COVID-19 and Vaccination

The COVID 19 virus and pandemic

Coronavirus disease is a disease that initially emerged in late 2019 in Wuhan, China. It is caused by
the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is highly contagious, therefore making it infectious. The World Health
Organization Declared COVID 19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on the
30th of January 2020, and a worldwide pandemic on the 11th of March 2020. Since then, there have
been over 770,000,000 confirmed cases of the virus, and over 6,900,000 confirmed deaths.

COVID 19 belongs to the large ‘coronavirus’ family which causes a whole plethora of diseases such as
the common cold as well as more serious diseases such as SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome),
MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome) and, of
course, COVID 19. Coronavirus virions are mostly Figure 1 (SARS-CoV-2 cell entry: structural & functional
mechanism | Abcam 2023) : SARS-Cov-2 virus structure
spherical but can vary. As can be seen in Figure 1, The
outer of the virus is a lipid layer which protects the
particle when outside of host cells and also anchors
spike proteins/peplomer proteins which form large
structures known as a spike/peplomer. Each of these
spikes includes a single stranded RNA. Bound to the
RNA, are nucleoproteins that give the virus its
structure, and allow it to replicate.

Since COVID 19 is a virus and therefore lacks

organelles, nuclei, and ribosomes, it is incapable of
reproducing independently and it uses a process
called lytic/viral replication (Figure 2) instead. SARS-CoV-2 uses the spike proteins on its surface to
bind to a cellular receptor molecule found on human
Figure 2 (Blue Ring Media 2020):
cell’s surface which allows the virus to hijack it and use
its cellular processes for its own benefit. After the virus
injects its RNA into the host cell’s cytoplasm, the cell’s
machinery reads it, replicates it, and creates viral
proteins via its own ribosomes. The new viral genetic
material and proteins accumulate and assemble into
complete virus particles. The particles accumulate,
usually to the point where the host cell bursts and dies,
and this is how they are released.

COVID 19 affects the respiratory system of those that

are infected. It moves down the respiratory tract which includes mouth, nose, throat, and lungs, and
makes all connected mucous membranes infectious. Symptoms of the virus include a
runny/congested nose, a sore throat, difficulty breathing, lethargy, headaches, and occasionally, loss
of taste and/or smell, loss of appetite, nausea, and fever.

Someone can be infected with COVID 19 through the following ways:

- Inhalation of fine particles of the virus, or of respiratory droplets from an infected person's
cough for example.
- Contact with an infected person's mouth, nose, or eyes.
 - Contact with a surface a person has touched and contaminated with virus-containing
respiratory fluids.

Vaccines for COVID 19

A vaccine is a small dose of diseases weakened or inactive antigens that stimulates the immune
system to recognize and fight the specific pathogen. The purpose is to protect against a specific
disease without actually causing it which is why vaccines are useful; it means the immune system can
create memory cells, B lymphocytes, which are equipped with antibodies to fight the pathogen,
without actually getting sick which is generally not the case for gaining natural active immunity.

The way these memory cells are produced is through the

3rd line of defense illustrated in Figure 3. Once a foreign
antigen is presented to the corresponding T helper cell for
that specific antigen, the adaptive immune system made
up of B and T lymphocytes is activated. B lymphocytes
multiply via clonal expansion and a large number of cells
with antibodies able to react and work to neutralize that
specific antigen are created. These memory cells stay in
the body forever in preparation for the next instance of
infection. Cytotoxic T cells simultaneously work to target
viral infected cells; they are especially vital for combatting
COVID 19 for this reason.

In order to develop a vaccine for COVID 19, scientists

determined that the spike protein on the surface of the
SARS-CoV-2 virus would be the key antigen to target due
Figure 3 (OneNote): 3rd line of defense
to it being the virus’s main tool for infiltrating cells.
flow chart outlining the humoral and
Scientists figured out how to use a piece of mRNA to
cellular responses.
instruct cells to produce a harmless piece of that spike
protein which an immune response Figure 4 (Riggs 2021): mRNA vaccine process
would be triggered as a result of. This
process can be seen in Figure 4. The
Pfizer and Moderna vaccine work this
way; they are called mRNA vaccines.

Another variety of vaccine is called a

viral vector-based vaccine (Johnson &
Johnson and AstraZeneca belong to
this variety.) Viral vector-based
vaccines use a harmless virus that is
not SARS-CoV-2 to smuggle the instructions for making antigens from the disease-causing virus into
cells, triggering protective immunity against it. It is in this aspect that they differ from mRNA
vaccines. Though they both stimulate an immune response, mRNA vaccines deliver the instruction to
create spike protein antigens directly in the form of mRNA while viral vector-based vaccines use a
vector virus to introduce the genetic material allowing the immune system to create antibodies
based on its own process. A downside to this type of vaccine could be reduced effectiveness if the
individual receiving it had been previously exposed to the vector. Viral vector-based vaccines are also
more complex to manufacture, unlike mRNA vaccines which a considerably simpler in comparison.
The other main type of vaccine is called a protein subunit vaccine. These contain the spike protein
that causes COVID 19 itself as well as an adjuvant which is an ingredient found in many vaccines that
works to create a stronger immune response in future. These types of vaccines are especially suitable
for people with weakened immune systems like those undergoing cancer treatment or organ
transplants because the pieces of virus used are harmless (cannot replicate) and are therefore safer.

Vaccine Mandates
During 2021, at the height of the pandemic, the Australian government enforced vaccines as
mandatory. This regulation was faced with many differing opinions. Below is a table of pros and cons
of it from the following standpoints: ethical, healthcare, schools, and aged care.

Viewpoint Pros Cons

Ethics By making the decision to be vaccinated, others
around you are protected as a result. On a wider
scale, if majority of people in the community are
vaccinated, herd immunity applies (Figure 5) and
vulnerable individuals such as babies and the
immunocompromised are protected due to the
disease being unable to infect anyone and spread
further.
The government was criticized
for forcing people to be
vaccinated in order to live their
live their life normally because
it was seen as an infringement
of personal autonomy.

Figure 5 (Office 2020): Herd Immunity Diagram

Healthcare Higher rates of vaccination protect healthcare Mandatory vaccination

workers and also reduce the strain put on the
medical system. Hospitals were extremely busy
during the worst of the pandemic and healthcare
workers were also at a high risk of COVID
themselves.
Schooling A safer environment for staff and children to learn
is created when people are vaccinated.
Considering how schools are generally a place
where pathogens are spread very easily, vaccines
become quite vital.
Aged Care Due to the elderly being especially vulnerable to
the worser side effects and outcomes of COVID 19
like severe lung disease and death, vaccines are
important to protect them.
conflicted with a few
healthcare workers personal
medical choices. This may have
resulted in a slight shortage of
workers that were very needed
at the time and other conflicts
in the workplace.
Vaccination was mandatory for
some staff at certain institutes
in order to teach in person
with students. This may have
resulted in resignations/a loss
of income for some that didn’t
want to be vaccinated.
There may be staffing issues if
carers refuse to comply with
the mandate.
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