivation, or even during
shorter periods of inactivity and retirement, the object being, either to
check evaporation of the moisture of the body, or to secure the
animal against the cold by retaining a thin layer of slightly warm air
immediately within the aperture of the shell.
 The epiphragm differs widely in character in different species,
sometimes (Clausilia, Pupa, Planorbis) consisting of the merest
pellicle of transparent membrane, while at others (Helix aperta, H.
pomatia) it is a thick chalky substance, with a considerable
admixture of carbonate of lime, with the consistency of a hardened
layer of plaster of Paris. Within these extremes every variety of
thickness, solidity, and transparency occurs. During long hibernation
several epiphragms are not unfrequently formed by the same
individual snail, one within the other, at gradually lessening
distances. The epiphragm thus performs, to a certain extent, the part
of an operculum, but it must be remembered that it differs radically
from an operculum physiologically, in being only a temporary
secretion, while the operculum is actually a living part of the animal.
The actual mode of formation of the epiphragm would seem to
differ in different species. According to Fischer,[43] the mollusc
withdraws into its shell, completely blocking all passage of air into
the interior, and closing the pulmonary orifice. Then, from the middle
part of the foot, which is held exactly at the same plane as the
aperture, is slowly secreted a transparent pellicle, which gradually
thickens, and in certain species becomes calcareous. Dr. Binney,
who kept a large number of Helix hortensis in confinement, had
frequently an opportunity of noticing the manner in which the
epiphragm was formed.[44] The aperture of the shell being upward,
and the collar of the animal having been brought to a level with it, a
quantity of gelatinous matter is thrown out [? where from]. The
pulmonary orifice is then opened, and a portion of the air within
suddenly ejected, with such force as to separate the viscid matter
from the collar, and to project it, like a bubble of air, from the
aperture. The animal then quickly withdraws farther into the shell,
and the pressure of the external air forces back the vesicle to a level
with the aperture, when it hardens and forms the epiphragm. In
some of the European species in which the gelatinous secretion
contains more carbonate of lime, solidification seems to take place at
the moment when the air is expelled, and the epiphragm in these is
in consequence strongly convex.
 Thread-spinning.—A considerable number of fresh-water
Mollusca possess the power of stretching a thread, which is no more
than an exceedingly elongated piece of mucus, to the surface of the
water, and of using it as a means of locomotion. This thread bears
no analogy whatever to the fibrous byssus of certain bivalves, being
formed in an entirely different manner, without the need of a special
gland.
The threads are ‘spun’ by several species of Limnaea, Physa, and
Planorbis, by Bithynia tentaculata, and several of the Cycladidae.
They are anchored to the surface by a minute concavity at the upper
end, which appears to act like a small boat in keeping the thread
steady. The longest threads are those of the Physae, which have
been noticed to attain a length, in confinement, of 14 inches. They
are always spun in the ascent, and as a rule, when the animal
descends, it rolls the thread up and carries it down as it goes. A
single thread is never spun on the descent, but occasionally, when a
thread has become more or less of a permanence, it becomes
stronger by the addition of more mucus each time it is used, whether
for ascending or descending purposes. Cyclas cornea appears to be
an exception to the rule that threads are only spun on the ascent.
This species, which is particularly fond of crawling along the under
surface of the water, has been noticed to spin a thread half an inch in
length while on the surface, and to hang suspended from it for a
considerable time.
What the exact use of the thread may be, must to a certain extent
be matter of conjecture. The Limnaeidae are, in the great majority of
cases, compelled to make periodic visits to the surface in order to
inspire oxygen. It is also a favourite habit with them to float just
under the surface, or crawl about on its under side, perhaps in
pursuit of tiny vegetable organisms. Whatever may be the object of
an excursion to the surface, a taut thread will obviously be a nearer
way up than any other which is likely to present itself; indeed, without
this thread-spinning power, which insures a tolerably rapid arrival at
the surface, the animal might find itself asphyxiated, or at least
seriously inconvenienced, before it could succeed in taking in the
desired supply of oxygen. With the Cycladidae, which do not breathe
air, such an explanation is out of place; in their case the thread
seems to be a convenient means of resting in one position in the
intervals of the periods of active exercise to which several of the
species are so much addicted.
The power of suspension by a thread is also possessed by certain
of the Cyclostomatidae, by some Cerithidea, several Rissoa and
other marine genera, prominent among which is Litiopa bombyx,
whose name expresses its power of anchoring itself to the Sargasso
weed by a silken thread of mucus. Several species of slugs are
known to be able to let themselves down by threads from the
branches of trees. Limax arborum is especially noted for this
property, and has been observed suspended in pairs during the
breeding time. According to Binney, all the American species of
Limax, besides those of Tebennophorus, possess this singular
property. Limax arborum appears to be the only slug which has been
noticed to ascend, as well as descend, its thread. It has also been
observed[45] that when this species is gorged with food, its slime is
thin and watery, and unable to sustain its weight, but that after the
process of digestion has been performed, the mucus again becomes
thick and tenacious. It appears therefore that when the animal is
hungry and most in need of the power of making distant excursions
in search of food, its condition enables it to do so, but that when no
such necessity is pressing, the thread-forming mucus is not
secreted, or is perhaps held in suspense while the glands assist in
lubricating the food before digestion.[46]
Food of Land and Fresh-water Mollusca.—Arion ater, the great
black slug, although normally frugivorous, is unquestionably
carnivorous as well, feeding on all sorts of animal matter, whether
decaying, freshly killed, or even in a living state. It is frequently
noticed feeding on earthworms; kept in captivity, it will eat raw beef;
it does not disdain the carcases of its own dead brethren. An old
man near Berwick-on-Tweed, going out one morning to mow grass,
found a black slug devouring, as he supposed, a dead mouse. Being
of an inquisitive turn, and wishing to ascertain if it were really thus
engaged, he drew the mouse a little back. When he returned in the
evening, the mouse was reduced almost to a skeleton, and the slug
was still there.[47] Indeed it would seem almost difficult to name
anything which Arion ater will not eat. Dr. Gray mentions[48] a case
of a specimen which devoured sand recently taken from the beach,
which contained just enough animal matter to render it luminous
when trodden on in the dark; after a little time the faeces of the slug
were composed of pure sand, united together by a little mucus. A
specimen kept two days in captivity was turned out on a newspaper,
and commenced at once to devour it. The same specimen ate dead
bodies of five other species of slugs, a dead Unio, pupae of
Adimonia tanaceti, part of the abdomen of a dragon-fly, and Pears’
soap, the latter reluctantly.[49]
According to Simroth[50] and Scharff[51] the food of several of our
British slugs, e.g. Limax maximus, L. flavus, Arion subfuscus, A.
intermedius, consists of non-chlorophyllaceous substances only,
while anything containing chlorophyll is as a rule refused. On the
other hand L. agrestis and Amalia carinata feed almost entirely on
green food, and are most destructive in gardens. The latter species
lives several inches under ground during the day, and comes to the
surface only at night. It is largely responsible for the disappearance
of bulbs, to which it is extremely partial. L. marginatus (= arborum
Bouch.) feeds exclusively on lichens, and in captivity absolutely
refuses green leaves and a flesh diet. It follows therefore, if these
observations are correct, that the popular notions about slugs must
be revised, and that while we continue to exterminate from our
gardens those species which have a taste for chlorophyll, we ought
to spare, if not encourage those whose tastes lie in the opposite
direction.
Limax agrestis has been seen devouring the crushed remains of
Arion ater. Five specimens of the same species were once noticed
busily devouring a May-fly each, and this in the middle of a large
meadow, where it may be presumed there was no lack of green
food. The capture and eating of insects by Mollusca seems very
remarkable, but this story does not stand alone. Mr. T. Vernon
Wollaston once enclosed in a bottle at least three dozen specimens
of Coleoptera together with 4 Helix cantiana, 5 H. hispida, and 1 H.
virgata, together with an abundant supply of fresh leaves and grass.
About a fortnight afterwards, on the bottle being opened, it was
found that every single specimen of the Coleoptera had been
devoured by the snails.[52] Amalia marginata in captivity has been
fed upon the larvae of Euchelia jacobaeae, eating three in two hours.
[53]

Limax maximus (Fig. 19) has been seen frequently to make its
way into a dairy and feed on raw beef.[54] Individuals kept in
confinement are guilty of cannibalism. Mr. W. A. Gain kept three
specimens in a box together, and found one of them two-thirds
eaten, “the tail left clean cut off, reminding one of that portion of a
fish on a fishmonger’s stall.” That starvation did not prompt the crime
was proved by the fact that during the preceding night the slug had
been supplied with, and had eaten, a considerable quantity of its
favourite food. On two other occasions the same observer found one
of his slugs deprived of its slime and a portion of its skin, and in a
dying condition.[55] An adult L. maximus, kept for thirty-three days in
captivity with a young Arion ater, attacked it frequently, denuded it of
its slime, and gnawed numerous small pieces of skin off the body
and mantle.[56] The present writer has found no better bait for this
species on a warm summer night than the bodies of its brethren
which were slain on the night preceding; it will also devour dead
Helix aspersa. Mr. Gain considers it a very dainty feeder, preferring
fungi to all other foods, and apparently doing no harm in the garden.
 Fig. 19.—Limax maximus L. PO, pulmonary
orifice: × ⅔.
Limax flavus, which is fond of inhabiting the vicinity of cellars,
makes its presence most disagreeable by attacking articles of food,
and especially by insinuating itself into vessels containing meal and
flour.[57] It is particularly partial to cream.
Slugs will sometimes bite their captor’s hands. Mr. Kew relates
that a Limax agrestis, on being stopped with the finger, while
endeavouring to escape from the attack of a large Arion, attempted
to bite fiercely, the rasping action of its radula being plainly felt.
According to the same authority, probably all the slugs will rasp the
skin of the finger, if it is held out to them, and continue to do so for a
considerable time, without however actually drawing blood.[58] While
Mr. Gain was handling a large Arion ater, it at once seized one of the
folds of skin between the fingers of the hand on which it was placed;
after the action of the radula had been allowed to continue for about
a minute, the skin was seen to be abraded.[59] Another specimen of
Arion ater, carried in the hand for a long time enclosed in a dock leaf,
began to rasp the skin. The operation was permitted until it became
too painful to bear. Examination with a lens showed the skin almost
rasped away, and the place remained tender and sore, like a slight
burn, for several days.[60]
 Helix pisana, if freshly caught, and placed in a box with other
species, will set to work and devour them within twenty-four hours.
The present writer has noticed it, in this position, attack and kill large
specimens of H. ericetorum, cleaning them completely out, and
inserting its elongated body into the top whorls of its unfortunate
victims in a most remarkable manner. Amongst a large number of
species bred in captivity by Miss F. M. Hele,[61] was Hyalinia
Draparnaldi. In the first summer the young offspring were fed on
cabbage, coltsfoot, and broadleafed docks. They would not
hibernate even in the severest frosts, and, no outdoor food being
available, were fed on chopped beef. This, Miss Hele thinks, must
have degenerated their appetites, for in the following spring and
summer they constantly devoured each other.
Zonites algirus feeds on decayed fruit and vegetables, and on
stinking flesh.[62] Achatina panthera has been known to eat meat,
other snails (when dead), vegetables, and paper.[63] The common
Stenogyra decollata of the South of Europe has a very bad character
for flesh-eating habits, when kept in captivity. Mr. Binney[64] kept a
number for a long time as scavengers, to clean the shells of other
snails. As soon as a living Helix was placed in a box with them, one
would attack it, introduce itself into the upper whorls, and completely
remove the animal. One day a number of Succinea ovalis were left
with them for a short time, and disappeared entirely! The Stenogyra
had eaten shell as well as animal. This view of Stenogyra is quite
confirmed by Miss Hele, who has bred them in thousands. “I can
keep,” she writes,[65] “no small Helix or Bulimus with them, for they
at once kill and eat them. They will also eat raw meat.”
Even the common Limnaea stagnalis, which is usually regarded
as strictly herbivorous, will sometimes betake itself, apparently by
preference, to a diet of flesh. Karl Semper frequently observed the
Limnaeae in his aquarium suddenly attack healthy living specimens
of the common large water newt (Triton taeniatus), overcome them,
and devour them, although there was plenty of their favourite
vegetable food growing within easy reach.[66] The same species has
also been noticed to devour its own ova, and the larvae of Dytiscus.