TYPES OF ARGUMENT

1. Deductive Argument - This argument moves from general premises to a specific conclusion with
certainty. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. For example:
- Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
- Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
- Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Since Socrates belongs to the category of humans, and all
humans are mortal according to the first premise, it logically follows that Socrates must also be mortal.

2. Inductive Argument - This argument provides evidence to make the conclusion probable, but not
certain. It involves reasoning from specific instances to general principles. For example:
- Observation: Every time it has rained, the streets have gotten wet.
- Conclusion: Therefore, it will probably rain today because the sky is cloudy. Based on the observed
pattern, it is probable that rain will occur because the current conditions (cloudy sky) are like past
instances when rain occurred.

3. Abductive Argument: This argument seeks the best explanation for a set of observations or evidence.
It is commonly used in scientific reasoning. For example:
- Observation: The grass is wet.
- Explanation: It probably rained earlier. The best explanation for the wet grass is that it rained recently,
as rain is a common cause of wet grass.

4. Analogical Argument -This argument compares similar cases to infer shared characteristics and draw
conclusions. For example:
- Premise: Cats are carnivores.
- Premise: Lions are like cats.
- Conclusion: Therefore, lions are probably carnivores too. Since lions share similarities with cats,
including their classification as felines, it is likely that they also share the dietary habit of being
carnivores.

5. Causal Argument: This argument establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables or

events. For example:
- Premise: Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer.
- Conclusion: Therefore, smoking causes lung cancer. Based on this premise, smoking is identified as
the cause of increased risk, leading to the conclusion that smoking causes lung cancer.
6. Moral Argument: This argument appeals to ethical principles or values to support a conclusion. For
example:
- Premise: Killing innocent people is morally wrong.
- Conclusion: Therefore, capital punishment is morally wrong. Capital punishment involves the
intentional killing of individuals deemed guilty, which can be argued to violate the premise that killing
innocent people is morally wrong.

7. Pragmatic Argument: This argument focuses on practicality or benefits. It emphasizes what is

advantageous. For example:
- Premise: Exercise improves physical health.
- Conclusion: Therefore, it is pragmatic to incorporate regular exercise into one's routine. Based on the
premise, incorporating regular exercise into one's routine is considered practical due to its positive impact
on physical health.

8. Emotional Argument: This argument appeals to emotions to persuade. It aims to evoke feelings in the
audience to support a particular conclusion. For example:
- Advertisement: A commercial for a charity organization showing images of starving children to evoke
empathy and encourage donations.
- This example uses emotionally charged imagery (starving children) to evoke feelings of compassion and
empathy in the audience, ultimately aiming to persuade them to donate to the charity.

9. Rebuttal Argument: This argument counters opposing arguments by identifying flaws and offering
alternative evidence or reasoning. For example:
- Opposing Argument: Climate change is not primarily caused by human activity.
- Rebuttal: Refuting this claim by presenting scientific evidence that demonstrates the significant impact
of human activity on climate change.
- The rebuttal counters the opposing argument by providing alternative evidence (scientific research) that
supports the conclusion that human activity is indeed a primary driver of climate change.
EXAMPLE OF MANIFESTO

The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1848): This influential document
outlines the principles of communism and advocates for the overthrow of capitalist society. It
calls for the working class to rise against the bourgeoisie and establish a classless society.

- "The Communist Manifesto" by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, is a seminal
work that critiques capitalism and proposes communism as an alternative. It argues that
capitalism inherently exploits the working class for the benefit of the owning class. The
manifesto advocates for the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie through revolution, leading
to the establishment of a classless society where wealth is shared collectively. It emphasizes the
need for international solidarity among workers and envisions a world where the means of
production are owned and controlled by the state for the benefit of all.

STEPS IN MAKING A STRONG ARGUMENTS

The 7 C’s

1. Consider the situation: Before crafting your argument, it's essential to consider the context in
which you're communicating. Identify the subject matter and the purpose of your message. Ask
yourself who your audience is, what they already know or believe about the topic, and what you
hope to achieve through your communication.

2. Clarify your thinking: Take time to clarify your own thoughts and opinions on the subject.
Clearly define your stance or position and identify the reasons why you hold that view. Consider
any personal biases or assumptions that may influence your perspective.

3. Construct a claim: Your claim is the central point or thesis of your argument. It should clearly
state your position on the topic and provide a basis for the rest of your argument. Make sure
your claim is specific, debatable, and relevant to the communication situation.

4. Collect evidence: Gather evidence to support your claim. This could include facts, statistics,
expert opinions, anecdotes, or examples from personal experience. Choose evidence that is
credible, relevant, and persuasive to your audience.

5. Consider key objections: Anticipate potential objections or counterarguments to your claim.

Put yourself in the shoes of your audience and think about why someone might disagree with
you. Consider possible objections based on conflicting beliefs, values, or evidence.

6. Craft your argument: Use your claim and evidence to construct a well-reasoned argument.
Organize your points logically, using clear and concise language. Address key objections and
counterarguments, either by refuting them with evidence or by acknowledging their validity and
providing a rebuttal.
7. Confirm your main point: Before finalizing your argument, confirm that your main point or
claim is effectively communicated throughout. Ensure that your argument is coherent, cohesive,
and focused on supporting your central thesis. Review your argument to make sure it aligns with
the subject, purpose, and context of the communication situation.