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Developments in Environmental
Modelling
1. ENERGY AND ECOLOGICAL MODELLING edited by W.J. Mitsch, R.W. Bossermann and
J.M. Klopatek, 1981
2. WATER MANAGEMENT MODELS IN PRACTICE: A CASE STUDY OF THE ASWAN HIGH DAM
by D. Whittington and G. Guariso, 1983
3. NUMERICAL ECOLOGY by L. Legendre and P. Legendre, 1983
4A. APPLICATION OF ECOLOGICAL MODELLING IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PART A
edited by S.E. Jørgensen, 1983
4B. APPLICATION OF ECOLOGICAL MODELLING IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PART B
edited by S.E. Jørgensen and W.J. Mitsch, 1983
5. ANALYSIS OF ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: STATE-OF-THE-ART IN ECOLOGICAL MODELLING
edited by W.K. Lauenroth, G.V. Skogerboe and M. Flug, 1983
6. MODELLING THE FATE AND EFFECT OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT edited
by S.E. Jørgensen, 1984
7. MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN BIOLOGICAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT edited by
S.E. Jørgensen and M.J. Gromiec, 1985
8. FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS: MODELLING AND SIMULATION by M. Straskraba and
A.H. Gnauck, 1985
9. FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGICAL MODELLING by S.E. Jørgensen, 1986
10. AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION: MODEL SELECTION AND APPLICATION
edited by A. Giorgini and F. Zingales, 1986
11. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS edited by
J.B. Shukia, T.G. Hallam and V. Capasso, 1987
12. WETLAND MODELLING edited by W.J. Mitsch, M. Straskraba and S.E. Jørgensen, 1988
13. ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL MODELLING edited by A. Marani, 1988
14. MATHEMATICAL SUBMODELS IN WATER QUALITY SYSTEMS edited by S.E. Jørgensen and
M.J. Gromiec, 1989
15. ENVIRONMENTAL MODELS: EMISSIONS AND CONSEQUENCES edited by J. Fenhann,
H. Larsen, G.A. Mackenzie and B. Rasmussen, 1990
16. MODELLING IN ECOTOXICOLOGY edited by S.E. Jørgensen, 1990
17. MODELLING IN ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY edited by S.E. Jørgensen, 1991
18. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT edited by P.E. Hansen and
S.E. Jørgensen, 1991
19. FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGICAL MODELLING by S.E. Jørgensen, 1994
20. NUMERICAL ECOLOGY 2nd English edition by Pierre Legendre and Louis Legendre
21. FUNDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGICAL MODELLING, Third Edition by G. Bendoricchio and
S.E. Jørgensen
22. ENVIRONMENTAL FORESIGHT AND MODELS A MANIFESTO edited by M.B. Beck
23. ENTROPY PRINCIPLE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX BIOTIC SYSTEMS:
ORGANISMS, ECOSYSTEMS, THE EARTH by I. Aoki
24. NUMERICAL ECOLOGY 3rd English Edition by Pierre Legendre and Louis Legendre
25. MODELS OF THE ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY: FROM MOLECULES TO THE ECOSPHERE
edited by Ferenc Jordán and Sven Erik Jørgensen
26. ECOLOGICAL MODELLING AND ENGINEERING OF LAKES AND WETLANDS edited by Sven
Erik Jørgensen, Ni-Bin Chang and Fu-Liu Xu
27. ADVANCED MODELLING TECHNIQUES STUDYING GLOBAL CHANGES IN ENVIRON-
MENTAL SCIENCES edited by Young-Seuk Park, Sovan Lek, Christophe Baehr and Sven Erik
Jørgensen
28. ECOLOGICAL MODEL TYPES edited by Sven Erik Jørgensen
Developments in
Environmental
Modelling
Time and Methods in
Environmental Interfaces
Modelling: Personal Insights
Volume 29
Dragutin T. Mihailovic
Igor Balaz
Darko Kapor
University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
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Dragutin T. Mihailovic
To Gordana, Ivan, and Anja
Igor Balaz
To those who inspired it
Darko Kapor
To my family who has always supported me in many ways
Preface
A curious reader probably scans this Preface trying to find out what the “Personal
Insights” actually means. We wish to explain this term here.
All three authors are involved in the field of environmental interfaces some more
formally, some less, for a very long time. During this period, we gained an insight
into the field, which is definitely personal, since there are parts we like more than
the others, and we do not hide it. When preparing to write this book, it was the gen-
eral idea to collect our previous work and see what will come out of it. It turned out
that in the meantime we have matured, and more importantly, our understanding of
certain aspects of the field has matured, so we now look at the same material in a
different manner. Computing techniques progressed a lot, so certain simulations
became possible now. The effect is that previous research has become just a founda-
tion for completely new constructions, and the choice of the direction follows much
more personal preferences than strict research logic.
Even more importantly, we have noticed interconnections between various sub-
jects treated separately in our previous work. This has caused a complicated struc-
ture of the book. Although we follow a certain reasonable line in presenting the
material, almost everywhere where are shortcuts connecting chapters from various
parts of the book. We were tempted to plot a diagram showing it, but it turned out
to be a figure of large complexity, so we gave up. Actually, we think now that we
had a subconscious idea about these relations, when we were choosing the next sub-
ject of research in the old days.
To illustrate this, we offer here the attitudes of three authors, which will better
explain our standpoints and inspirations in writing the book.
Attitude of the first author. Seventeen years ago, I received a report from a
reviewer of the Journal of Applied Meteorology, who ended her/his short negative
report with the words . “so little science and so much imagination .” At that
point, I was frustrated by the “shortsightness” that accompanied the report so
I did not pay attention to the order of closing arguments and words. However, the
sound emitted by those words settled deeply in my subconscious, not as an echo
of criticism of my work, but rather as a message from a person who is involved
in science. Finally, my brain was making a reduction of this message to the statement
“imagination is behind the science,” i.e., metaphorically said the science can be un-
derstood as “a train dispatcher of strictly controlled trains.” It means that it is not
allowed to imagination to be a locomotive of the science. This purely technological
understanding of the science typical for nowadays was anticipated by many philos-
ophers, scientists, poets, and writers. Apparently, at this moment, science is under
control of “religion of the metrics,” which requires rather measurable results techno-
logically colored instead of the results that come from the world of the imagination
and which push forward the frontline of science. This reasoning is metaphorically
and nicely memorized by Johannes Jensen in Madam d’Ora: “Our little life is
rounded by the sleep.” Final words for describing the motive, which initiated this
xv
xvi Preface
book I found in a short story The Landscape of Mountain (Meifu sansuizu) by Shu-
mon Miura. The main character of the story Chen was trying needlessly to paint the
mountain landscape better than it had done by the nature, and finally he said, “Ul-
timately, we are all apprentices of time. If it wishes, a worthless paper will be left
to future generations as a masterpiece while an original masterpiece will be dis-
placed aside. I do not want to be an apprentice. From that reason, I am ready to
become an artist who does not take brush in hand. Like the Time itself. It is paradox-
ically, but.”
My own attitude about science and its role is based on a clear distinction between
discovery (science) and invention (technology and technique). The discovery could
be defined as a final step in finding “something that is not still discovered but it exists
as a truth,” while invention means “something that has been found in the field of the
scientifically established discoveries” (Darko Kapor, personal communication). In
fact, this intuitive understanding of discovery and mission of science is one possible
reading of the Gödel’s first incompleteness theorem (and the second incompleteness
theorem as an extension of the first), which is important both in mathematical logic
and in the philosophy of mathematics. The formal theorem is written in highly tech-
nical language. It may be paraphrased in English as, “Any effectively generated the-
ory capable of expressing elementary arithmetic cannot be both consistent and
complete. In particular, for any consistent, effectively generated formal theory
that proves certain basic arithmetic truths, there is an arithmetical statement that
is true, but not provable in the theory” (Kleene, S.C. 1967 Mathematical Logic.
John Wiley, pp 250.). There exists always synchronization between science and
technology either on the lower or higher levels. Undoubtedly, the science provides
the “field of truth” pushing forward the technology, while in return the technology
provides advanced products for challenge of science (Darko Kapor, personal
communication).
To make step forward, of any size, in science we must have (1) a dream and (2) a
deep belief in that dream. (1) The dream including imagination about something is a
condition sine qua non of science. It provides voyaging through the field of the hid-
den truths waiting to be seen. The power of that dream is warmly and lyrically
described in the poetical movie Do You Remember Dolly Bell by Emir Kusturica.
A metaphysical philanthropist father Fahro is passing away, while his son Dino is
reading aloud to him a newspaper article and says, “ If the Earth’s axis could be
moved just a little and Indian Ocean dried, it would be so much wheat that all
raya (‘people’ in Bosnian slang) in the world would not be hungry.” He is finishing
his life with the words, “I will not join to raya but my dream came true.” (2) The
dream without belief would be incomplete. The belief leads the dream toward the
discovery. The strength of the belief in its epical beauty I found at the funeral cer-
emony in case one of the local bohemians from my hometown Ca cak (Serbia)
when his friend, in farewell speech, said, “You are the only one who believed that
all the rivers, seas, and oceans were originating from the Morava River.” Such deep-
ness and strength of the belief in something is almost metaphysical. That is my un-
derstanding of the scientific work. In that sense, all my reflections including
Preface xvii
potential misapprehension in the last 15 years are incorporated in this book (Dragu-
tin T. Mihailovic).
Attitude of the second author. The concept of environmental interfaces shares
some similarities with the concept of complexity. For both of them, it can be
argued that there are more notions used to describe a particular subset of natural
phenomena than precisely defined concepts shared among the majority of scientist.
Some may say that they are too general to have much content. Wide breadth of
topics covered in this book accompanied by a diverse set of mathematical tools
could support that view. Here, I will not argue against it. Instead, I will offer an
alternative reading.
So-called systems thinking was born almost 70 years ago as a search for common
properties shared by all organized systems. Initial enthusiasm was supported by
some of the finest scientific minds of that time. Two strong disciplines emerged
from that wave: cybernetics and general systems theory (GST). They helped estab-
lishing precise understanding of the role of feedbacks in organizing systems and
introduced self-organization and emergence into modern science. Over time, their
grandiose approach was toned down, and the whole discipline seemingly disap-
peared from the scene. From today’s perspective, it is debatable to what extent
GST and cybernetics changed scientific landscape, but it was a fertile movement
that left a deep mark in several thriving disciplines such as control theory, systems
biology (with genomics and other omics), and systems engineering. In numerous
other fields, systemic approach became a norm. It demonstrates how changing
perspective of scientific inquiry can open up a vast field of new insights. The
main topic of this book, environmental interfaces, arises as an offspring of that,
so-called, systems thinking. In that light, I hope that some of the ideas presented
here could be inspiring enough to open up new avenues in our striving to understand
organization of environment (Igor Balaz).
Attitude of the third author. After many years spent working on environmental
problems (among other things), I started to believe that most of the concepts could
be transferred to the humanities too. So, the human society or, in particular, the circle
of people around us can be treated as an environment. However, each person within
this environment is a microcosm of its own, so its contact with the everyone else can
be treated as being realized through an environmental interface. This interface has
two aspects: there is a physical one, bordering our body and consisting of skin
and senses and a psychological one, probably a real or virtual aura encapsulating
us. While we know a lot about the events happening on the physical environmental
interface, it is the psychological one that determines our behavior. Actually, to a per-
son who decides to reflect a lot about its environment, most of the events happen on
this, other environmental interface. Many events, occurring in the interaction with
Prof. Mihailovic and Dr Balaz resulted in joining the forces to prepare this manu-
script through which we tried to present our ideas about many things invading in
this way, auras of people who would care to read it (Darko Kapor).
To visualize our attitudes, we choose for the cover page of the book, the photo of
the architecture of Antonio Gaudi inside the Park Güell (Barcelona, Spain), which is
xviii Preface
a public park system composed of gardens. This ingenious Catalan artist gave birth
to this park in such a way that no one before him did do it, nor will do it so after him,
since “his works acquire a structural richness of forms and volumes, free of the
rational rigidity or any sort of classic premises.” (“Park Güell”, Wikipedia, The
Free Encyclopedia) Selected landscape can be seen as a sort of interface that relies
on another space, while the corridor symbolizes the space of solution, which is
almost at hand distance, but still unapproachable.
This book has three formal authors, yet, it is based on the research performed in
collaboration with many people, all of them also dear friends. It is essential to
mention them here and thank them for a long and fruitful cooperation. Department
of Mathematics and Informatics of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad,
was the source of information and help. Prof. Mirko Budincevic shared with us his
knowledge on nonlinear dynamics and difference equation, while Prof. Sinisa
Crvenkovic introduced us to the category theory and the formal concept analysis.
They were of great help, even though permanently wondering why people of our
profile need such knowledge. Prof. Vladimir Kostic helped us learn about the new
fields of spectra and pseudospectra, i.e., the behavior of nonnormal matrices and
operators.
Teaching process was a permanent source of inspiration for research. The inter-
action with studentsdundergraduates and graduates, as well as with fellow teachers,
was a fountain of new ideas and different approaches. It is here that we wish to thank
all the students and colleagues we have met during many years of teaching at the
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, and the Center
for Meteorology and Environmental Modelling, all at the University of Novi Sad.
Many names come to our minds, but in this way, we also recognize the merits of
the very institutions, not just the particular people.
This highly interdisciplinary book deals with mathematical methods in model-
ling of environmental interfaces from nanotubes and cell to planetary scale. On
the other hand, the exposition is accompanied by personal insights of the authors
based on their long-lasting activity in the fields covered by the book. In this way,
the reader is provoked to establish his own standpoint which might or might not
agree with the one of the authors. Many numerical simulations offered, and exten-
sive list of cited literature will provide solid basis for this. Finally, let us mention
that we used various synonyms equivalently, exploiting the rich structure of English
language. The book is divided into 7 parts containing 26 chapters.
Part I contains an introductory material and starts with a chapter where we give a
definition of the environmental interface, which broadly covers the unavoidable
multidisciplinary approach in environmental sciences and also includes the tradi-
tional approaches in environmental modelling. The interface between two different
environments itself is considered as a complex system itself, in the sense that “a
complex system cannot be decomposed nontrivially into a set of part for which it
is the logical sum.” (Rosen R. 1991 Life itself. Columbia University Press) In
Chapter 2, we review advanced theoretician’s tools in the modelling of the environ-
mental interface systems. An extensive discussion of various aspects of modelling is
Preface xix
offered in Chapter 3 with an illustration through the solution of the energy balance
equation for the ground surface, which is often used in environmental modelling. We
state our opinion about dilemma whether the environmental interface systems
models should be built in the form of differential or difference equations, i.e.,
whether we should either deal with the continuous-time or discrete-time, where
time is considered as a continuous or discrete variable, respectively. We end this
part with a chapter on the use of formal complex analysis in solving the environ-
mental problems.
Part II is devoted to the role of time in environmental interface modelling since
with the progress in this field, the question of the concept of time becomes more
authentic. We first elaborate understanding the time in physics and philosophy in
Chapter 5, going over to Chapter 6 dealing with time in biology. It is formalized
in Chapter 7 by the introduction of functional time in generalized functional sys-
tems. By the notion of the functional system, we cover all systems where processes
unfold following a set of known rules and which exhibit repetitive pattern. Using
mathematical formalism, we show on several examples how the functional time
is formed as a result of consistent change of concrete material object states. Exam-
ples are: (1) the response of the functional system on a stimulus (mollusk time
reflex formation); (2) the response of the functional system on a cognitive level
(prisoner time formation in the cell), and (3) the process of substance exchange
on the cellular level (time formation in process of biochemical substance exchange
between cells).
Part III is an very important one since it introduces the material necessary for un-
derstanding the rest of the book. It considers the use of different logistic maps in the
coupling in the environmental interfaces. In Chapter 8, we consider coupled logistic
maps, through their diffusive, linear, and combined coupling. We give an example of
diffusive coupling through interaction of two environmental interfaces on the Earth’s
surface. We analyze the stability of this dynamical system using the Lyapunov expo-
nent. Chapter 9 is devoted to the logistic difference equation on the extended
domain. We extend the domain [0,4] in which the logistic parameter of the classical
logistic equation is defined to the domain [ 2,4], and we discuss and analyze prop-
erties of the parameter of difference equation, which is ranged in this domain, using
bifurcation diagram, Lyapunov exponent, sample and permutation entropies. As the
next step, in Chapter 10, we introduce the logistic equation with affinity, and then,
we demonstrate its use in modelling turbulent fluxes over the heterogeneous envi-
ronmental interfaces. First, we give a mathematical background of a map with
cell affinity in the form of a generalized logistic map. Second, analyzing the model
outputs and observed data, we summarize uncertainties that occur in modelling the
turbulent energy exchange over the heterogeneous environmental interfaces, with
setting an accent on the Schmidt’s paradox.
Chapter 11 deals with the maps serving the different coupling in the environ-
mental interfaces modelling. First, we consider behavior of a logistic map driven
by fluctuations. We give an overview of literature about logistic map driven by pe-
riodic signal, quasi-periodic signal or noise. Second, we analyze the behavior of the
xx Preface
coupled maps serving the combined coupling in the presence of dynamical noise. In
the case of uncoupled nonlinear oscillators, we demonstrate that the addition of para-
metric fluctuations has a pronounced effect on the dynamics of such systems.
Finally, we consider the behavior of the coupled maps serving the combined
coupling when we introduce a parametric noise in their all parameters.
Part IV is devoted to the concepts of heterarchy and observational heterarchy and
their relation to the exchange processes between the environmental interfaces. The
concept of heterarchy in environmental modelling is introduced and some ecological
examples are given in Chapter 12. This concept is then applied to biochemical sub-
stance exchange in a diffusively coupled ring of cells in Chapter 13. We first
consider the observational heterarchy consisting of two sets of intralayer maps,
called Intent and Extent perspectives, and interlayer operations using the formalism
of the category theory. Looking from the intent and extent perspective in a cell, we
address the synchronization of the passive and active coupling for two cells using the
generalized logistic equation with the affinity. We perform simulations of active
coupling in a multicell system. Finally, in Chapter 14, we study the heterarchical
aspect of the albedo over heterogeneous environmental interfaces.
Many results in environmental studies are presented in the form of measured or
modeled time series for certain important quantities, since it is essential to know how
to study the complexity of the environmental system, based on this series. This is the
subject of Part V. We first introduce the concept of Kolmogorov complexity and
other complexity measures based on it in Chapter 15. Number of example follows.
In Chapter 16, we first perform a complexity analysis of 222Rn concentration varia-
tion in a cave. Second, we use complexity analysis in analyzing the dependence of
222
Rn concentration time series on indoor air temperature and humidity. Finally, we
apply the Kolmogorov complexity and use its spectrum in analysis of the UV-B ra-
diation time series. In Chapter 17, we deal with complexity analysis of the environ-
mental flow time series. First, we use it to quantify the randomness degree in river
flow time series of two mountain rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, representing the
turbulent environmental fluid. Next, we analyze the experimental data from a turbu-
lent flow collected in a laboratory channel with bed roughness elements of different
densities and variable bed slope. Finally, we use the Kolmogorov complexities and
the Kolmogorov complexity spectrum to quantify the randomness degree in river
flow time series of seven rivers with different regimes in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
representing their different type of courses. Since climate is a typical example of
the complex system, we discuss various approaches to its complexity in Chapter
18. Thus, we use complexity measures to analyze spatial and temporal distribution
of air temperature and the observed precipitation time series. Finally, we give an
example of comparison between complexities of a global and regional model.
In Part VI, we address the problem of the chaotic phenomena in computing the
environmental interface variables. Such a study must begin (Chapter 19) with the
analysis of the relations between mathematics and environmental sciences. In that
sense, we consider: (1) the role of mathematics in environmental sciences and (2)
difference equations and occurrence of chaos in modelling of phenomena in the
Preface xxi
environmental world. First, in Chapter 20, we consider the climate predictability and
climate models through: (1) giving the short survey on the predictability and (2)
gathering current issues in modelling the global climate system. Second, we give
an example of the application of the regional climate models with an overview of
its outputs. The outputs were obtained by dynamic downscaling of climate simula-
tions conducted with the ECHAM5 GCM (General Circulation Model) coupled with
the Max Planck Institute Ocean Model. The downscaling of the GCM climate
simulations was performed with the coupled regional climate model EBU-POM
(Eta Belgrade University - Princeton Ocean Model). In Chapter 21, we deal with
occurrence of chaos in exchange of vertical turbulent fluxes over environmental in-
terfaces in climate models, concentrating on the occurrence of the chaos in
computing the environmental interface temperature. We have derived criterion for
choice of the time step used in environmental models for numerical solving of the
energy balance equation to avoid situation when the environmental interface cannot
oppose an enormous amount of energy suddenly entering system. We also perform a
dynamic analysis of solutions for the environmental interface and deeper soil layer
temperatures represented by the coupled difference equations to find regions where
solutions show chaotic behavior. We consider synchronization and stability of hor-
izontal energy exchange between environmental interfaces in climate models in
Chapter 22, by considering it as a diffusion-like process described by the dynamics
of driven coupled oscillators enhancing the conditions when the process of exchange
is synchronized. Then, we consider asymptotic stability of horizontal energy ex-
change between environmental interfaces introducing a dynamical system approach
that provides more realistic results in modelling of energy exchange over the hetero-
geneous grid-box than the flux aggregation methods.
The last part of the book (VII) includes the following topics: environmental in-
terfaces and their stability in biological systems, synchronization of the biochemical
substance exchange between cells, complexity, and asymptotic stability in the pro-
cess of biochemical substance exchange in multicell systems and use of pseudospec-
tra in analyzing the influence of intercellular nanotubes on cell-to-cell
communication integrity. Chapter 23 is devoted to the biological environmental in-
terfaces and their ability to perceive the changes in the environment. Going further,
in Chapter 24, we consider synchronization of the biochemical substance exchange
between cells mathematically modeled as a system of difference equations of
coupled logistic equations. Then, we add the fluctuations of environmental param-
eters to the model. In Chapter 25, we deal with the issue of complexity and asymp-
totic stability in the process of the biochemical substance exchange in multicell
system, using the model described in the previous chapter. After calculating the Kol-
mogorov complexity measures, we focus on the asymptotic stability of the intercel-
lular biochemical substance exchange. In Chapter 26, we examine how the
biochemical substance exchange through tunneling nanotubes (TNT) (besides com-
mon exchange through gap junctions (GJ)) affects the functional stability of the
multicellular system. We answer whether TNT can destabilize the intercellular
communication through GJ and how to determine the threshold at which the
xxii Preface
destabilization occurs. One way to answer is the application of the concept of

pseudospectra.
This Preface might look too long, but we find it important to state our positions in
advance and, in this way, prepare the reader for an adventure that expects him/her.
We felt the writing of this book as a great adventure and we do hope that the readers
will feel at least some of the excitement we did.
CHAPTER
Environmental interface:
definition and
introductory comments 1
Complex systems science has contributed to our understanding of environmental
issues in many areas from small to large temporal and spatial scales (from the
cell behavior to global climate and its change). Environmental systems by
themselves are both complicated and complex. Complicated, in that many agents
act upon them; complex, in that there are feedback loops connecting the state of
the system back to the agents, and connecting the actions of the agents to one
another. Complex systems have complex dynamics usually characterized by the
so-called tipping points, abrupt changes in the state of the system caused by
seemingly gradual change in its drivers (Gladwell, 2000). For example, a climate
tipping point is a somewhat ill-defined concept of a point when global climate
changes from one stable state to another stable state. After the tipping point has
been passed, a transition to a new state occurs. Many scientists now use the power
of computer models to advance their subjects. But there is a choice: to simplify com-
plex systems or to include more details (Paola and Leeder, 2011). Further advances
in these areas will be necessary before complex systems science can be widely
applied to understand the dynamics of environmental systems. In this book we
will consider environmental interfaces as complex systems through their main fea-
tures. There are many contemporary researches that deal with specific aspects of the
environmental interface. However, in this book we will consider the temporal aspect,
various recent approaches to it and complexity in environmental interfaces
modelling through our personal insights.
Definition of environmental interface: Technically speaking, the interface is a
space at which independent systems or components meet and act or communicate
with each other. Interfaces can appear between system elements and they can also
exist between a system element and the system’s environment. In the latter case
we speak about environmental interface. It can be specifically defined depending
on the science where it is used (ecology (Sizykh, 2007), ecological economy
(Lehtonen, 2004), social sciences (Rasmussen and Arler, 2010), programming lan-
guages, and simulations support systems (Banks et al., 2009), etc.). We define the
environmental interface as an interface between two abiotic or biotic environments
that may be in relative motion and exchange energy, matter (substance), or informa-
tion through physical, biological, or chemical processes, fluctuating temporally and
spatially regardless of the space and time scale. It is slightly different from its formu-
lation in Mihailovic and Balaz (2007) and Mihailovic et al. (2012). This definition
Developments in Environmental Modelling, Volume 29, ISSN 0167-8892, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63918-9.00001-6 3

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
4 CHAPTER 1 Environmental interface: definition and introductory comments
FIGURE 1.1
CHAPTER 1 Environmental interface: definition and introductory comments 5
broadly covers the unavoidable multidisciplinary approach in environmental

sciences and also includes the traditional approaches in environmental modelling.
For example, such interfaces can be (1) placed in between different environments
and (2) extended from micro to planetary scales. Through these interfaces environ-
ments exchange energy, matter, and information (Fig. 1.1). For example, those
processes are (a) ions exchange in metals (Krot et al., 2001), (b) intercellular
exchange of biochemical substances (Mihailovic et al., 2011a), (c) exchange of
air volumes in a macroscale of urban conditions (Neofytou et al., 2006),
(d) periodic migrations between populations (Lloyd, 1995), (e) heat exchange in
Earth’s interior consisting of central core, a mantle surrounding the core and litho-
sphere, (f) energy exchange between solid matter and gas in natural conditions
(Mihailovic et al., 2011b), and (g) information exchange in a specific environment
model combined with the environment interface describing their interactions
(Behrens, 2009).
The interface between two media is a complex system itself. We use the term
complex system in Rosen’s sense (1991) as it was explicated in the comment by
Collier (2003) as follows: “In Rosen’s sense a complex system cannot be decom-
posed nontrivially into a set of part [sic!] for which it is the logical sum. Rosen’s
modelling relation requires this. Other notions of modelling would allow complete
models of Rosen style complex systems, but the models would have to be what
Rosen calls analytic, that is, they would have to be a logical product. Autonomous
systems must be complex. Other types of systems may be complex, and some may
go in and out of complex phases.” Also, we will explain in which sense the term
complexity will be used in further text. Usually, that is an ambiguous term, some-
times used to refer to systems that cannot be modeled precisely in all respects
=Examples of environmental interfaces: (a) ions exchange in metals. The space highlighted by
a dashed red line (dark gray in print versions) indicates an interface; (b) intercellular
exchange of biochemical substances (Mihailovic et al., 2011a); (c) exchange of air volumes
in urban conditions; (d) migration of insects (Lloyd, 1995); (e) heat exchange in Earth’s
interior consisting of central core, a mantle surrounding the core and lithosphere; (f) energy
exchange between solid matter and gas in natural conditions (Mihailovic et al., 2011b);
(g) information exchange in a specific environment model combined with the environment
interface describing their interactions (Behrens et al., 2009) Intercellular TNTs between
neighboring cells, and (h) a field of cells exchanging the substance with a cluster of smaller
tunneling nanotube TNTs (highlighted by a dashed circle) and a more pronounced larger
tube (indicated by an arrow).
(a) Reprinted with permission from Krot, A.N., Meibom, A., Russell, S.S., Conel, M.A., Jeffries, T.E., Keil, K.,
2001. A new astrophysical setting for chondrule formation. Science 291, 1776e1779. (c) Reprinted with
permission from Neofytou, P., Venetsanos, A.G., Vlachogiannis, D., Bartzis, J.G., Scaperdas, A., 2006. CFD
simulations of the wind environment around an airport terminal building. Environ. Model. Softw. 21, 520e524.
(h) Reprinted with permission from Dubey, G., Ben-Yehuda, S., 2011. Intercellular nanotubes mediate bacterial
communication. Cell 144, 590e600.
(Rosen, 1991). However, following Arshinov and Fuchs (2003) the term
“complexity” has three levels of meaning. (1) There is self-organization and
emergence in complex systems (Edmonds, 1999). (2) Complex systems are not orga-
nized centrally but in a distributed manner; there are many connections between the
system’s parts (Edmonds, 1999; Kauffman, 1993). (3) It is difficult to model com-
plex systems and to predict their behavior even if one knows to a large extent the
parts of such systems and the connections between the parts (Edmonds, 1999;
Heylighen, 1997). The complexity of a system depends on the number of its ele-
ments and connections between the elements (the system’s structure). According
to this assumption, Kauffman (1993) defines complexity as the “number of
conflicting constraints” in a system; Heylighen (1996) says that complexity can
be characterized by a lack of symmetry (symmetry breaking) which means that
“no part or aspect of a complex entity can provide sufficient information to actually
or statistically predict the properties of the others parts.” Edmonds (1996) defines
complexity as “that property of a language expression which makes it difficult to
formulate its overall behavior, even when given almost complete information about
its atomic components and their inter-relations.” Aspects of complexity are things,
people, number of elements, number of relations, nonlinearity, broken symmetry,
nonholonic constraints, hierarchy, and emergence (Flood and Carson, 1993).
Note, that the interactions between parts of the complex environmental interface sys-
tems are nonlinear, while their interactions with the surrounding environments are
noisy that is mathematically well elaborated in Liu and Ma (2005), Serletis and
Shahmoradi (2006), Savi (2007), Serletis et al. (2007a), (2007b), Mihailovic et al.
(2012), among others.
In this introductory part we cannot avoid a short overview of some epistemolog-
ical points from the 20th century onward. Until recently, discussions about scientific
truth were filled with numerous metaphysical assumptions. They usually converged
to one question (more or less explicitly stated): “How can we reach objective truth
about natural processes?” However, during the 20th century, this question first
became less important and then gradually disappeared from the epistemological
scene as a relic from the age of naive realism. Now, in contemporary epistemology
of science, it is well established that there is a fundamental difference between phe-
nomenon and noumenon. Therefore, the object of scientific analysis cannot be the
nature by itself, but only highly constructivistic products, i.e., conceptually
embedded sets of observer’s experiences. Accordingly, scientific theories are now
understood as logical instruments of organization of human thought, through which
we can interpret and organize experimental laws (Nagel, 1961). Also, since they
have constructivistic character, their relation to nature should not be considered
through the vocabulary of logic; they are not truth statements and they are not logical
derivatives of observed facts but only sets of rules and guiding principles for analysis
of empirical facts (Nagel, 1961). Therefore, in the development of a scientific theory,
it is not a problem to make approximations that can never reach reality. It is inevi-
table. But believing that relations of abstractions are exactly the same as relations in
nature can be very problematic. Firstly, it can usually become a source of unfruitful
CHAPTER 1 Environmental interface: definition and introductory comments 7
debates about the “true” nature of nature. Secondly, from such a perspective it is
impossible to see and analyze the consequences of the interface perspective, where
the observer is within the universe he observes. A clear example of both mentioned
problems can be found in the development of the contemporary physics. At the very
beginning of the 20th century, Pierre Duhem (1906) asserted that physical theories
are not simple reflexions of natural processes, but rigorous logical systems, which
operate with abstract symbols and which are connected with nature through system
of measurements and scales. Such approaches put forward the process of encoding
of natural processes into the domain of formal systems, as the first and crucial step in
the development of a physical theory. However, in his opinion, a pattern of encoding
depends almost entirely on the previously accepted theories. Therefore, empirical
observations cannot be separated from the current state of affairs in a given scientific
discipline, since theoretical assumptions determine what will be observed, how it
will be observed, and how results will be interpreted. Although Duhem’s approach
can be characterized as conventionalism, his contribution to the general trend of
development of thought in theoretical physics remains immense.
Few decades later, the explosive growth of quantum mechanics raised some
fundamental questions about the status of observation in physics, and how our mea-
surement procedures can affect the observed physical properties (“measurement
problem”). In short, Einstein, opposing the Copenhagen interpretation of physical
properties of quantum systems, claimed that under ideal conditions, observations
reflect the objective physical reality. On the other hand, Bohr asserts that in quantum
mechanics the measured quantum system and the measuring macroscopic apparatus
cannot be considered as separate within a scope of scientific consideration. In other
words, the physical properties of quantum systems are essentially dependent on the
applied experimental apparatus. One of the most famous moments of the debate is
now well known as EinsteinePodolskyeRosen paradox (EPR) (Einstein et al.,
1935). In the short paper they showed, that if the quantum mechanics description
of reality is complete, then the noncommutable operators corresponding to two
physical quantities can have simultaneous reality. In other words, quantum me-
chanics is inconsistent with the reduction of the wave-packet postulate. Later,
Bell (1964) revealed that the EPR paradox stands only under the set of supplemen-
tary assumptions, among which there is the assumption of locality. Moreover, within
quantum mechanics there is no need to accept them all. Although it can look like a
closing chapter in the debate on “measurement problem,” this question evolved from
the limited scope of quantum mechanics and took a more general form: “how the
observations are affected by the fact that the observer is within the universe he
observes?” This is certainly not a new question in the history of human thought,
but (until recent partial attempts) in the natural sciences it never gets a formal expla-
nation. In developmental psychology, Piaget (1973a,b) clearly demonstrated that
elementary categories of human thought are construed during one’s development,
and how externality of cognitive entities is restructured in accordance with its func-
tional purposes through the process of assimilation of external changes with the
operative schematism of that entity, and finally, in the world of logic and formal
systems, Gödel shook the scientific community with his proof of incompleteness of
formal systems (for extensive discussion see Rosen, 1991 and Nagel and Newman,
1958). Now, in the natural sciences, this problem is finally recognized and dispersed
attempts of its formal treatment fall under the umbrella of discipline called endophy-
sics. This term was originally suggested by David Finkelstein in personal commu-
nication with Otto Rössler. Later, it was comprehensively elaborated in detail by
Otto Rössler (1998).
Finally, although the question of time in the modelling relation is the theme of
the next part, here we will make some comments about time in the context of tele-
ological as well as causal dynamics (the term, “causal” is used in the broader sense
of “governed by influences from the past”). A usual approach in physics is that the
present state is strictly a result of its evolution from the past. However, it has been
shown that some phenomena in the real world can be explained, if we accept that the
present state of a system is defined by its past, in the sense that the past determines
the possible states that are to be considered, and by its future, in the sense that the
selection of a possible future state determines the effective present state. Namely,
past and future measurements, taken together, provide complete information about
a quantum system. Pioneering step about this subject has been done by Watanabe
(1955) whose work was later experienced again by Aharonov et al. (1964), who later
renamed it the Two-State Vector Formalism (Aharonov et al., 1964; Aharonov and
Vaidman, 1997, 2008). This, a time-symmetrized approach in quantum theory is
particularly helpful for the analysis of experiments performed on preselected and
postselected ensembles (Aharonov and Vaidman 2008; Brodutch, 2014). The two-
state quantum dynamics is used for designing the phenomenological model of the
reionization process, when this dynamics is adopted for the vicinity of the potential
barrier top (Aharonov et al., 1964). This is just a short reminder for the environ-
mental modelling community that, in the modelling of complex environmental inter-
face processes, we should bear in mind a possibility of using two-state formalism in
the modelling procedure (Nedeljkovic and Nedeljkovic, 2003).
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CHAPTER
Advanced theoretician’s
tools in the modelling of
the environmental
interface systems
2
The environmental interfaces are formed in a space that is rich with complex sys-
tems. Each such system, as an open one, interacts with other systems in a coherent
way, producing new structures and building cohesion and new structural boundaries.
It undergoes emergence and self-organization. Thus, in the modelling of the environ-
mental interfaces, it is necessary to consider the following points: (1) the need for
new modelling architecture and (2) usage of new mathematical tools like Category
Theory (whose first use for research in ecology was originally proposed by Rosen
(1985, 1991)), Mathematical Theory of General Systems (Mesarovic and Takahara,
1975), Formal Concept Analysis (FCA) (Wille, 1982; Ganter and Wille, 1997), and
Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos (Mihailovic and Balaz, 2007).
2.1 MODELLING ARCHITECTURE

Modelers of environmental interface systems in numerically oriented studies base
their calculations on mathematical models for the simulation and prediction of
different processes, which are exclusively nonlinear in describing relevant environ-
mental quantities (Rosen, 1991). A theoretical description of any environmental
interface system includes at least two important aspects. First, one should construct
a concrete mathematical model of both the admissible states of the system and the
transitions between these states. Second, one should establish the rules of selecting
among many theoretically admissible states of the system only those states that are
realized in nature under the given external conditions (Flood and Carson, 1993).
In the modelling community dealing with complex systems, Rosen’s diagram
(1991) is a recognizable guide. Fig. 2.1 is a slightly modified Rosen’s diagram
and schematically depicts a modelling relation when a natural system (N) and a
formal system (F) are given. As above, two arrows represent the respective entail-
ment structures: inference in formalism (F) and causality in a natural system (N).
Now, the two established dictionaries provide encoding the phenomena of N into
the propositions of F and another for decoding the propositions of F back to the phe-
nomena in N. As mentioned above, there are two paths in diagram (1) and
(2) þ (3) þ (4). According to Rosen (1991), the first of them (path (1)) represents
12 CHAPTER 2 Advanced theoretician’s tools
FIGURE 2.1
Schematic diagram representing both (i) the comparison of two formalisms F1 and F2 and (ii)
modelling relation when we have given a natural system (N) and a formal system (F) (Rosen,
1991). Here, 1 represents causal entailment within the natural system (N); 2 represents
encoding, where the observer’s propositions about N are used as hypotheses in constructing
formal system (F); 3 is the generation of theorems in F, which function as a model of N; and 4
is decoding, where the theorems of F are applied back to N in the form of predictions
(Mihailovic et al., 2012).
the causal entailment within N (what an observer will see by simply sitting and
watching what is happening). Arrow (2) encodes the phenomena in N into the prop-
ositions in F. In this route, we must use these propositions as hypotheses based on
which the inferential machinery of the formal system F may operate (denoted by ar-
row (3)); it generates theorems in F, entailed precisely by the encoded hypotheses.
Finally, we have to decode these theorems back into the phenomena of N, via arrow
(4). At this point, the theorems become predictions about N. Then the formal system
F is called a model of the natural system N if we always get the same answer regard-
less of the fact whether we follow path (1) or path (2) þ (3) þ (4). The process of
modelling complex systems is a very comprehensive one. A system is to be treated
as a complex structure, as for instance in Peter Checkland’s definition: “A system is a
model of a whole entity; when applied to human, the model is characterized funda-
mentally in terms of hierarchical structure, emergent properties, communication and
control”(Levich and Solovyov, 1999, p. 318). The major components of complexity
are openness and freeness, but the distinctive characteristic is “natural activity” like
self-organization, and still of great importance as intraactivity but now joined by the
phenomena of anticipation (Checkland, 1981) and interactivity between systems to
be found in global interoperability. The transition from connectivity to activity in-
volves a type change and therefore requires a formal system with an inbuilt facility
to cross between the levels. Thus, intraconnectivity between the components cannot
give rise to interactivity between those components without some nonlocal integrity
coming into play (Klir, 2002). The nonlocality is a principle that is, among some
2.2 Basics of category theory 13
others, specific for a certain object area such as the inorganic, living, or human
realm. This principle means certain interaction between the elements of the system
that is treated as the transmission of information at infinite speed (see, for instance,
Bell (1964)).
2.2 BASICS OF CATEGORY THEORY

Category Theory, a discipline developed by Mac Lane (1971) and recommended by
Rosen (1991) as a modern tool for complex (and living) systems, is found to have
a formal expressive power for exploring the fundamental nonlocal concept of adjoint-
ness needed to understand complex systems. The arrow of Category Theory does not
have just a formal meaning. According to Rossiter and Heather (2005), it formalizes
the principle of constancy (originally introduced by Heraclites and Parmenides) that is
provided by a common source and target. Such an arrow refers to the situation in
which a source and target are indistinguishable. In a defined system, the collection
of entities can be identified as objects, while operations between them are defined
by arrows. Fig. 2.2 shows that there may exist many possible arrows between objects.
However, Category Theory holds that a unique limiting arrow may exist for all of
these possible arrows that represent the resulting intraconnectivity of a local system.
There is an order between the two entities established by the directions of arrows
(Manes and Arbib, 1975). This means that the arrow limit between two entities is
also a limit of all possible paths. Because of the existence of limits and all possible
connectivity, this is classified by axiomatic categories as a Cartesian closed category.
Moving up one level, there is a grand limiting arrow for all of the aforementioned
limits, existing as an identity functor characterizing the type and therefore the system
as a category (Fig. 2.3). A system as a category may then be drawn as a circular arrow,
which is the identity functor that identifies the type of a system (Manes and Arbib,
1975; Rossiter and Heather, 2005). Therefore, the system can be represented as an ar-
row, i.e., a process in which the internal arrows are simply the components of one
arrow. This then leads to interconnectivity between the systems. Also, the functor be-
tween two categories is conceptually the same as internal arrows between the arrows
(a) (b) (c) (d) h ◦g

A B A f g f g h
f
IDA g ◦f g ◦f
(h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f)
FIGURE 2.2
Schematic diagram representing the Category Theory essentials: (a) morphism (arrows),
objects, domain, and codomain, (b) identity morphism, (c) composite morphism, and
(d) identity composition and associativity (Mihailovic et al., 2012).
C category D category
F functor
FIGURE 2.3
Schematic diagram representing the functor “action” (dashed line) (Mihailovic et al., 2012).
above. Within the framework of this theory, it is possible to repeat the abstraction to
one level higher, to the so-called natural transformations. This level is the level of
interactivity. It is important to note that the self-organization of a Category Theory
system (intraactivity) arises when the category-system pair is indistinguishable.
Finally, Category Theory is a very useful tool when we meet difficult problems in
some areas of mathematics, ecology, physics, computer sciences, biological nano-
engineering, and the self-organization of cell function in living systems (Wolkenhauer
and Hofmeyr, 2007), among many others. They can be translated into (easier) prob-
lems in other areas (e.g., by using functors, which map one category to another).
Let us briefly expose essentials of Category Theory in a condensed form. A cate-
gory is a quadruple A ðO; hom; id; +Þ, where
1. O is a class of A -objects,
2. for each pair (A, B) of A -objects, a set hom(A, B) is the set of A -morphisms,
f
from A to B [f ˛ hom(A, B) is expressed as f: A / B or A/B],
id
3. for each A -object A, a morphism A ! A is called the A -identity of A,
f
4. a composition
g
law associating each A -morphism A/B and each A -morphism
g+f
B/C is an A -morphism A ! C, called the composite of f and g,
Impose the following conditions:
f g h
1. composition is associative, i.e., for morphism A/B, B/C, and C/D, the
equation h+ðg+f Þ ¼ ðh+gÞ+f holds,
2. A -identities
f
act as identities with respect to composition, i.e., for A -morphism
A/B, we have idB +f ¼ f and f +idA ¼ f ,
3. the sets hom(A, B) are pairwise disjoint.
If A ¼ ðO; hom; id; +Þ is a category, then
1. the class O of A -objects is denoted by ObðA Þ.
2. the class of all A -morphisms is denoted by MorðA Þ (or HomðA Þ) is defined to
be the
f
union of all the sets hom(A, B) in A .
3. if A/B is an A -morphism, we call A the domain of f [A ¼ dom(f)] and call B the
codomain of f [A ¼ cod( f )].
2.3 Basics of mathematical theory of general systems 15
4. the composition +, is a partial binary operation on the class MorðA Þ. For a pair
(f, g) of morphisms, f +g is defined if and only if the domain of f and codomain
of g coincide.
f g
If we have h ¼ g+f , then sometimes it is denoted by A/B/C or by saying that
the following triangle commutes
Similarly, the statement that the square commutes means that g+f ¼ k+h. A mor-
f
phism A/B in a category is called an isomorphism provided that there exists a
morphism g: A / B with g+f ¼ idA and f +g ¼ idB . Objects A and B in category
are said to be isomorphic provided that there is an isomorphism f: A / B. If A
and B are categories, then a functor from A to B is a function that assigns to
f
each A -object A a B -object F(A) and to each A -morphism A/B a B -morphism
Fðf Þ
FðAÞ ! FðBÞ such that
1. F preserves composition, i.e., F ðf +gÞ ¼ F ðf Þ+F ðgÞ whenever f +g is defined;

2. F preserves identity morphisms, i.e., F(idA) ¼ idF(A) for each A -object A.
A functor F : A /B is called an isomorphism provided that there is a functor
G : B /A such that G+F ¼ idA and F+G ¼ idB . The categories A and B are
said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism F : A /B .
2.3 BASICS OF MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF GENERAL

SYSTEMS
Following Mesarovic’s Mathematical Theory of General Systems (Mesarovic and
Takahara, 1972), if we observe interactions of agents with their surrounding environ-
ment, such a system can be defined as a set of interacting objects
S 4 O1 O2 O3 . On . If we denote the population of agents under consid-
eration as p ¼ fp1 ; p2 ; p3 ; .; pn g and a set of external influences as
E ¼ fe1 ; e2 ; e3 ; .en g (these influences can be either other agents or extra-
systemic influences), then the state of such formed systems at any particular moment
in time can be defined as the Cartesian product s4P E. Because our system is a
dynamical network of interactions where at each moment the hierarchical status of
network elements can vary significantly, we have to define state of the population P
as a mapping u : e/p; e ˛ E; p ˛ P. Both e and p are defined as temporal
sequences of events such that E ¼ fe: T/Ig and P ¼ fe: T/Rg, where T is a
set of time points t, I is a set of external stimuli on a particular agent such that at
each time system receives stimulus i(t) and R is a set of responses, r(t). Furthermore,
both P and E are formal systems. Therefore, the occurrence of p and the occurrence
of e at some particular time point t are governed not only by mapping u but also by
the internal rules of these systems, which are partially independent. Thus, it is
obvious that changes in an environment induce appropriate responses in agents
through the model of coupled input/output pairs. In real systems, the reverse situa-
tion is also possible such that some external changes can be influenced by the activ-
ity of organisms. It is clear that a critical factor in building an evolvable model as
described above is choosing the appropriate structure for the mapping I/R.
When dealing with models usually developed as prediction tools, it is sufficient to
assume the attitude of analyzing a “black box.” Therefore, we can propose a function
that should summarize all available experimental data and obtain a set of more or
less accurate predictions for various initial conditions. However, in such a case
we will neglect the real meaning of the nature of mappings within E and P. Taking
a slightly closer look at these relations, we can see that a somewhat hidden problem
is that of how I is generated from the wholeness of external changes and what is the
connection between generating I with a constitution of the corresponding R.
Although this connection can be efficiently represented using the FCA (Ganter
and Wille, 1997), its evolvability demands a more advanced formal treatment to
be fully comprehended.
2.4 FORMAL CONCEPT ANALYSIS IN MODELLING THE

INTERACTION OF LIVING SYSTEMS AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTS
To establish a more accurate estimation of the pattern of interactions of biological
systems with their environment, as well as interactions among living systems, it is
necessary to take into account the manner in which they “observe” the environ-
ment, separate it into different functional patches, and associate the patches with
an internal functional schematism. The formal representation of such processes
can be elegantly and efficiently performed by using the FCA, which is a branch
of the applied lattice theory. FCA was introduced by Wille (1982) and defines a
concept as a unit of two parts: extension and intension. The extension covers all
objects belonging to a particular concept, and the intension comprises all attributes
valid for all of those objects. Both attributes and objects are united by a triple (G,
M, I), which is called a formal context if G and M are sets and I 4 G M is a
binary relation between G and M. Also, between these two closure systems (G
and M), a dual isomorphism is established. The ordered set of all formal concepts
of (G, M, I) forms the concept lattice of (G, M, I), which is always complete. The
2.4 Formal concept analysis in modelling the interaction of living systems 17
FCA has been academically and commercially applied over a wide range of do-
mains, such as medicine, biology, psychology, musicology, archeology, law, civil
and industrial engineering, library and information science, computer science,
and mathematics. In these applications, the main achievements of concept lattices
are due to the support of general tasks such as exploring, searching, recognizing,
identifying, analyzing, investigating, and deciding (Ganter and Wille, 1997).
The mathematization of concepts may be understood as a first step in mathematiz-
ing the traditional philosophical logic, understood as a doctrine of the forms and
functions of thinking based on concepts, judgments, and conclusions, which leads
to contextual logic (Wille, 2000; Crvenkovic et al., 2009, 2012). However, one of
the most important characteristics of interaction with the environment in organ-
isms is versatility. Therefore, an FCA-based formalism can be used within a
much broader framework that allows for the comparison of substantially different
structures. Here, we consider concept lattices and we give a description of the
fundamental theorem on concept lattices.
Concept lattices. An order (or partial order) on a set P is a binary relation on P
such that, for all x, y, x ˛ P,
1. x x,
2. x y and y x imply x ¼ y,
3. x y and y z imply x z.
A set P equipped with an order relation is said to be an ordered set.
Let P be an ordered set and let S 4 P. An element x ˛ P is an upper bound of S if
s x for all s ˛ S. A lower bound is dually defined. The set of all upper bounds of S
is denoted by Su and the set of lower bounds by Sl
Su : ¼ fx ˛ Pjðcs ˛ SÞ s xg
Sl : ¼ fx ˛ Pjðcs ˛ SÞ s xg:
If Su has a least element, x, then x is called the least upper bound of S. Equiva-
lently, x is the least upper bound of S if
1. x is an upper bound of S and
2. x y for all upper bounds y of S.
Dually, if Sl has the largest element x, then x is called the greatest lower bound of
S. Least elements and greatest elements are unique, so least upper bounds and great-
est lower bounds are unique when they exist. The least upper bound of S is also
called the supremum of S and is denoted by sup S; the greatest lower bound of S
is also called the infimum of S and is denoted by inf S.
We write xny in place of sup {x, y} when it exists and x ^ y in place of inf {x, y}
when it exists. Similarly we write nS instead of sup S and ^S instead of inf S when
these exist. Let P be a nonempty ordered set.
1. If xny and x^y exist for all x, y ˛ P, then P is called a lattice.
2. If nS and ^S exists for all S 4 P, then P is called a complete lattice.
The theory of ordered sets and lattices provides a natural setting in which we can
discuss and analyze hierarchies occurring within mathematics and in the “real”
world.
A concept is considered to be determined by its extent and intent: the extent con-
sists of all objects belonging to the concept, while the intent is the collection of all
attributes shared by the objects. It is often difficult to list all the objects belonging to
a concept and usually impossible to list all its attributes; therefore, it is natural to
work with a specific context in which the objects and attributes are fixed. A context
is a triple (G, M, I) in which G and M are sets and I 4 G M. The elements of G and
M are called objects and attributes, respectively. (g, m) ˛ I means “the object g has
attribute m.”
For A 4 G and B 4 M, we define
A0 ¼ fm ˛ Mjðcg ˛ AÞðg; mÞ ˛ Ig;
B0 ¼ fg ˛ Gjðcm ˛ BÞðg; mÞ ˛ Ig:
Therefore, Aʹ is the set of attributes common to all objects in A, and Bʹ is the set of
objects possessing the attributes of B. The concept of the context (G, M, I) is a pair
(A, B), in which A 4 G, B 4 M, Aʹ ¼ B, and Bʹ ¼ A. The extent of the concept (A,
B) is A, while the intent is B. A subset A 4 G is the extent of some concept if and
only if Aʺ ¼ (Aʹ)ʹ ¼ A, in which case the unique concept of which A is an extent is
(A, Aʹ). The corresponding statement applies to these subsets B of M, which are the
intents of some concept.
The set of all concepts of the context (G, M, I) is denoted in the literature by
B (G, M, I). For concepts (A1, B1) and (A2, B2) in B (G, M, I), we write
(A1, B1) (A2, B2) and state that (A1, B1) is a subconcept of (A2, B2) or that (A2,
B2) is a superconcept of (A1, B1) if A1 4 A2 (which is equivalent to B1 J B2). As-
sume that (G, M, I) is a context, and let A, Aj 4 G and B, Bj 4 M, for j ˛ J. Then
(i) A4A00 ; (i)ʹ B4B00 ;

(ii) A1 4A2 0A01 JA02 ; (i)ʹ B1 4B2 0B01 JB02 ;
(iii) A0 4A000 ; (iii)ʹ B0 4B000 ;
(iv) ðW Aj Þ0 ¼ X A0j (iv)ʹ ðW Bj Þ0 ¼ X B0j
j˛J j˛J j˛J j˛J
Let Q be an ordered set, and P 4 Q. Then, P is join-dense in Q if for every

element s ˛ Q there is a subset A of P such that s is the supremum of A in Q, i.e.,
s ¼ VQA. The dual of join-dense is meet-dense.
The fundamental theorem of concept lattices. Let (G, M, I) be a context. Then,
(B(G, M, I); ) is a complete lattice in which join and meet are given by
00
n ðAj ; Bj Þ ¼ W Aj ; X Bj
j˛J j˛J j˛J
00
^ ðAj ; Bj Þ ¼ X Aj ; W Bj
j˛J j˛J j˛J
2.4 Formal concept analysis in modelling the interaction of living systems 19
Conversely, if L is a complete lattice, then L is isomorphic to B (G, M, I) if and

only if there are mappings g: G / L and m: M / L such that g(G) is join-dense in
L, m(M) is meet-dense in L, and (g, m) ˛ I is equivalent to g(g) m(m) for each
g ˛ G and m ˛ M. In particular, L is isomorphic to BðL; L; Þ for every complete
lattice L. The proofs of the previous assertion can be found in Davey and Priestley
(1990). Therefore, the class of complete lattices coincides with the class of concept
lattices.
If we are interested in algebraic laws satisfied by complete lattices, it is obvious that
the class of all complete lattices could not be defined by a finite set of lattice identities.
This is a consequence of the fact that inf and sup are basically infinitary operations. A
lattice L ðL; ^; nÞ is said to be distributive if the following law holds for L :
x^ðynzÞ ¼ ðx^yÞnðx^zÞ:
An empirical experience seems to show that contexts arising from concrete prob-
lems in real life rarely happen to have distributive concept lattices. The following may
be found in Erne (1993). Define for any A 4 G the conditional incidence relation AI
jAIm if every consequence of m that holds for all objects in A is valid for j.
Dually, for any set B 4 M we define
jIBm if every specialization of j possessing all attributes in B has property m.
We call the pair (A, B) discriminating if
I ¼ A IXI B :
A concept lattice (B (G, M, I); ) is distributive if and only if each concept of the
context (G, M, I) or, equivalently, each pair (A, B) with A B 4 I is discriminating.
The arrow relations of context (G, M, I) are defined as follows: for h ˛ G, m ˛ M
let

ðg; mÞ ; I; and
gcm : 5
if g0 4h0 and g0 sh0 ; then ðh; mÞ ˛I

ðg; mÞ;I; and
gbm : 5
if m0 4n0 and m sn0 ; then ðg; nÞ ˛I
0
g4m : 5gcm and gbm:

All the lattices in our examples are finite. We have the following: a finite lattice
with standard context (G, M, I) is distributive if and only if
g4m; gbn0m ¼ n:
A subrelation J 4 I is closed if every concept of (G, M, I) is also a concept of (G,
M, I). S is a complete sublattice of (B (G, M, I); ) if and only if S ¼ (B (G, M, I); )
for some closed subrelation J 4 I (Davey and Priestley, 1990).
A class K of lattices is a variety if K is defined by a set of lattice identities. It is
well known, from universal algebra, that a class K is closed under H (homomorphic
images), S (sublattices), and P (direct product).
VarðK Þ ¼ HSPðK Þ:
A variety is finitely based if it can be defined by a finite set of identities. The

following result is provided by McKenzie (1970): for any finite lattice L, the variety
Var(L) is finitely based.
Also, because we are dealing with finite lattices and every finite lattice is a complete
lattice, it is good to know the following. The variety L of all lattices is generated by its
finite numbers. Therefore, the class of finite concept lattices generates the whole va-
riety of lattices. What is the meaning of this assertion? Think of any nontrivial lattice
identity. There is a finite concept (G, M, I) such that (B (G, M, I); ) does not satisfy
this identity. The theory of lattices and techniques of universal algebra provide a
powerful tool for the identification of the lattice identities of a given lattice.
2.5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE CHAOS THEORY

As it was said, the environmental interfaces are formed between complex systems
which are per definitionem nonlinear ones. Dynamics of those systems can be
described by the sets of differential equations, which cannot be solved analytically,
even in the case if a complex system is described by system of equations that
“completely” captures the whole system. Often, when working with such systems, sci-
entists rely on tools developed for simpler, linear systems. Their idea about solving
this problem is quite similar to one attributed to King Christian IV of Denmark
from 17th century, who standing face to face with the “unsolvable problem,” always
asked his own advisor what he would to do. “Your Majesty, the same as you always do
in these situations. Make a simplification of the complex problem to the simplest one.
It always works!” (Tremain, 2001). He, as many others, didn’t make a clear distinc-
tion between problems that can be successfully divided into parts, and those where
such an approach is not advisable. Similarly, in physics, only linear systems can be
broken into parts (Strogatz, 2007). Pursuing this way then without many obstacles
we get the answer. First we solve each part separately and secondly, by their recom-
bination, we reach that a linear system is accurately equal to the sum of its parts. This
idea offers to scientists a great simplification of complex problems transferred for the
world of nonlinear physics to the linear one. However, things and processes in nature
definitely do not follow this way. For example, when somebody at the same time lis-
tens to two favorite piano concerts (what is a complex event in any sense), then the
listener does not get double pleasure since the principle of superposition fails dramat-
ically in “nonlinear” life. The “linear sight” on the “nonlinear” world works well up to
some level of accuracy and some range for the input values, but some interesting phe-
nomena such as chaos and singularities (Frisch and Morf, 1981) are hidden by
linearization. It follows that some aspects of the behavior of a nonlinear system appear
commonly to be chaotic, unpredictable, or counterintuitive.
Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics that has applications in several
disciplines including meteorology, physics, technique, economics, and environ-
mental sciences. It studies the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly
References 21
sensitive to initial conditions. In layperson language, when we talk about “chaos” we

mean “a state of disorder.” However, in deterministic chaos theory, this term is
defined more precisely. Although there is no universally accepted mathematical defi-
nition of chaos, a commonly used definition says that, for a dynamical system to be
classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties (Hasselblatt and Katok,
2003): (1) it must be sensitive to initial conditions; (2) it must be topologically mix-
ing; and (3) its periodic orbits must be dense. Apart from the chaotic, there exist
other types of nonlinear behaviors which are (1) multistabilitydthat alternates
between two or more exclusive states; (2) aperiodic oscillationsdfunctions that
do not repeat values after some period (otherwise known as chaotic oscillations or
chaos); and (3) solitonsdself-reinforcing solitary waves (Khalil, 2001). Since
most chapters in this book deal with different aspects of nonlinear dynamics, here
we will not go into details of mathematical formalisms. They will be explained sepa-
rately for each specific example.
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Issues in the Down Danubian Region: Multidisciplinary Approaches. World Scientific
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Crvenkovic, S., Mihailovic, D.T., Balaz, I., 2012. Formal concept analysis and category theory
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CHAPTER
Approaches and meaning

of time in the modelling of
the environmental
interface systems
3
Designing the models and their use in computer simulation in the environmental sci-
ences has opened many epistemological questions (Heymann, 2010; Tolk, 2013).
Although, practical considerations often overruled the problems of epistemology
(Heymann, 2010) sometimes it is necessary to make basic epistemological choices,
especially in modelling. In the previous chapter, we highlighted the importance of
being nonlinear. If we decide to linearize “the object of modelling” then we use
linear equations where the variables and their derivatives must always appear as a
simple first power. The theory for solving linear equations is very well developed
because linear equations are simple enough to be solvable. The shortcoming of
this approach is the fact that many things and phenomena, even important ones,
remain hidden. However, if we decide to follow as much as possible the existing
nonlinearities in the object that we model, we have to consider the following key
points: (1) model choice; (2) continuous time versus discrete time in building the
model; and (3) time in building the model.
3.1 MODEL CHOICE

Ceteris paribus is a Latin phrase meaning “if all other relevant things, factors, or
elements remain unaltered” or “all or other things being equal or held constant”.
Ceteris paribus laws are defined as natural laws that are accurate in expected condi-
tions but can have exceptions. Whereas physics has a tendency to state universal
laws that hold true in “normal conditions,” in other sciences, like biology, psychol-
ogy, or economics, laws usually have exceptions, the so-called ceteris paribus laws
(Reutlinger, 2014). The laws of nature involve more formal hidden assumptions,
about which we have no awareness. Those laws are expressed through mathematical
equations or formulae that include mathematical premises, which were unknown at
the time when the law was formulated. For example, physics for a long time func-
tioned on an assumption that the equation of motion in classical mechanics is a
strictly deterministic equation which provides a complete prediction of the future.
What is ceteris paribus condition in this case? The answer to that can vary greatly
(Earman et al., 2002). One line of thought is that all physical laws are true and
Developments in Environmental Modelling, Volume 29, ISSN 0167-8892, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63918-9.00003-X 23
24 CHAPTER 3 Approaches and meaning of time in the modelling
universal claims. So, the Newton’s Second Law of Motion is always true. The other
opinion is that even the basic laws of physics contain (perhaps implicit) ceteris
paribus clauses. So, to the basic equation, we would need to add a special constrain-
ing condition that the equation holds so long as everything that can affect the
targeted effect is describable in the theory (Cartwright, 2002). An illustration for
the ceteris paribus is the energy balance equation for the ground surface, which is
often used in boundary layer and numerical weather modelling (Bhumralkar,
1975). This is a typical example of an environmental interface in nature, where exist
all three mechanisms of energy transfer: incoming and outgoing radiation, convec-
tion of heat and moisture into the atmosphere, and conduction of heat into deeper
soil layers of ground. This partial differential equation can be easily solved numer-
ically by stepping either forward or backward in time from a known initial condition
after it is written in the form of a difference equation. Under some conditions and
expected conditions in atmosphere the energy balance equation can be written in
the form (Mihailovic and Mimic, 2012)
Xnþ1 ¼ An Xn Bn Xn2 (3.1)
where X is the dimensionless environmental interface temperature, while dimension-
less coefficients An and Bn include an inverse form of resistance in calculating the
turbulent fluxes, which change periodically during a day (Pielke, 2002). This equa-
tion is a nonlinear autonomous difference equation that represents time changes of
the dimensionless environmental interface temperature response to the radiative
forcing (Stull, 1988). Its solution can exhibit chaotic fluctuations in the considered
system because the environmental interface cannot oppose an enormous radiative
forcing, suddenly reaching the interface. Therefore, it raises the question whether
we can find either domain or domains where physically meaningful solutions exist.
Fig. 3.1 depicts (a) chaotic fluctuations of solution in Eq. (3.1) and regions of stable
and (b) unstable solutions of this equation determined by the values of Lyapunov
exponent as a function the coefficients A˛ð0; 2Þ and B˛ð0; 0:5Þ.
In choosing the model, scientists often apply a heuristic technique that could be
defined as any approach to problem solving that makes use of a practical method not
guaranteed to be optimal or perfect but sufficient either for the immediate goals or
until a better approach is reached. We meet this approach in many sciences, in partic-
ular technical and environmental, when some phenomena cannot be expressed
through time-dependent equations, whereas they have to be parameterized. This
approach in modelling the turbulence inside the canopy turbulent is plastically
described by Sellers et al. (1986). He said: “We have mentioned before that use
of ‘K-theory’ within the canopy may be physically unrealistic, but because it yields
reasonable results we shall use this method until suitable second-order closure can
be applied to the problem.”
To illustrate this situation we use as example the differential equation describing
the wind profile within such a canopy architecture where the canopy is considered to
be a block of constant-density porous material “sandwiched” between two heights,
canopy height H and canopy bottom height h (Mihailovic and Kallos, 1997;
3.1 Model choice 25
(a) 1.0
0.8
0.6
X
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time lag
(b) 0.5
0.4 λ>0
Parameter B
0.3
λ<0
0.2
0.1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Parameter A
FIGURE 3.1
(a) Chaotic fluctuations of environmental interface temperature (X) in Eq. (3.1); (b) Regions
of stable and unstable solutions of Eq. (3.1) determined by the values of Lyapunov exponent
(l) in dependence of the coefficients A˛ð0; 2Þ and B˛ð0; 0:5Þ (Mihailovic and Mimic, 2012).
Mihailovic et al., 2004). Within this architecture the equation can be written in
the form

d d Cd Ld ðH hÞ 2
Ks ¼ u (3.2)
dz dz H
where Ks is the turbulent transfer coefficient within the canopy, Cd is the leaf drag
coefficient, Ld is the canopy density, and u is the wind speed within the canopy.
To solve this equation, we have to know how Ks depends on parameters that repre-
sent the canopy’s aerodynamic and morphological features. Mihailovic et al. (2004)
used an approach in which Ks is proportional to wind speed u, i.e., Ks ¼ su were the
scaling length s is an arbitrary, unknown constant. With this assumption we solve
Eq. (3.2) to get the wind speed profile. Although this approach is not physically
unrealistic, from Fig. 3.2 it is seen that the profile obtained from Eq. (3.2) suitably
agrees with observed data.
3.2 CONTINUOUS TIME VERSUS DISCRETE TIME IN

BUILDING THE MODEL
Many mathematical models, more or less sophisticated, of environmental interface
systems have been built and will be built in the form of differential or difference
FIGURE 3.2
Profiles of (a) wind speed and (b) shear stress inside a maize crop. The black circles are
observations (Wilson et al., 1982) and the solid lines are plotted using calculated values. The
wind speed u and shear stress s are normalized by their values u(H) and s(H) at the canopy
top height (Mihailovic et al., 2004).
3.2 Continuous time versus discrete time in building the model 27
equations or systems of such equations. It means that we confront the choice

whether we will deal either with the continuous-time or discrete-time environmental
interface systems, where time is considered as a continuous or discrete variable,
respectively. The dilemma about this choice is yet to be solved. For example, the
qualitative models (describing qualitative relations between the observed variables),
which seem heuristically close to the continuous-time models, exhibit drastically
different behaviors when they are designed in the discrete-time interpretation.
Therefore, it “could be naively to believe that continuous-time and discrete-time
models have the same qualitative characteristics” (Istas, 2005).
Many modelers in this area use mathematical techniques with an idea to replace
the given differential equations by apposite difference equations. It opens the
question “How to choose suitable difference equations whose solutions are ‘good’
approximations to the solutions of the given differential equation?” (van der Vaart,
1973). So a huge effort has been invested into choice of appropriate difference
equations. This question includes a requirement for better understanding of the
fundamental problem: interrelations between classical continuum mathematics
and reality in different sciences. For many environmental interface phenomena
the “continuum” type of thinking, that is, at the basis of any differential equation,
is not natural to the phenomenon but rather constitutes an approximation to a basi-
cally discrete situation. In many papers dealing with this approach, the “infinitesimal
step lengths” handled in the reasoning which lead us to the differential equation are
not really thought of as infinitesimally small but as finite. However, in the last stage
of such reasoning, where the differential equation rises from the differentials, these
“infinitesimal” step lengths go to zero, that is, where the above-mentioned approx-
imation comes in. Under this kind of circumstances, it seems more natural to build
the model as a discrete difference equation from the start, without going through the
painful, doubly approximative process of first, during the modelling stage, finding a
differential equation to approximate a basically discrete situation and then, for
numerical computing purposes, approximating that differential equation by a differ-
ence scheme. In modelling procedure we meet three problems (Mihailovic et al.,
2012). The first problem is this: (1) environmental scientists (also physicists and bi-
ologists among them) come to us with a theory in the form of differential equation
including the mathematical concept of the first derivative; (2) this is done in spite of
the fact that this concept is not a fairly suitable reflection of many environmental
phenomena as a difference equation would be. The second problem is the possible
way for a given differential equation to construct a difference equation with exactly
the “same” collection of solutions. The third problem is defined conversely to the
second one: whether we in any way for a given difference equation can construct
a differential equation with exactly the same solutions? In this book we will give
the advantage to discrete-time approach in building the models describing the
environmental interface phenomena.
It is worth mentioning that the traditional mathematical analysis of physical and
other dynamical systems tacitly assumes that integers and all real numbers, no mat-
ter how large or how small, are physically possible and all mathematically possible
trajectories are physically admissible (Kreinovich, 2003). Traditionally, this

approach has worked well in physics, biology, and in engineering, but it does not
lead to a very good understanding of chaotic systems, which, as it is now known,
are extremely important in the study of real-world phenomena ranging from weather
to biological and environmental interface systems (Mihailovic, 2012).
3.3 TIME IN MODEL BUILDING

In classical physics, the time is an objective continuous function. Traditionally, time
has been modeled as a basic variable taking its values from an interval on a real axis.
The pervasiveness of this concept was largely due to the success of the models it sup-
ported, in particular to the expression of physical laws by differential equations
which ultimately relied on the limiting process, inherent in the notion of a (total
or partial) derivative. Despite this success at the computational level, it has long
been clear that the truly ramified nature of time cannot be captured by what amounts
to a mathematical convention (Smith, 2003), although, all of the fundamental the-
ories of physics are symmetric with respect to time reversal. The only fundamental
theory that picks out a preferred direction of time is the second law of thermody-
namics, which asserts that the entropy of the Universe increases as time flows toward
the future, providing an orientation, or arrow of time, and it is generally believed that
all other time asymmetries, such as our sense that future and past are different, are a
direct consequence of this thermodynamic arrow (Eddington, 1928; Feng and
Crooks, 2008).
In contrast with classical physics in biology, the concept of “time’s cycle” is
commonly applied as a metaphor (Günther and Morgado, 2004). These two and
other notions of time often present in environmental complex systems, we will
consider in Part II.
REFERENCES
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Cartwright, N., 2002. In favor of laws that are not ceteris paribus after all. Erkenntnis 57,
425e439.
Earman, J., Glymour, C., Mitchell, S., 2002. Editorial. Erkenntnis 57, 277e280.
Eddington, A.S., 1928. The Nature of the Physical World. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Feng, E.H., Crooks, G.E., 2008. Length of time’s arrow. Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 330 090602.
Günther, B., Morgado, E., 2004. Time in physics and biology. Biol. Res. 336, 759e765.
Heymann, M., 2010. The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge. WIREs Clim. Change 1,
581e597.
Istas, J., 2005. Mathematical Modeling for the Life Sciences. Springer-Verlag, Netherland.
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Kreinovich, V., 2003. Kolmogorov complexity and chaotic phenomena. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 41,
483e493.
Mihailovic, D.T., 2012. Preface. In: Mihailovic, D.T. (Ed.), Essays on Fundamental and
Applied Environmental Topics. Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Mihailovic, D.T., Alapaty, K., Lalic, B., Arsenic, I., Rajkovic, B., Malinovic, S., 2004. Tur-
bulent transfer coefficient and calculation of air temperature inside the tall grass canopies
in coupled land-atmosphere scheme for environmental modelling. J. Appl. Meteorol. 43,
1498e1512.
Mihailovic, D.T., Kallos, G., 1997. A sensitivity study of a coupled-vegetation boundary-layer
scheme for use in atmospheric modelling. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 82, 283e315.
Mihailovic, D.T., Mimic, G., 2012. Kolmogorov complexity and chaotic phenomenon in
computing the environmental interface temperature. Mod. Phys. Lett. B 26 (27).
Pielke Sr., R.A., 2002. Mesoscale Meteorological Modelling. Academic Press, San Diego.
Reutlinger, A., Schurz, G., Hüttemann, A., 2014. Ceteris paribus laws. In: Zalta, E.N. (Ed.).
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Sellers, P., Mintz, Y., Sud, Y.C., Dachler, A., 1986. A simple biosphere model (SiB) for use
within general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 505e531.
Smith, J.D.H., 2003. Time in biology and physics. In: Buccheri, R., Saniga, M., Stuckey, W.M.
(Eds.), The Nature of Time: Geometry, Physics and Perception. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Stull, R.B., 1988. An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology. Kluwer Academic Pub-
lisher, Dordrecht.
Tolk, A., 2013. Ontology, Epistemology, and Teleology for Modeling and Simulation: Philo-
sophical Foundations for Intelligent M&S Applications. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg.
van der Vaart, H.R., 1973. A comparative investigation of certain difference equations and
related differential equations: implications for model building. Bull. Math. Biol. 35,
195e211.
Wilson, J.D., Ward, D.P., Thurtell, G.W., Kidd, G.E., 1982. Statistics of atmospheric turbu-
lence within and above a corn canopy. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 24, 495e519.
CHAPTER
Examples of use of the

formal complex analysis
4
In this chapter, we present two simplified but illustrative examples of formal com-
plex analysis (FCA): (1) making of the conceptual hierarchy of animals based on
their attributes and (2) construction of the subjective interface between biological
systems and their environments. These examples are based on reasoning from
Crvenkovic et al. (2009, 2012) and Wolff (1994).
4.1 USE OF FORMAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT

OF ANIMALS: AN EXAMPLE
The following example is adapted from Wolff (1994). Table 4.1 describes which of
the mentioned attributes some animals have. This is indicated by crosses. An empty
cell indicates that the corresponding animal does not have the corresponding
attribute. To explain the notion of a formal concept of a context, we look at the
attributes of the FINCH and look for all other animals, within the same context
that share the same set of attributes. Hence, we obtain sets A ¼ {FINCH, EAGLE}
and B ¼ {flying, bird}. A is the set of all objects having all of the attributes of B, and
B is the set of all attributes that are valid for all of the objects of A. Each such pair
(A, B) is called a formal concept. Between the concepts of a given context there is a
natural hierarchical order, the “subconceptesuperconcept” relation. For example,
the preying, flying birds describe a subconcept of the concept of the flying birds.
The extent of this subconcept consists only of the EAGLE, and the intent consists
Table 4.1 Object Versus Attributes in the Context of Animals

Attribute
Animals Preying Flying Bird Mammal
Lion X X
Finch X X
Eagle X X X
Hare X
Ostrich X
Reprinted from Crvenkovic , S., Mihailovic, D.T., Balaz, I., 2012. Formal concept analysis and category
theory in modeling interaction of living systems and their environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and
Applied Environmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44;
with permission from Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
32 CHAPTER 4 Examples of use of the formal complex analysis
of the three attributes preying, flying, and bird. In the example we started with, the
extent is the set A, while the intent is the set B. In the following line diagram, we
represent the conceptual hierarchy of all concepts of the context ANIMAL
(Fig. 4.1).
Following the reading rule for conceptual hierarchy, we can recognize from the
line diagram that the lion has the attributes preying and mammal. Using the reading
rule, we can easily understand from the line diagram the extent and the intent of each
concept by collecting all of the objects below each respective attribute above the cir-
cle of the given concept. Hence the object concept “finch” has the extent finch and
eagle and the intent flying and bird. For this example, the extent of the top concept is
the set of all objects, while the intent of it does not contain any attribute. However, in
other contexts, the intent of the top concept may not be empty, e.g., if we add to the
given context the attribute “animal” with crosses in each row, then the top concept
would be the attribute concept of “animal” and the intent of the top concept would
contain only the attribute “animal.”
If we extend the set of objects, we must change the lattice of conceptual hierar-
chy. For example, the new object bee has an attribute “flying” but it is not a bird.
Thus, we have to separate “flying” and “bird” to meet finch.
FIGURE 4.1
Conceptual hierarchy of all concepts of the context animal according to Table 4.1. A line
diagram consists of circles, lines, objects (written in capital letters), and attributes (small
letters). The relation between concepts and attributes can be read from the line diagram by
the following simple reading rule: an object g has an attribute m if and only if there is an
upward leading path from the “g” circle to the “m” circle.
Reprinted from Crvenkovic, S., Mihailovic, D.T., Balaz, I., 2012. Formal concept analysis and category theory in
modeling interaction of living systems and their environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and Applied Envi-
ronmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44; with permission from
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
4.2 Use of formal complex analysis 33
FIGURE 4.2
Modification of conceptual hierarchy to incorporate flying animals that are not birds.
modeling interaction of living systems and their environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and Applied Envi-
ronmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44; with permission from
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
According to the second diagram (Fig. 4.2), “mammals” and “flying” imply
“preying” and “bird”, i.e., they meet at the bottom of the lattice, and “preying”
and “bird” are above. However, it does not correspond well with our world, since
bats are flying mammals and not birds. Thus, we have to extend the lattice by adding
a new vertex bat. This is shown in the third diagram (Fig. 4.3).
4.2 USE OF FORMAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTING

THE SUBJECTIVE INTERFACE BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS
In this example, we present a simplified but illustrative example of an abstract living
system’s interaction with the environment. Our goal is to represent how subjective
processing of the environment is achieved, what are the functional consequences
and how this process influences the dynamics of the organization of living systems.
This example is based on reasoning from Crvenkovic et al. (2009, 2012), with addi-
tional explanations and clarifications.
Let us define a set of environmental objects O ¼ fo1 ; o2 ; o3 ; .; mn g. From the
perspective of living systems, only objects that have some recognizable attributes
could be perceived. Therefore, we can define a set of attributes
M ¼ fm1 ; m2 ; m3 ; .; mn g. Within FCA, objects and attributes are mutually defined,
34 CHAPTER 4 Examples of use of the formal complex analysis
FIGURE 4.3
Further modification of conceptual hierarchy to separate flying birds from flying mammals.
modeling interaction of living systems and their environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and Applied
Environmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44; with permission
from Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
so we automatically obtain set G4O : fcg˛Gjðg; mÞ˛Ig, where I is a binary

relation between M and G. In other words, every object that does not form a binary
relation with a corresponding attribute and vice versa, simply does not exist from the
perspective of a particular formal context. Thus, the concept of the “whole”
environment changes its epistemological status and is reduced to an observable
environment, i.e., to a set of objects characterized by defined attributes. After
recognizing an object, the living system categorizes it into functional subsets. So,
the supposed object can be categorized, for example, as a source of food, place
for shelter, or threat. In terms of the FCA, the environment is separated into a set
of concepts within a context defined by the triple (G, M, I). In simple organisms,
the attributes used in separating environmental factors from one another can be
divided into two main categories: physical influences (various types of radiation
or temperature) and chemical influences (various types of molecules or ions).
However, these attributes are further divided into a set of subattributes, which can
be represented as a scale of values within a given attribute. In this way, a segment
of the environment is encircled by a certain attribute and is further divided according
to the given scale within that attribute, thus establishing a many-valued context (G,
M, W, I) where G is a set of objects, M is a set of many-valued attributes, W is a set of
attribute values, and I is a ternary relation I4G M W.
To illustrate that, we will use the very simple model of a typical photosynthetic
organism. Organisms interact with their environment using evolved receptors.
4.2 Use of formal complex analysis 35
At any given time, the set of active receptors reflects metabolic state of the organism.
In our example, we can divide receptors into two groups: into photoreceptors and
receptors for various types of external molecules. Therefore, in our conceptual
scheme we postulate the existence of two main attributes: radiation and molecule
(Table 4.2). The attribute “molecule” is further divided into two subclasses based
on their size, denoted as L and S. All molecules that can spontaneously enter or leave
cells without interacting with receptors are in the S group. These can be water
molecules or small water-soluble ions. Consequently, all other molecules are in
the L group. This group is further divided into several types of recognizable
molecular structures (Table 4.2). Similarly, “Radiation” attribute is divided into
several subattributes. Finally, we introduce one more attribute, defined as a global
regulator. To preserve the simplicity of the model, this attribute does not have any
subattributes. In living organisms, the role of global regulators is to coordinate meta-
bolic response of the cell as a response to change of external conditions. As has
already been mentioned, each attribute defined here corresponds to the receptive
ability of an organism to perform the following chain of actions: (1) recognition
of some stimulus (to form concept), (2) assimilation of stimulus and/or changing
its own configuration, and (3) activation (indirectly or directly) of some other
molecules to process the received information.
Because FCA is strictly lattice based, it is unable to depict the sequential
dynamics of some process. Therefore, we will construct several different formal
contexts and corresponding lattices, which will demonstrate how the internal
network responds to external stimuli.
We will first define formal context that shows the interaction of the generic
photosynthetic organism with the environment. According to the previously
described process, the organism has a limited set of active receptors, and through
them, it determines which kind of external influences it can observe and react to
them. In this example (Table 4.3), the organism can initially sense water and small
ions (denoted as Mol. smaller than(1)), three kinds of organic molecular structures
(denoted as X, Y, and Z), and three kinds of radiation sources (denoted as
700 nm, 450 nm, and UV radiation).
Table 4.2 List of All Attributes Used in the Model. In Further Text, the Term
Structure (X.Q) Will Be Denoted by the Strings Str(X.Q)
Attribute Subattributes
Molecule L S Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure

X Y Z W Q
Radiation 700 nm 450 nm UV
Reprinted from Crvenkovic , S., Mihailovic, D.T., Balaz, I., 2012. Formal concept analysis and category
theory in modeling interaction of living systems and their environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and
Applied Environmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44;
with permission from Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
36
CHAPTER 4 Examples of use of the formal complex analysis
Table 4.3 Formal Context Which Represents Initial Steps in Interaction With the Environment
Mol. Mol.
Larger Smaller
Molecule Radiation Than(1) Than(2) Mol. StrX Mol. StrY Mol. StrZ Rad. 700 nm Rad. 450 nm Rad. UV
Object 0 X X
Object 1 X X
Object 2 X X
Object 3 X X
Object 4 X X
Object 5 X X
Object 6 X X X
Object 7 X X X
Object 8 X X X
Reprinted from Crvenkovic, S., Mihailovic

, D.T., Balaz, I., 2012. Formal concept analysis and category theory in modeling interaction of living systems and their
environments. In: Essays of Fundamental and Applied Environmental Topics. Nova Publishers, Nova Science Publisher Inc., New York, pp. 23e44; with permission
from Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
(siehe z. B. G i e b e l : Säugeth. 1855, 231; N e h r i n g in Rohdes
Schweinezucht 4. Aufl. 1891, 6; F l o w e r & L y d e k k e r : Intr.
Mamm. 1891, 287). B l a i n v i l l e (Ostéogr. Onguligr. Sus 1847,
160) sagt m 5/6, bildet aber nur 5/5 ab (pl. V und VIII), und G r a y
(Cat. Carn … Mamm. 1869, 348): „Premolars 3/3 · 3/3; the front one
very small, and early deciduous“. 14 Thatsache ist, dass beim
Babirusa, zwar nur ausnahmsweise, aber doch relativ häufig, 6
Backenzähne vorkommen; meistens, wenn auch nicht immer, ist der
vorderste (3.) Praemolar der überzählige. Das D r e s d n e r Museum
hat unter 12 adulten Schädeln e i n e n , der links oben den 3.
Praemolar, links unten aber einen 4., zu hinterst stehenden, abnorm
gestalteten Molar hat (Nr. 1191); ebenso besitzt die
Landwirthschaftliche Hochschule in B e r l i n unter 7 adulten
Schädeln e i n e n (Nr. 485) mit einem überzähligen vordersten
Praemolar links oben und unten (N e h r i n g : Landw. Jahrb. 1888,
48 und briefl.); das Museum für Naturkunde in B e r l i n unter 15
(davon 5 aus meinen Sammlungen) e i n e n mit einem überzähligen
oberen linken vordersten Praemolar; das B r a u n s c h w e i g e r
Museum unter 6 adulten e i n e n , jüngeren, mit einem überzähligen
vordersten Praemolar rechts und links, oben und unten (briefl. durch
Herrn G r a b o w s k i ); das L e i d e n e r Museum unter 11 adulten
e i n e n (Ex. a J e n t i n k : Cat. Ost. IX, 164 1887 und briefl.) mit
einem überzähligen vordersten Praemolar links oben; das P a r i s e r
Museum (unter 14 oder mehr) einen adulten weiblichen Schädel mit
einem 4., zu hinterst stehenden, noch nicht durchgebrochenen Molar
rechts und links, oben und unten (von der Reise der Astrolabe, briefl.
durch Prof. M i l n e - E d w a r d s ; auf dieses Exemplar komme ich
unten, bei der Bezahnung des Weibchens, zurück).
Es dürfte hieraus hervorgehen, dass der Babirusa sich bezüglich

seiner Bezahnung in einem Übergangstadium befindet. Es kommen
zwar 3 Praemolaren beim Zahnwechsel vor, allein der vorderste fällt
fast immer wieder aus, wie schon G r a y bemerkte; man kann daher
p 3/3 nicht in die Zahnformel für das bleibende Gebiss aufnehmen. 15
Wenn G r a y aber (l. c. 349) meint, dass dieser 3. Praemolar nur bei
jungen Thieren noch zu finden sei, so irrte er, denn unser Schädel
Nr. 1191 gehörte einem alten an. Ob in a l l e n Fällen im definitiven
Gebisse 3 Praemolaren auftreten, muss noch sicher gestellt werden,
ich glaube es nicht; auch N e h r i n g (Landw. J. 1888, 48) nimmt an,
dass es gewöhnlich nicht der Fall sei. Diese Reduction zu 2
Praemolaren steht in Correlation zu der aussergewöhnlichen
Entwicklung der Caninen, und das Erscheinen und ausnahmsweise
Stehenbleiben des vordersten Praemolars ist als Atavismus
aufzufassen. Wie der anomale 4., zu hinterst stehende, Molar
(Dresdner und Pariser Museum) zu deuten sei, wüsste ich nicht zu
sagen, da die Gattung Sus auch nur 3 Molaren hat; möglicherweise
handelt es sich dabei nur um eine individuelle Variation ohne tiefere
Bedeutung (auch beim Orang utan tritt bekanntlich relativ häufig ein
4. echter Molar auf, s. Mitth. Zool. Mus. Dr. II, 228 1877). Das
Zusammentreffen eines p 3 sup. links mit einem m 4 inf. links bei Nr.
1191 sehe ich für zufällig an, da sich die Zahnreihen nicht etwa
verschoben, sondern beide überzählige Zähne keinen Gegenzahn
haben. Wie B l a i n v i l l e (l. c.) zu der Angabe „m 5/6“ kam, in
Worten: „Les molaires … se réduisent aisément et d’assez bonne
heure à cinq en haut, à six en bas“, verstehe ich um so weniger, als
er 14 Schädel besass (p. 136), unter denen 5/6 jedenfalls nur eine
Ausnahme gewesen sein kann.
Das M i l c h g e b i s s des Babirusa ist nach B l a i n v i l l e (l. c. p.

160)
id 2/3 cd 0/1 pd 3/3,
in Worten: „Dans la première dentition …, les incisives sont assez

bien comme dans la seconde; mais par une singularité remarquable,
il n’y a de canines qu’en bas …, et l’on ne voit à la barre aucunes
traces de la première fausse molaire de la deuxième dentition, mais
seulement l’antépénultième, parfaitement en ligne avec les trois
molaires de lait …“ N e h r i n g (Landw. J. 1888, 48) meint: „Im
Milchgebisse scheint id 3 sup. ebenfalls zu fehlen, dagegen
scheinen drei Milchbackenzähne, wie bei der Gattung Sus,
vorhanden zu sein“ und er citirt dazu „G r a y Hand-List … Edent …
Mamm. 1873, Pl. 27, Fig. 1.“ Im Cat. Carn … Mamm. 1869, 348
hatte G r a y bereits von diesem Schädel Nr. 7180 gesprochen: „a
small skull … of a [23]half-grown animal, which has developed its
second true grinder, and which is without canines“ (scil. upper
canines). Herr T h o m a s hatte die Güte mir mitzutheilen, dass es
ein kleiner junger Schädel sei, halb so gross wie der von G r a y
darunter als Fig. 2 ebenso gross abgebildete, und dass er noch sein
volles Milchgebiss (mit 3 Milchpraemolaren) besitze.
Ob die obige Formel des Milchgebisses keine Ausnahme erleidet,

wird erst ein grösseres Material entscheiden können.
A n m e r k u n g . Einer Eigenthümlichkeit am o s s p h e n o i d a l e
des Babirusa möchte ich hier anmerkungsweise gedenken: O w e n :
(Anat. Vert. II, 469 1866) sagt: „A remarkable peculiarity is …
presented by the fossae at the inner side of the base of the
pterygoids, which lead to sinuses communicating on one or both
sides with the sphenoidal sinus“. B l a i n v i l l e erwähnt in seiner
relativ ausführlichen Ostéographie (Onguligr. Sus 1847, 137) nichts
davon, sowenig wie T u r n e r (P. Z. S. 1848, 69), trotz seiner
Genauigkeit bei dieser Schädelgegend am Schwein und Babirusa;
andere Autoren schweigen darüber bis auf G r a y und H e u d e .
G r a y (Cat. Carn … Mamm. 1869, 348 und Hand-List Edent …
Mamm. 1873, 67) meint, die Gruben würden mit dem Alter des
Thieres tiefer, und vielleicht besässe sie nur das Männchen. In
Bezug auf Letzteres bemerke ich, dass ein adultes Weibchen des
Museums (B 2523) die Höhlungen ausgeprägt zeigt. Neben dem
Alter scheint ihre Tiefe auch individuell sehr zu variiren. Man findet
die Gegend zwischen den Basen der laminae mediales des
processus pterygoideus langgestreckter als bei Sus und mehr oder
weniger, oft sehr stark vertieft und mit der kammerartig abgetheilten
Keilbeinhöhlung communicirend; manchmal liegt diese ganz offen,
manchmal, wenn auch weniger häufig, liegt die betreffende
Knochenplatte wohl in einer Ebene mit dem Gaumen (wie bei Sus),
aber man sieht durch ein grosses ovales Fenster in die Tiefe,
manchmal ist die Gegend nur vertieft ohne Zugang zu der
Keilbeinhöhlung. Beide Hälften sind auch nicht immer gleichmässig
gestaltet. H e u d e (Mém. H. N. Chin. II, 2 p. 94 1892) bemerkt:
„L’exhaussement de cette voûte est exagéré jusqu’à la destruction
de l’os chez le Babyroussa“.
[Inhalt]
Bewehrung der Sau.
Es scheint ziemlich allgemein angenommen zu werden, dass der

weibliche Babirusa obere und untere Eckzähne besitze, nur weitaus
schwächere als der männliche, geradeso wie dies bei den
Geschlechtern der Sus-Arten der Fall ist. G r a y allerdings hatte
(P. Z. S. 1852, 131) gesagt: „The upper canines (in both sexes)
coming out from the side of the jaw and bent upwards from the base,
and then arched backwards“, später aber ist er anderer Ansicht
geworden; 1868 (l. c. p. 42) und 1869 (Cat. Carn … Mamm. 348)
schweigt er darüber, und 1873 (Hand-List Edentate … Mamm. p. 67)
bemerkt er: „canines not developed in the females“. Dieses hatte
schon D u p p e r e y (Voy. Coq. 1826, 125) bemerkt: „Les …
femelles, q u i n ’ a v a i e n t p o i n t d e d é f e n s e s …“ Beides
sollte sich wohl nur auf die oberen Hauer beziehen. O w e n
(Odontogr. 1840–1845, 547), S c h l e g e l (Handl. I, 111 1857) und
N e h r i n g (Rohdes Schweinezucht 4. Aufl. 1891, 6) sprechen nicht
vom weiblichen Gebisse. W a l l a c e (Mal. Arch. D. A. I, 395 1869)
sagt, dass das Weibchen die grossen Hauer nicht besitze, vielleicht
meinte er aber, dass es kleinere habe. Folgende Autoren äussern
sich positiv: Q u o y & G a i m a r d (Voy. Astrol. I, 128 1830): „Les
canines de la femelle sont très-courtes et ne font seulement que
percer la peau“; sie bilden das auch sehr deutlich auf Pl. 23 nach
dem Leben ab. W . V r o l i k (Rech. Babyr. N. Verh. 1. Kl. k. Ned.
Inst. Wet. X, 212 1844) spricht davon, dass die Caninen des
Weibchens nicht verlängert seien. B l a i n v i l l e (Ostéogr. Onguligr.
Sus 1847, 160), der eingehender und mit Abbildungen über den
Babirusa handelt 16: „On avait dit que la femelle manquait des
défenses, mais elles sont seulement beaucoup plus courtes, les
supérieures dépassent à peine les trous de la lèvre supérieure“. Er
bildete auch (Pl. II) das Skelet des adulten Weibchens, das von
1829–1832 im Jardin des Plantes gelebt und dort geworfen hatte,
ab; es ist von demselben Exemplare, das Q u o y & G a i m a r d (l.
c.) nach dem Leben (aber z. Th. fehlerhaft) dargestellt hatten. 17
[24]F i t z i n g e r (SB Ak. Wien L 1, 428 1864): „Eckzähne des
Weibchens sehr kurz und auch die oberen, welche kaum einige
Linien über die Durchbohrung der Schnauze hinausragen“. Die
Angabe „einige Linien“ dürfte F i t z i n g e r nur der Q u o y &
G a i m a r d schen Beschreibung aus Eigenem hinzugethan haben.
Dies formte B r e h m (Thierl. II, 743 1865) wiederum etwas um:
„Beim Weibchen sind die Eckzähne sehr kurz, und die oberen,
welche ebenso wie bei dem Männchen die Schnauze durchbohren,
ragen kaum einige Linien über sie empor“, hat aber in der 2. Auflage
(III, 560 1877) aus den einigen Linien „einen Centimeter“ gemacht,
was der Herausgeber der 3. (III, 528 1891) dann noch in „kaum
einen Finger breit“ abänderte, so dass der Zahn von Auflage zu
Auflage ohne Grund gewachsen ist! L y d e k k e r (Nat. Hist. II, 436
1894): „The female has small tusks“.
Zu obiger Umschau wurde ich veranlasst durch ein kürzlich

erhaltenes adultes, wenn auch nicht altes Babirusa Weibchen (B
2522, Skelet B 2523) von der Insel Lembeh, d a s k e i n e S p u r
o b e r e r E c k z ä h n e h a t , und selbstverständlich ist demgemäss
auch die Rüsseldecke nicht durchbohrt. Der Oberkiefer trägt aber
über der Stelle, wo die Alveole des oberen Eckzahnes sich befinden
müsste, einen ganz ansehnlichen Knochenkamm, eine
aufrechtstehende Krämpe. 18 Wenn auch die Grösse (Schädellänge
269 mm), der Befund der Schädelnähte und der Abschleifungsgrad
der Zähne beweisen, dass ein adultes Exemplar vorliegt, so öffnete
ich doch (rechts) den Knochen, um mich zu überzeugen, ob
vielleicht eine Anlage zu einem Eckzahn oder das Rudiment einer
Alveole vorhanden sei. Dies ist aber nicht der Fall. Tafel IX Figur 3 ist
der Oberkiefer dieses Weibchens in n. Gr. abgebildet.
Im Unterkiefer sind kurze Eckzähne vorhanden, die 10 und 12 mm

aus der Alveole hervorragen. Wir sahen oben, dass das Milchgebiss
des Babirusa auch nur u n t e r e Caninen aufweist. Es ist, als ob das
Material zu der ausserordentlichen Entwicklung des grossen oberen
männlichen Hauers aufgespart bleiben sollte. O w e n (Odontogr.
1840–1845, 548) sagt über das Babirusa Gebiss: „The molar series
is speedily reduced to two premolars and three true molars. The
great activity of the vascular matrix of the long tusks soon exhausts
the conservative force of those of the adjoining small premolars“.
Dieselbe Tendenz, die die Molaren reducirte, scheint auch die
oberen Eckzähne des Milchgebisses zum Schwunde gebracht zu
haben, und scheint im Stande zu sein, dies auch beim Weibchen
bewirken zu können. Ich sage „z u k ö n n e n “, denn dass es
Weibchen mit oberen Eckzähnen giebt, beweist das von Q u o y &
G a i m a r d und B l a i n v i l l e abgebildete Exemplar.
Möglicherweise kommt ein oberer Eckzahn ausnahmsweise auch
beim Milchgebisse vor.
Das Leidener Museum besitzt (Cat. ost. IX, 164 1887) zwei weibliche
Babirusa Schädel, und Dr. J e n t i n k hatte die Güte, sie in Bezug
auf die oberen Eckzähne für mich anzusehen. Er theilte mir mit, dass
das junge Exemplar keine Spur davon habe, das semiadulte links
zwar einen 12 mm langen, rechts jedoch keine Spur; die Haken der
Unterkiefer seien 12 und 14 mm, die Schädel 220 und 270 mm lang.
Es scheint demnach, da das als semiadult bezeichnete Weibchen
dieselbe Schädellänge aufweist wie das Dresdner adulte, dass es
rechts auch keinen Eckzahn mehr bekommen haben würde, sonst
müssten schon Spuren davon da sein.
Im Londoner Zoologischen Garten lebten u. a. zwei Babirusa

Weibchen (P. Z. S. 1883, 463), von denen Eines geworfen hat (l. c.
1884, 55). Dr. S c l a t e r schrieb mir freundlichst, auf meine Anfrage,
„that our female Babirussa had no tusks, nor any signs of them“. 19
Ich glaube, dass dies nur auf die äussere Erscheinung Bezug haben
soll; wie sich der Schädel verhält, habe ich nicht eruiren können. Im
Britischen Museum befinden sich nach Herrn d e W i n t o n s mir
gewordener gütiger Mittheilung, zweifellose weibliche Schädel ohne
Hauer, aber es sind keine alten.
Aus alledem geht hervor, dass es weibliche Babirusas giebt, die nie
obere Eckzähne bekommen, während sie bei anderen wohl, wenn
auch schwach entwickelt, auftreten. Bemerkenswerth ist das
Leidener [25]Exemplar mit einem Eckzahne nur an e i n e r Seite. 20 In
dieser Beziehung befindet sich also der weibliche Babirusa vielleicht
in dem Stadium des Überganges aus dem Besitz oberer Eckzähne
in einen Zustand, in dem sie ihm ganz fehlen, und man würde dann
annehmen können, dass es in einer ferneren Zukunft überhaupt
keine weiblichen Individuen mit oberen Eckzähnen mehr geben wird;
die Differenzirung der Geschlechter schritte demnach fort, wie auch
nach der allgemein herrschenden Entwicklung nicht anders zu
erwarten ist. Ob aber die Normalformel für den weiblichen Babirusa
bezüglich der Eckzähne 0/1 oder 1/1 zu lauten habe, lässt sich erst
sagen, wenn mehr authentische weibliche Schädel in den
Sammlungen sein werden, um zu erkennen, ob 0/1 oder 1/1 die
Ausnahme ist. Jedenfalls zeigt unsere Unkenntniss in diesem
untergeordneten Punkte wieder, wie gewunden der Weg zur
Wahrheit, und wie schwer es ist, ohne ein grosses Material selbst so
einfache Fragen zu entscheiden.
1 W i l c k e n s (Enc. Thierheilk. IX, 342 1892?) hält es für nahe verwandt mit
Porcula salvania Hdgs. von Indien, er steht jedoch mit dieser Ansicht allein, und
auch ich halte sie nicht für gerechtfertigt. (S. Abb. des Zwergschweins J. Asiat.
Soc. Bengal 16 pt. I pl. 12 und 13 1847 und 17 pl. 27 1848, auch P. Z. S. 1853 pl.
37 und 1882 pl. 37.) ↑
2 Te i j s m a n n (Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl. Ind. 38, 77 1879) sagt, dass der
Babirusa allein auf Ost Celebes (und Buru) vorkomme, damit meinte er aber die
nördliche Halbinsel, die nach Osten gewendet ist. ↑
3 Te i j s m a n n (l. c. 23, 367 1861) nennt den männlichen Babirusa der
Minahassa kalawatan, den weiblichen wairi; babirusa ist maleiisch. ↑
4 Folgendes Beispiel dafür fiel mir vor Kurzem in die Hände: „The purser …
returned at eight in the evening with … five pigs, one of which, the moment it
was hoisted in, ran to the opposite gangway and jumped overboard; and though a
boat went immediately in pursuit, it could not be found. An hour and a half
afterwards the animal came alongside, and was got on board not much the better
for its excursion.“ C r u i s e : New Zealand 1824, 94. ↑
5 B r e h m nennt die Sula Inseln „Xurillen“, sieht Manado auf Celebes für eine
kleine Insel: „Malado“ an und hält das Vorkommen auf Neu Guinea und Neu
Irland für möglich. Auf letzteres komme ich zurück. In der 2. Aufl. III, 559 1877
steht „Sulla Mangoli“, in der 3. III, 527 1891 „Sulla, Mangola“! ↑
6 Ich bemerke, dass in meiner Übersetzung dieses Werkes I, 395 (Zeile 7 von
unten) Borneo statt Buru steht, ein irreführender Druckfehler! In seiner „Geogr.
Verbr.“ (D. A. II, 244 1876) giebt W a l l a c e nur Celebes und Buru an. ↑
7 Auch B l a i n v i l l e in seiner grossen Ostéographie (Onguligr. Sus. 1847, 197)
sagt: Le S. babirussa exclusivement „à la plupart“ des îles de l’archipel indien! ↑
8 G r a y hat ausserdem F i t z i n g e r s Synonymie, die ausführlichste
vorhandene (p. 426–7), ausgezogen, wie aus den übernommenen Fehlern
erkennbar ist. ↑
9 Schon 1843 (List Mamm. p. 185) hatte G r a y Malacca angegeben und 1873
(Hand-List Edentate … Mamm. p. 68) führt er 13 Schädel einzeln von daher
auf. Es ist dies nur eine Namensverwechselung mit „Moluccos“. ↑
10 Die kreisförmigen unteren Hauer auf der Abbildung bei F l o w e r &
L y d e k k e r (Intr. Mamm. 1891, 287) sind nicht naturgetreu, derartige
kommen, wie wir unten sehen werden, nur als seltene Ausnahme vor, und eine
solche wollten die Verfasser nicht abbilden. ↑
11 Siehe über diese die Bemerkungen unten p. 22. ↑
12 Bekanntlich sind zwei Schweine-Arten von Neu Guinea beschrieben: Sus
papuensis Less. und Sus niger Finsch (ceramicus Gr.). Hr. W a h n e s , der
ebenfalls mehrere Jahre an der Astrolabebai lebte, hält es nicht für ausgemacht,
dass es zwei verschiedene Arten seien. Er erzählte mir auch, dass wilde Eber
selbst in die Dörfer kommen, um die läufigen zahmen Sauen zu decken, was stets
grosse Aufregung unter den Eingeborenen hervorriefe, und dass daher vielfache
Bastardirungen [19]zwischen domesticirten und wilden Schweinen entstehen (vgl.
J e n t i n k : Notes Leyden Mus. XIII, 102 1891 und N e h r i n g : Rohdes
Schweinezucht 4. Aufl. 1891, 12). Hr. G e i s l e r dagegen meint, dass das braune
und das schwarze Schwein im Wilden stets gesondert leben, und da das schwarze
ungestreifte, das braune gestreifte Frischlinge hat, wie die Exemplare des
Museums beweisen, so spricht dieses auch für die Artverschiedenheit. Hr.
G e i s l e r fand ein oder zwei Tage alte Frischlinge von Sus niger bereits einfarbig
schwarz. N e h r i n g (l. c.) giebt beides ebenfalls an. M a c l a y (Natuurk. Tijdschr.
Nederl. Ind. 35, 69 1875) sagt, dass die zahmen Schweine der Astrolabebai
Abkömmlinge der wilden seien (was auch mit meinen Erfahrungen im Nordwesten
der Insel übereinstimmt), aber dass sie in der Jugend gestreift seien und im Alter
schwarz würden, was nach Obigem auf einem Irrthume beruhen muss, wenn es
sich nicht um Bastarde gehandelt haben kann. ↑
13 Vgl. dazu C o d r i n g t o n : The Melanesians 1891, 57 mit Anm. und 328. ↑
14 In G r a y s Hand-List Edent … Mamm. 1873, 67 steht: Schneidezähne 44⁄6–6,
statt 2⅔–3. ↑
15 T u r n e r (P. Z. S. 1848, 69 Anm.) wusste, dass der Babirusa mehr als 5
Molaren haben kann, dass aber das Normale 5 sei. ↑
16P. 136–137, 159–160 und Pl. II Skelet fem., Schädel und Wirbel juv., Pl. V
Schädel mas (in der Tafelerklärung p. 225 steht fem.), Pl. VI und VII
Skelettheile, Pl. VIII Zähne mas (in der Tafelerklärung p. 229 steht fem.). ↑
17 Dieses Exemplar (s. oben) besitzt, wie ich von Prof. M i l n e - E d w a r d s
erfuhr, überzählige, noch nicht durchgebrochene, zu hinterst stehende vierte
Molaren beiderseits oben und unten. Dass B l a i n v i l l e dieses gar nicht erwähnt,
und dass es auch in den Abbildungen nicht zur Darstellung gelangte, ist mir nicht
erklärlich. Wie schon Anm. 1 angegeben, stimmt die Tafelerklärung z. Th. nicht mit
den Abbildungen. ↑
18 H e u d e (Mém. H. N. Chin. II, 2 p. 91 1892) meint, dass das Weibchen diesen
Knochenkamm („aileron“) nicht besitze, allein unser Exemplar widerspricht
dem. Es könnte jedoch möglicherweise auch Weibchen geben, denen er fehlt. Bei
dem jungen Schädel mit Milchgebiss, den G r a y (Cat. Carn … Mamm. 1869, 348
und List Edent … Mamm. 1873, 68 Pl. XXVII, 1) bespricht und abbildet, ist auch
schon eine Andeutung des Kammes vorhanden. ↑
19Abbildungen eines jungen Männchens und eines Jungen, das kurz vor der
Ankunft in London geworfen worden war, findet man P. Z. S. 1860, 443 pl.
LXXXIII und 1883, 463 pl. XLVII. ↑
20Eine ungleichseitige Entwicklung der Hauer scheint auch sonst stattzufinden,
denn G i e b e l (Säugeth. 1855, 231) bemerkt: „Zuweilen bleiben beide
Eckzähne der einen Seite um mehr als die Hälfte der Grösse hinter der anderen
Seite zurück.“ ↑
[Inhalt]
13. Sciurus tonkeanus n. sp.
Ta f e l X Figur 1 (c. ¾ n. Gr.)
Sciurus S c . l e u c o m o M . S c h l . s i m i l i s , s e d m i n o r ,
macula collari albescenti pilisque auricularibus
nigris nullis et supra caudaque flavescentior
(u m b r i n o - f l a v o - o c h r a c e u s Rdgw. III, 17).
H a b . Tonkean, insulae Celebes peninsula septentrionali-orientalis.
N o m . i n d . siling.
Kleiner und farbiger als Sciurus leucomus Müll. Schl., von der
nördlichen Halbinsel des Landes, von wo die Art aus der Minahassa
und dem Gorontaloschen bekannt ist (J e n t i n k Cat. XII, 25 1888).
Von Sc. tonkeanus liegen mir nur platte Felle ohne Knochen vor, so
dass genaue Maasse nicht zu geben sind. Das Fehlen der zwei
hellen Halsflecke und der schwarzen Ohrbüschel, wie Sc. leucomus
sie aufweist, unterscheidet tonkeanus leicht; an den Ohren ist ein
Büschel nur angedeutet und hellbräunlich, wie die ganze
Ohrberandung.
Aus der Leucomus-Gruppe sind nunmehr von Celebes drei, auch als
Subspecies aufzufassende Formen bekannt:
leucomus Müll. Schl. von Nord Celebes,

weberi Jent. von Central Celebes (W e b e r : Zool. Erg. I, 115 pl.
VIII u. X, 1–3 1890–91) und
tonkeanus von Nordost Celebes,
die an ihren geographischen Berührungzonen vielleicht mehr oder
weniger in einander übergehen. Vom Süden des Landes ist, meines
Wissens, noch kein Sciurus der Leucomus-Gruppe registrirt; ob der
hier vorkommende nun Sc. weberi oder eine vierte Subspecies sei,
wird die Zukunft lehren. 1
Sc. weberi unterscheidet sich von tonkeanus durch einen schwarzen

Rückenstreif und das Schwarz an den Ohren, sowie durch im
Allgemeinen röthere Färbung.
1 E v e r e t t (bei H a r t e r t Nov. Zool. III, 150 1896) beobachtete einen Sciurus

am Pik von Bonthain über 6000′ hoch. ↑
[Inhalt]
14. Sciurus leucomus Müll. Schl.
Ta f e l X F i g u r 2 (unter ⅓ n. Gr.)
Diese Art hat bekanntlich einen grossen weisslichen Fleck jederseits

am Hinterhals und auch Schwarz an den Ohren. Von dem Weiss am
Halse sagt A n d e r s o n (Anat. Zool. Res. I, 252 1878): „The series
in the Leyden and Paris Museums from the Celebes prove that the
white on the side of the neck is not always present, for one specimen
shows it disappearing and in another there is no trace of it, and
others lead from the one to the other extreme, but when this neck
spot is fully developed it forms a great violet-white lappet.“ Mir liegen
16 Exemplare von Main (10), Manado (1), Lotta (3) und Amurang (2)
in der Minahassa, 2 von Gorontalo und 2 von der Insel Lembeh bei
Kema vor. Bei manchen Weibchen ist der helle Fleck fast mehr
ausgeprägt als bei den Männchen, allein dieser Character hat, wie
die Exemplare ergeben, Nichts mit dem Geschlechte zu thun, auch
Nichts mit der Jahreszeit oder der [26]Localität, denn Individuen z. B.
vom Februar und von demselben Orte (Main) zeigen weniger gut
und sehr gut ausgeprägte Flecke. A n d e r s o n constatirte nur die
Thatsache des in verschiedenem Grad ausgeprägten
Halsschmuckes bei verschiedenen Exemplaren, wenn in seinen
Worten auch vielleicht liegt, dass er meint, der weisse Fleck variire in
seiner Ausbildung individuell, und es habe der Grad der Ausbildung
keinen Bezug auf einen andern Factor. Ich halte jedoch dafür, dass
es ein Alterscharakter ist, wenigstens hat ein kleines und, wie auch
der Schädel beweist, jugendliches Exemplar von Amurang (B 622)
keine Andeutung des Weiss, dagegen ein grosses und, wie der
Schädel beweist, adultes von ebendaher (B 621) einen gut
ausgeprägten weissen Fleck. Ebenso ist ein Exemplar von Main (B
2745) mit wenig ausgebildetem Flecke noch jünger, wie die
Zahnbeschaffenheit, die geringe Schädelgrösse und der Zustand der
Schädelnähte beweisen. Ich glaube daher, dass diese Exemplare
meine Auffassung begründen können. Auf der anderen Seite zeigt
von den 2 Exemplaren von Gorontalo das eine (B 168) keine Spur
von Weiss, und es ist nach dem Schädel ein ganz altes Individuum,
und das andere (B 857), ebenfalls adult, hat den Fleck nur sehr
schwach entwickelt. Dass die oben namhaft gemachten 2 jungen
Exemplare von Amurang und Main innerhalb einer Serie von 18
(wenn wir die 2 von Gorontalo ausser Betracht lassen) nur „zufällig“
kein oder wenig Weiss haben sollten, scheint mir ausgeschlossen zu
sein, und es muss daher für die Gorontaloschen nach einer anderen
Erklärung gesucht werden. Es ist nun auffallend, dass die adulten
Exemplare des Leidener Museums (J e n t i n k : Notes Leyden Mus.
1883 V, 130) von Panibi, Modelido und Limbotto bei Gorontalo (Nr.
12, 13 und 16) auch wenig oder gar kein Weiss haben, während die
adulten Exemplare aus der Minahassa (Nr. 1–5) es gut entwickelt
zeigen. Allerdings haben die von Tulabello und Paguat im
Gorontaloschen (Nr. 9–11) das Weiss sehr gut entwickelt 1 und
dieses widerspricht dem, dass der weisse Fleck im Gorontaloschen
fehle. Sollte hier vielleicht eine Übergangsform von der typischen
weissfleckigen der Minahassa zu einer noch unbekannten
ungefleckten südlicheren Form vorliegen, wie Sc. tonkeanus vom
Nordosten, aber mit Schwarz an den Ohren? In der Berührungzone
zweier solcher Subspecies dürfte der betreffende Charakter mehr
oder weniger ausgeprägt sein. Immerhin wird man annehmen
können, dass die weissfleckige Form sich aus der ungefleckten
differenzirt habe, da Junge der gefleckten noch heute ungefleckt
sind, wenn auch Sicherheit über diese Frage erst durch ein
grösseres Material gewonnen werden kann. Träfe meine
Vermuthung nicht zu, so läge in Sc. leucomus eine in Bezug auf die
Halsflecke noch nicht stabil gewordene, oder eine in der Abänderung
begriffene Art vor.
Die zwei Exemplare von leucomus von der Insel L e m b e h , die
leicht aus den mir vorliegenden vielen Festlandexemplaren von
typischen leucomus herauszukennen sind, zeigen eine mehr ins
Braune spielende Färbung. Es scheint dieser Unterschied jedoch zu
geringfügig und durch zu wenig Exemplare als constant belegt, um
eine Abtrennung zu rechtfertigen.
1 In der citirten Stelle sagt J e n t i n k von Nr. 1–12, dass der Nackenfleck sehr
gut entwickelt, von Nr. 12–15, dass er fast und von Nr. 15 und 16, dass er ganz
unsichtbar sei; es ist, wie Dr. J e n t i n k die Güte hatte mir mitzutheilen, damit Nr.
1–11, Nr. 12–14, Nr. 15 und 16 gemeint. Nr. 1–5 sind zweifellos aus der
Minahassa, für Nr. 6 und 7 lässt sich keine Vermuthung aufstellen; Nr. 8 ist
zweifelhaft, da v. R o s e n b e r g 1863–1864 im Gorontaloschen sammelte, aber
1864 auch in der Minahassa war, das Stück traf vielleicht erst 1865 ohne genauen
Fundort in Leiden ein; Nr. 9–13 sind aus dem Gorontaloschen; für Nr. 14 und 15
gilt dasselbe wie für Nr. 8; Nr. 16 ist aus dem Gorontaloschen. Nr. 8–15 sind von
R o s e n b e r g gesammelt, dessen Angaben jedoch nicht kritiklos angenommen
werden können, wie schon anderweit nachgewiesen worden ist (s. B e r n s t e i n
Nederland. Tijdschr. Dierk. II, 325 1865, F i n s c h Papageien I, 111 1867, II, 337
1868 und von mir Mt. Zool. Mus. Dresden I, 13 1875). Übrigens will ich nicht
unerwähnt lassen, dass die weissen Haare beim Ausstopfen manchmal ausfallen,
wie ich kürzlich erfuhr, als ich ein schönes Exemplar von leucomus mit gut
ausgeprägten Halsflecken ausstopfen liess, und nachher nur Andeutungen dieser
vorfand; es fielen beim Einweichen die Haare hier einzeln aus, da die betreffenden
Hautstellen verfault gewesen waren. Wird der Schaden dann vom Präparator
ausgebessert, so bemerkt man keinen Defect, der aber in der That vorhanden ist.
Man muss daher besonders bei ausgestopften Exemplaren von leucomus in der
Beurtheilung des Fehlens des weissen Fleckes vorsichtig sein. ↑
[Inhalt]
15. Sciurus rosenbergi Jent.
Ta f e l X F i g u r 3 (c. ⅓ n. Gr.)
In dem Fehlen der schwarzen Ohr- und der hellen Halszeichnung

kommt Sc. tonkeanus überein mit Sc. rosenbergi von den Sangi
Inseln, allein dieser ist fast einförmig braun (wenigstens contrastirt
die Farbe des Bauches und des Rückens nicht so stark wie bei
tonkeanus und leucomus), und der Schwanz [27]ist rostroth mit
Schwarz, scheint auch buschiger. Mir liegt eine Serie von 17
Exemplaren vor, und zwar 9 von Gross Sangi und 8 von Siao, von
welchen beiden Inseln J e n t i n k die Art beschrieben hat (Notes
Leyden Mus. I, 38 1879). Er sagt zwar: „Sanghi-islands, Siao“, und
später (l. c. V, 129 1883, sowie Cat. XII, 23 1888) erfahren wir, dass
die Typen sowohl von den Sangi Inseln, als auch von Siao sind,
woraus nicht hervorgeht, dass Gross Sangi gemeint sei, allein ich
glaube dies annehmen zu können. Keinenfalls vermag ich eine
Differenz in den Exemplaren von diesen beiden Hauptinseln der
Sangi Gruppe zu constatiren, es sei denn, dass einige von Gross
Sangi ein wenig farbiger erscheinen. Zwei von Siao haben lange
weisse Schwanzenden. Auf Gross Sangi ist der inländische Name
tumpara, auf Siao tenggahe.
Es liegen mir nun gleichzeitig je 5, kürzlich erhaltene Exemplare von

den südlich von Siao, nördlich von Celebes gelegenen Inseln
Tagulanda (oder Tagulandang) und Ruang (oder Gunung api) vor,
zwei Inseln, die nur c. 4 km von einander entfernt sind (und von mir
im Jahr 1871 bei Gelegenheit einer Eruption des Ruang besucht
wurden, s. Nature IV, 286 1871); diese 10 unterscheiden sich auf
den ersten Blick von den Gross Sangi- und Siao-Exemplaren durch
ihre roströthere Färbung auf der Ober- und Unterseite.
[Inhalt]
Another random document with
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“Put the can back and don’t let on we know about it,” said Sam. And
this was done, and they escaped from the stateroom just in the nick
of time. Then they returned to their own quarters and all four of the
boys set to work to clean out the bepitched shoes.
“We must get square for this,” said Frank. “To let it pass unnoticed
would be criminal.”
“Right you are,” responded Darry. “And as he did his best to place
the blame on me I claim the honor for hatching out the plot to even
up.”
“But we are going to help,” put in Sam; and so it was agreed.
CHAPTER XVIII
HAYTI, SUGAR MAKING, AND ANOTHER JOKE
The weather remained all that could be desired, and the run to Cape
Haytien was made without special incident. Darry did his best to
hatch out something against Hockley but no opportunity occurred for
“squaring up” as the boys called it. Perhaps Professor Strong
suspected that something was afloat, for he kept a close watch on all
his charges.
He no longer suspected Darry of being the author of the pitch joke,
for Mark and Frank had told him that Darry had said he was
innocent, and he had always found the fun-loving lad truthful. The
boys had said nothing of finding the can in Hockley’s stateroom,—
that was their own secret.
The harbor of Cape Haytien is rather a difficult one to enter, on
account of the many reefs and shoals in that vicinity, but the bay
upon which the town is located is a fine one, being encircled by
many hills, covered with forests of various hues.
“This isn’t so bad,” observed Mark, on landing. “It’s a good deal
cleaner than I thought.”
“Cape Haytien has quite a commerce with the United States,” said
Professor Strong. “Sugar and molasses are staples here. If you wish
we can visit a sugar works and see how the toothsome article and
molasses are made.”
“I don’t like molasses,” said Hockley. “It’s too common. I always take
honey on my buckwheat cakes,” and then everybody laughed.
“There are a good many ruins here,” went on Professor Strong.
“They are due to the bombardment which the town sustained at the
hands of the British, in 1865, and to other outbreaks, and
earthquakes. The inhabitants number about twenty-five thousand.
There is a cathedral here, and also several public buildings, which
are worth visiting.”
Having but a single day ashore, they hired a carriage and took a long
drive around, passing several large and well-kept squares, and also
the soldiers’ barracks, the post-office, and other points of interest.
Then they drove out to a plantation noted for its fine grade of sugar
and molasses.
“As all of you know,” said Professor Strong, while waiting for an
attendant to take them around, “Sugar in the West Indies is made
almost wholly from the sugar cane, which is cut down when it is ripe
and hauled to the mills. The mills are of all sorts, from the most
primitive of old Spanish days to the up-to-date American mill which
costs many thousands of dollars to erect.
“The process of manufacturing sugar and refining it is a complicated
one as carried on to-day, yet the principle of making sugar is very
simple. The cane is fed between large iron or steel rollers, weighing
ten or twelve tons. The rollers run very slowly and every bit of the
juice of the cane is squeezed out of it. This juice is then brought
gradually to a boil and all the foreign matter is either skimmed off or
the clear fluid is drawn away from underneath. Then what is left is
boiled again until the sugar begins to separate from the molasses.
The last boiling is a very delicate process and only workers of long
experience can make really good sugar. From being a thin kind of
syrup the sugar gradually becomes like porridge and thicker, and it is
then run off into forms, containing one or two hundred pounds. From
these forms runs the syrup not yet crystalized, and this is either
boiled up once more or rejected and barreled as molasses.”
“Then molasses is really sugar that won’t get hard,” said Frank.
“That is about it, Frank, although there are different kinds of
molasses. Cheap molasses has less of the sugary element left in it
than that of a high grade. The very best of molasses is not called
molasses at all but treacle. This is made, not during ordinary sugar
making, but while the sugar is being refined or manufactured into
fancy forms. Treacle is much used in England.”
They were soon shown through the sugar mill, and watched with
interest the huge rollers squeezing out the juice of the cane, which
looked dark and dirty. At one place they saw bullock’s blood poured
in to help cleanse it of impurities, and they saw long rows of pots
with the sugar being passed from one to another in the clarifying
process, and also saw a huge vacuum pan, where the sugar could
be brought to a boil at a low degree of heat.
“Too much heat spoil de sugar,” explained the attendant. “Sugar best
like dis,” and he put his hand into the syrup and withdrew it and then
spread out two fingers, showing the gummy liquid expanded like thin
rubber. Then he led them to where sugar was being made into fancy
squares and other forms.
“A good part of the sugar is sent to our country in its raw state,” said
the professor, as they were coming away from the mill. “It is refined
at large refineries, where the proprietors make a specialty of catering
to our own peculiar tastes. Some time ago I saw a statement printed
that Americans use more sugar per capita than any other nation, and
I believe it is true.”
“Sure,” said Darry. “And you know why? Because the girls eat so
many caramels and so much fudge.”
“And because some boys like their coffee and tea doubly sweet,”
returned the professor, dryly, and then a laugh went up, for all knew
this was one of Darry’s weaknesses.
They had put in what Mark called “a big day,” and all were glad
enough to go back to the steamer by nightfall. In the evening Cape
Haytien is a dull place, poorly lighted, and with only a few
amusements, and those usually of the commoner sort. But before
coming away they listened to a number of natives who played guitars
and sang, and the music was exceedingly sweet.
The following day found the Clarissa leaving the harbor and turning
eastward for Porto Rico. So far the weather had been fine, but now
the sky began to cloud over, showing that a tropical storm was
approaching.
“I hope we don’t catch much of it,” said Frank to Darry. “I’ve had
enough of that sort of thing.”
“I should like to see a little storm, and that at night,” answered Darry.
“A little storm at night? What for?”
“So I can pay Hockley for the trick he played us.”
“But I don’t understand, Darry.”
“You will understand, if the storm comes,” answered the light-hearted
lad, but would say no more.
A little later Frank met Sam and Mark and told them of what Darry
had said.
“He’s got something up his sleeve,” said Mark. “Well, we promised to
let him have his inning first, so let him do as he pleases.”
By nightfall the storm was close at hand and the rain kept them in
the cabin. There was considerable wind, but the officers of the ship
assured the passengers that there was no danger.
Hockley read for an hour and then declared his intention of going to
bed. He had hardly disappeared when Darry followed, but first told
his chums to watch for fun.
It was raining hard when Hockley turned in. Truth to tell the rolling
and pitching of the ship had made him somewhat sick and he had
retired partly to avoid the others, for he knew they might laugh at
him. But he was a good sleeper and soon he was slumbering
soundly.
In the meantime Darry was not idle. From a stateroom he obtained a
large basin of water. Then he hunted up a couple of cheap glass
tumblers and placed them in the foot of an old sock. Thus armed he
crept to Hockley’s door. It was unfastened, and the snoring of the
lank youth told him that the time was ripe for what he intended to do.
Bang! the door flew open with a crash, arousing Hockley on the
instant. As he sat up in the berth a dash of water landed on his head
and ran down his spinal column. Then came a crash of glass that
made him jump.
“All hands on deck!” he heard a hoarse voice cry. “The ship is
sinking!” And then came another crash of glass and more water hit
him in the face.
Confused, and almost scared out of his wits, the bully gave one
bound that took him half way across the stateroom floor. He caught
up his trousers and slipped them on. “We are going down!” he
groaned. “Oh, why did I ever leave land!” And then, as the steamer
gave a lurch, he caught up the rest of his clothing and made for the
corridor, down which he bolted like lightning and up the stairs leading
to the main deck. Reaching this he glared around, blinking in the
light.
“What—who—what shall we do?” he demanded of the first
passenger he met, a rather fussy old gentleman who did not like
boys.
“Do?” demanded the old gentleman. He adjusted his eyeglasses and
stared at Hockley. “Why, young man, what is the matter with you?
Have you gone crazy?”
“Ain’t the ship sinking?” gasped Hockley.
“Not that I am aware of.”
“But—er—” The youth gazed around him in amazement. Nobody
appeared to be excited, and some folks were even at the piano,
playing and singing. Then he caught sight of Darry and the other
boys, who were behind a nearby column and laughing heartily.
“Hi! what are you laughing at?” he roared, rushing toward the crowd.
“I want to know——”
“Glummy must have been dreaming the ship was going to sink,”
came from Mark.
“And he wasn’t going to leave his shoes behind either,” put in Frank,
pointing to the pair the bully carried in his hand.
“Nor his collar and tie,” added Sam. “Nothing like being dressed up,
even if you’re swimming for your life.”
“I won’t stand this—I’ll fix all of you, see if I don’t!” howled Hockley,
shaking his fists at them and dropping half of his wearing apparel in
his excitement. “I’ll—I’ll——” And then he suddenly thought of the
figure he cut, and the crowd that was beginning to gather, and ran for
his stateroom with as much speed as he had used in leaving it.
He was in too much of a rage to retire again, and as soon as he had
dressed he came out to hunt up the boys. They were waiting for him,
fearful that he would inform Professor Strong of the affair.
Fortunately the professor had been in the smoking room at the time
and he as yet knew nothing of what had occurred.
“See here,” began Hockley. “I want to know who played that trick on
me.”
“I don’t think you’ll find out,” answered Mark.
“I’m going to tell the professor. My berth is soaked with water and I
came pretty close to cutting my foot on a piece of glass on the floor.”
“Didn’t step into any pitch, did you?” asked Sam, dryly.
“I say I am going to tell the professor,” went on Hockley, working
himself up into a magnificent rage.
“I don’t think you will tell him,” answered Darry, steadily. “You thought
it a fine thing to put off that pitch joke on my shoulders, didn’t you?
Now I guess I’ve paid you back, so we are quits.”
“So you did it?” howled Hockley. “I’m going to Professor Strong this
minute and show him the berth——”
“If you do I’ll show him something else.”
“What?”
“The can you had full of pitch. We found it, and all can testify it was
under your berth. Maybe the professor won’t be angry at your
duplicity in that affair, Glummy. The best thing you can do is to drop
the matter and call it square.”
At these words Hockley’s face grew dark and full of resentment.
“I’ll never drop it, never!” he exclaimed, vehemently. “You are all
against me! But I shan’t stand it. Just wait until we are on shore and
I’ll show you what I can do!”
And with this he turned off on his heel and left them.
CHAPTER XIX
A TALK ABOUT PORTO RICO
“He’s down on us now, if he never was before,” was Sam’s

comment, after Hockley had disappeared.
“But he won’t go to Professor Strong with his tale of woe,” put in
Mark. “When Darry spoke of the can of pitch he was scared and
showed it.”
“He knew it was mean to put off that joke on me,” said Darry. And
then he added: “I don’t think my joke was such a brilliant affair, but I
reckon it squared accounts.”
He had to go into the details of what he had done, and the boys had
another laugh, for boys are but boys, and it had been fun to see the
bully dancing around in such alarm.
By morning the storm was over and the sun came out so fiercely that
all were glad enough to remain in the shade of the awning spread
over the forward deck, where a little breeze was blowing.
“We are now in the track of Columbus on his first voyage to the New
World,” said Professor Strong. “He sailed across this very spot a little
over four hundred and eight years ago.”
“What tremendous changes since then,” said Sam. “He found our
own States inhabited by Indians and now a good many of our
inhabitants have never seen an Indian, outside of a Wild West show
or a circus.”
“Yes, the march of progress has been great, Samuel, and I do not
doubt but what it will be still greater in the future. We are coming to a
point where everything seems possible, even to wireless telephones
and practical airships.”
During the afternoon the professor called the boys together in a quiet
corner of the cabin and hung up a large map of Porto Rico.
“I want all of you to know something about this new territory of the
United States before we visit it,” he said, when they had settled
themselves. “To us it is, just at present, the most important of the
West Indies.”
“It doesn’t look very large,” said Hockley, gazing rather blankly at the
map.
“The island is about a hundred miles long, east and west, and about
thirty-five miles wide, north and south. It is almost rectangular in
shape, as you can see, and contains about 3,600 square miles of
territory.”
“It looks to be mountainous,” came from Mark.
“There is a range of mountains running from one end of the island to
the other. The average height is fifteen hundred feet but one peak is
three-quarters of a mile high. Between the mountains are many well-
watered valleys and here the soil is remarkably productive.”
“I’ve heard of Porto Rico tobacco,” came from Darry.
“Yes, large quantities of very fine tobacco are raised there, and also
sugar, coffee, cattle and hides. In years gone by they also raised a
superior kind of cotton, but that industry does not appear to be
flourishing just now.”
“I’ve heard that they used to have lots of slaves here,” came from
Frank.
“Yes, Porto Rico did have its full share of slaves, and the Spanish
plantation owners were very cruel to them. Slavery flourished until
1873, when the last of the poor blacks, numbering probably twenty
thousand souls, were freed. All told, there are now about a million
people on the island, and the majority of them are blacks or of mixed
Spanish and black blood.”
“I thought there were a great many folks here from the United
States,” said Mark.
“People are coming in by every steamer, and it will not be long
before Porto Rico will have all the Yankees it can profitably use.
Then first-class railroads will be built and the mines developed, and
some day the island will find itself rich.”
“Aren’t there any railroads now?” asked Hockley.
“Yes, but they do not amount to a great deal. Along the north shore
there is a line from San Juan to Hatillo, on the west coast one from
Aguadilla to Mayaguez, and on the south shore one from Yauco to
Ponce, and that is all, so far as I know. There is none in the east,
where one is badly needed, and none from the north side of the
island to the south side. The only means of communication between
San Juan, the principal city on the north, to Ponce, the capital on the
south, is by means of the great military highway, which I mentioned
to you before, and which was built years ago. This highway runs in
an irregular course around the mountains and over the hills, and
connects half a dozen important inland cities with the seacoast.
What those cities are we shall see when we ride over the road from
San Juan to Ponce, a distance of seventy-five miles or more.
“Unlike Cuba and Jamaica, Porto Rico has a great number of rivers
and many of these are deep, so that ships of fair size can sail upon
them. The water is very pure and some of it is shipped to other
islands for drinking purposes.
“The raising of cattle and sheep forms an important industry and is
carried on with ease, for there are no wild animals to molest the
stock and very little disease.”
“No wild animals?” repeated Frank, and his face fell. “That means no
hunting.”
“You are right, Frank. About the only wild animals I ever saw on the
island were pigs and dogs. Under the old Spanish rule,” continued
the professor, “matters were carried with a high hand by the
government. The people were taxed outrageously and received little
or nothing in return. Everything was taxed, even to a dancing party,
and to prevent a revolution there was a law forbidding more than
nineteen people to assemble at a given place without a special
license or else the representative of the government had to be
present. What few schools the people had were only such in name,
and all citizens who could afford it sent their sons and daughters off
to be educated. Newspapers were of the poorest and I never heard
of but one magazine, which was worse than those sold for five cents
at home. Those who owned slaves treated them horribly, and the
slaves would often retaliate by misusing the horses, mules and
cattle, and to-day horses are misused there shamefully.”
“I saw a picture of an ox cart,” said Mark. “Do they use them in Porto
Rico?”
“Yes, they use all sorts of carts drawn by oxen, and the poor beasts
are driven along by having goads prodded into them, so that the
blood streams from them. But under our rule all these cruelties will
some day cease.
“Strictly speaking, there is very little poverty in the island, for a
person can live on very little. The climate is such that but scant
clothing is required, and fruit and vegetables are exceedingly cheap.
Any kind of a hut does for a shelter, and nothing has to be spent for
fuel or light. If a native owns a little garden patch, and a few chickens
and a cow, he can get along without any trouble, even though the
whole outfit may not be worth a hundred dollars.”
“It must be lazy man’s land,” laughed Darry.
“To a certain extent it is, and many of the Porto Ricans have the old
Spanish habit of putting off till to-morrow what should be done to-
day. They lie around and smoke cigarettes, and arrange for cock
fights, which are here, as in other islands, the national amusement.
Years ago they used to have bull fights, but that is a thing of the
past.”
The talk now became general, and the boys and the professor spent
a good hour over the map, noting the position of the various towns
and rivers, bays and mountains. The professor told a story about
getting lost on a strange road, and of how he had seen a ghost
which proved to be nothing but swamp-damp.
“When I finally got back to the road and told a native of this, he said
the swamp-damp came from the bodies of brave soldiers who had
died in battle,” concluded Amos Strong.
The entrance to San Juan harbor is a difficult one and steamers
must be piloted in with great care. But once inside there is a fine
anchorage, two miles wide by three miles long, situated on the south
side of the city. Along this shore are located the governor’s castle,
the soldiers’ barracks, the custom house, and a large number of
warehouses and other buildings. On the north side of the city is a
finely-kept cemetery and also another soldiers’ barracks.
“This city is really on an island,” said the professor, when they found
themselves landed, the day after the talk above mentioned. “It is a
long, narrow peninsula, separated from the mainland by a shallow
body of water spanned by the San Antonio bridge. As you can see, it
is inclosed by a high wall, which gives it the appearance of being
what it really is, an old Spanish town. The castle you see on the bluff
is Morro Castle, which played an important part during the War with
Spain, just as did Morro Castle at Havana.”
The streets were alive with people, and the boys were surprised to
see how many were Americans. English signs were everywhere in
evidence, and one reading, “Shooting Gallery, 3 Shots for 5 Cents,”
made Darry laugh.
“We are in an American town now for sure,” he observed. “You’d
never see such a sign elsewhere.”
“To be sure we are on United States soil,” cried Frank. “Hurrah for
Porto Rico and its people!”
He had scarcely spoken when a hack driver rushed up to them.
“This way, gents!” he bawled. “Any hotel in the city. Take the six of
you for a dollar! Best keb in the city!”
“Well!” ejaculated Mark, stopping short. “That sounds as if we had
struck the Grand Central Depot in New York.”
“Oh, they are going to be up-to-date,” laughed the professor. “No, we
may as well walk to the hotel and see the sights on the way,” he
added, and shook his head at the cabman, and also at the crowd of
native drivers who swarmed around them.
“I see they have gas and telephones,” said Sam.
“Yes, and also electric lights, Samuel—in fact they now have
everything which you will find in any well-kept town in the States.”
“But the streets are narrow,” put in Frank.
“Only in the old part.”
The houses were of stone and brick, painted various colors. The
majority were of the old Spanish style of architecture, with small
windows and flat roofs. Here and there was a new building, looking
strangely out of place, with its wide windows and broad balconies.
Professor Strong had a friend in the hotel business in San Juan, and
to his place, called the Randall House, they made their way. It
proved to be a comfortable hostelry, and they were assigned three
spacious rooms on the second floor. From the roof of the hotel a
splendid view of the entire city could be obtained, and here the boys
spent some time, while the professor and the hotel proprietor pointed
out various points of interest to them.
CHAPTER XX
AN ADVENTURE IN THE MOUNTAINS
Three days passed swiftly by. There was much to be seen in San
Juan, and the boys were out most of the time, only resting during the
middle of the day, when the heat was too much for them.
During these days they visited various public buildings and also the
main college and two of the principal churches. They learned that the
city had seven parks, and in one, the Plazuela de Santiago, they saw
a life-like statue of Columbus. They also visited the governor’s
palace, built by Ponce de Leon, and the Santa Catalina fortifications.
But what interested them more than anything was the small, huddled
up native shops, with their quaint keepers and their grand mixture of
merchandise, and the still more strange markets, with many
vegetables and fruits new to them. To these shops came the native
ladies, but they never dismounted from their carriages but made the
shop-keepers bring out everything to them.
“They try to live as lazy and easy a life as they can,” was Mark’s
comment. “How American energy must open their eyes.”
“The professor told me that San Juan used to be an awfully dirty
town,” said Sam. “But as soon as our soldiers took hold they made
the citizens clean up, and the place has been kept clean ever since.
That helps to lessen disease and is certainly a blessing.”
During the stay in San Juan all the boys received letters from home,
and one which Hockley got contained a money order which pleased
him greatly. He had written that he must have money, that Professor
Strong would allow him next to nothing, and his over-indulgent father
had relented and sent him two hundred dollars.
“Now I’ll have some good times,” the bully told himself. “And the rest
of the fellows can go to grass.”
The letters received by Mark and Frank contained news of unusual
interest to them. It was to the effect that Mr. Newton and Mr.
Robertson had started for the West Indies on a trip combining
business with pleasure. They intended to stop off at Kingston,
Jamaica, and were then going to St. Pierre, Martinique, and to
Kingstown, on the island of St. Vincent. The business was one
connected with the importation of certain dyes and coloring matters
which the dry goods importer was anxious to obtain.
“I wish we could meet them down here!” cried Frank, enthusiastically,
when telling the others the news.
“Perhaps we’ll meet them at St. Pierre,” said the professor. “I had
planned to take you down there after our trip overland to Ponce. You
wanted to see an extinct volcano and there is a large one there
called Mont Pelee, only a few miles from the city.”
“Just the thing!” burst out Mark. “Let us write letters at once and send
them to St. Pierre, so our fathers will be sure to get them on their
arrival.” And the letters were sent without delay.
Two days later found them on the ancient military road which runs
from San Juan to Ponce. The direct distance from the principal
seaport on the north to the capital city on the south is only forty-five
miles, but the road is a winding one, running from village to village
and town to town, and by this the journey becomes almost twice as
long. At many points the way is exceedingly hilly, so that fast
traveling, especially in the hot sun, is out of the question.
“We will take our time and make a week’s journey of it,” said the
professor. “That will give us time to stop off at the various points of
interest. We shall go through the towns of Rio Piedras, Guaynabo,
Aguas Buenas, Caguas, Cayey, Aibonito, Coamo, Juan Diaz, and
others, and we may as well take in all there is to see while we are at
it.”
“I’d rather get down to Ponce and put in some time there,” grumbled
Hockley. “I understand there is lots to see there.” He was anxious to
have a “good time” on the money he had received.
“We will have plenty of time at Ponce to see all there is worth looking
up,” answered Professor Strong.
The boys had begged to be allowed to make the journey on
horseback, and the professor had consented, and obtained the
necessary steeds from the best livery stable in San Juan. Darry
wanted a lively animal but Amos Strong shook his head.
“You’ve had runaways enough,” he said. “We want to make this
journey without accident.”
The day was a perfect one and they found the first stage of the
journey truly delightful. They passed through a rolling country and
not far away were the mountains, with ridges sharply outlined
against the sky. Some of the boys wanted to gallop ahead of the
others but Amos Strong held them in check.
“We must keep together,” he said. “I don’t want any of you to get on
the wrong road.”
In a couple of hours they passed through the town of Rio Piedras,
taking a look at the various public buildings and at a large sugar mill
which was in the course of construction. It was midday and the place
looked deserted.
“Shall we remain here or push on to the next place?” asked the
professor.
“Let’s push on,” said Mark, and soon they were on the way to
Guaynabo, where they stopped for dinner at a native house which
was far from large and not over clean. Yet a good meal was
prepared for them, and this they ate eagerly, for the ride had given
them an appetite.
Nightfall found them in the vicinity of Aguas Buenas. They had
stopped a dozen times on the road, to look at the plantations, and
once to assist a native whose ox cart had broken down. It had begun
to cloud up and now a few drops of rain came down.
“We are in for a storm,” said Frank. “I reckon we had best look for
some sort of shelter.”
“Why not push on to the next town?” questioned Sam.
“We can try it,” answered Professor Strong. “But there is no use of
our getting soaked.”
Tropical storms are apt to come up in a hurry, and inside of a quarter
of an hour it was raining in torrents. They had crossed the bridge of a
small stream and now they found shelter under the shed of a long
warehouse which was old and empty.
“This is certainly a downpour,” remarked Professor Strong, when
they were out of it. “See how the water is rushing along the
roadway.”
He was right, the rain was coming down as if there had been a
cloudburst. There was a little lightning and thunder, but not enough
to cause alarm. But the heavy fall of water made the very roof of the
old warehouse sag.
“I never saw the water come down like this before,” observed the
professor, as the downfall continued. “It will certainly wash things out
in the valley.”
For over an hour the heavy fall of rain continued. It was coming
through the roof of the warehouse and they had trouble in keeping
even comparatively dry. But now the thunder was rolling up to the
northward, and it slacked a trifle.
“Hark!” cried Sam, presently.
“What did you hear?” came from several of the others.
“Thought I heard somebody calling for help. Listen!”
They listened, and the cry was repeated. It came from down a side
trail which joined the highway just in front of the old warehouse.
“Somebody is in trouble down there!” ejaculated Mark. “Let us go
and investigate.”
Without waiting to obtain permission from the professor, he started
down the side trail, with the others following. The trail led downward
into something of a bottom, full of loose rocks, with here and there a
patch of mud.
“I see her!” cried Mark, presently, as he turned a corner of the trail
and came in sight of a wide and shallow stream, backed up by a
rocky hill and a tangle of forest growth. “It’s a woman on a hut, and
she is in danger of drowning!”
Mark was right. In the middle of the wide stream was a native hut
which had been washed away from somewhere and become lodged
in between the rocks. On the frail building, which looked as if it might
go to pieces at any instant, sat an old colored woman, shrieking for
help at the top of her voice. The old woman had with her two
children, a white girl and a white boy of perhaps five or six years of
age, and to these she was clinging desperately.
“Save us! save us!” cried the colored woman, in Spanish.
“We’ll do what we can,” called back the professor. “Hold tight till we
can get to you.”
“How are you going to get to her?” demanded Hockley. “That water
is running like mad.”
“I think we can leap from rock to rock,” suggested Sam.
“Let’s take hold of hands,” came from Frank.
“One of you run back for that rope which we saw at the warehouse,”
said the professor, and Hockley did so, for the lank youth had no
desire to risk his life in that foaming and dashing torrent.
It was no easy matter to leap from one rock to the next, and
Professor Strong and the boys advanced with caution. The rain still
came down, keeping the footholds wet and blinding their eyesight.
Once Mark slipped and went into the stream, but fortunately it was in
a shallow where the water only reached to his knees.
At last the hut was gained and with trembling hands the old colored
woman handed down first the girl and then the boy. By this time
Hockley had returned with the rope, and this was passed out and a
line was formed.
“See the children safe first, do not mind me,” said the old colored
woman, and this was done, and Mark took one while Sam took the
other. Then Frank and Professor Strong brought in the old colored
dame, who was so excited and exhausted that she could scarcely
stand. Once on the bank of the stream the whole party made for the
shelter of the warehouse.
It was a long while before the colored woman recovered sufficiently
to speak. Then she said that she was a nurse, and that she worked
for a certain Señor Alcamba, of Ponce. The two children were the
señor’s, his only beloved ones, since his wife had died. The nurse
had been traveling from one village to another with them, when the
storm had overtaken her and she had resolved to remain for some
hours at the home of a friend. But she had lost her way in the rain
and sought shelter in the hut near the bank of the stream. Without
warning the rain had washed the hut into the water and she had had
a desperate struggle to save the boy and the girl from drowning. She
had been almost ready to give up in despair when the good
Americanos had appeared. She was very, very grateful and kissed
their hands, while tears of gratitude streamed down her fat cheeks.
As it promised to keep on raining for at least several hours it was
decided that they should move on to Aguas Buenas. The colored
woman said she could ride a horse and she was given Sam’s steed.
She carried the little girl, while the professor took the boy. Sam
hopped up behind Frank, and thus the entire party reached the town
mentioned a little over an hour later. Accommodations were found at
a hotel which had just been established by a Porto Rican and an
American, and Professor Strong saw to it that the colored woman
and her charges were looked after with care. The colored woman
sent out a messenger to look up some of her friends and by nightfall
a man came with a carriage and made arrangements for taking her
and the children away early in the morning.
“I shall not forget you,” said the woman to Professor Strong. “Señor
Alcamba shall know of your bravery and kindness, and he will surely
reward you.”
“We want no reward,” was the professor’s answer. “We are glad to
know that we were able to assist you.”
CHAPTER XXI
ACROSS PORTO RICO ON HORSEBACK
By the time the boys were stirring the next morning the colored
woman and the boy and girl were gone. The storm had cleared away
and the sun was shining brightly. But out in the roadway and in the
garden attached to the hotel the traces of the heavy downfall of rain
were still in evidence.
“I see some beautiful flowers around here,” said Mark, taking a walk
with the professor before sitting down to breakfast. “But a great
number are strange to me, and so are many of the vegetables and
fruits they use.”
“The vegetables mostly in use throughout the island are white and
sweet potatoes, carrots, turnips, beets, radishes, cabbage, yams,
yautias, cassava, or tapioca, and okra root,” answered Professor
Strong. “There are many kinds of beans and peas and also a great
variety of squashes and pumpkins. Of fruits the banana is, of course,
the leader, but Porto Rico pineapples are delicious and so are the
oranges and the cantelopes. Limes are much in use for lime water.
Lemons are raised for export. There are also a vast number of
shrubs and trees which furnish medical extracts, and numerous
dyewoods are found here, including fustic, which gives a yellow dye,
divi-divi, which gives a reddish-brown dye, mora, which gives bluing,
and annotto, which grows in great profusion and furnishes the
peculiar golden yellow often used in coloring butter and cheese.”
“Gracious, I didn’t know they used coloring here,” cried Mark.
“They use some, but I am sorry to say the most of the butter coloring
goes to the United States. There are also trees here which produce
a variety of gums and resins, some of them very much in demand,
and which, consequently, bring fancy prices.”
“It’s certainly a land of plenty,” said Frank, who had come up while
the professor was speaking. “The Porto Ricans ought to be happy.”
“They will be as soon as they have gotten used to the new order of
things, Frank. But I doubt if they will ever get used to what we call
hustling. They are used to taking their own time about everything,
and the climate is against the strenuous life.”
The town of Aguas Buenas is perched high up on the side of a
mountain, with a broad valley lying below,—where the flood had
occurred. The place is of small importance and contains little but
thatched huts, with here and there a building of prominence. There is
an old church, and a hotel or two is springing up, ready to
accommodate the American tourist when he comes, and he surely
will come when this fine climate is better known.
By nine o’clock they were again on the way heading along the
smooth road leading to Caguas, five miles away. As they went down
into the valley the tropical vegetation became more luxurious than
ever, the out-spreading branches of palms and other trees often
brushing them as they passed.
“Not far away from here is a wonderful opening,” said Professor
Strong. “It is called Dark Cave, and is said to extend over a mile
underground. I was never inside, but the interior is said to be very
beautiful.”
“Let us go and see it,” cried Frank.
“No, we haven’t time, and besides, it is said to be a very dangerous
cave to visit, on account of the numerous pitfalls.”
As they journeyed along the professor pointed out the Luquillo
Mountains far to the eastward.
“That highest peak is Mount Yunque, the highest peak on the island,”
he said. “It has quite a history. Years and years ago Porto Rico was
swept by hurricanes and earthquakes, and then the natives thought
that Mount Yunque was angry and did all they could think of to
appease the monster.”
They did not stop at Caguas but pushed on directly for Cayey, fifteen
miles to the south-westward. They now passed numerous villages,
each but a collection of thatched huts, some standing directly on the
ground and others, near the water, on little stilts. But few animals
were visible outside of cows and sheep. Of poultry there was a large
quantity, and at one spot they came upon a group of natives
watching a cock fight directly in the middle of the road. The cocks
had been fighting for some time, evidently, for both were horribly
wounded.
“What a barbarous custom!” exclaimed Sam, with a shudder. “I hope
that our government puts a stop to that sport.”
“It will come in time, Samuel,” said the professor. “But everything
cannot be done at once. As it is, I am glad there are no more bull
fights.”
At the streams they passed they would often come upon native
women washing clothes and numerous youngsters in bathing.
Youngsters also filled the roadway at certain villages, running and
shouting in their sport. The majority wore but little clothing, and in
some cases they acted as if even this was a burden to them. A good
many would run away on seeing the Americans and shout out in
Spanish, “the shooters!” thinking of the soldiers that had fought on
the island during the late war.
“This whole territory was in a state of suspense during the war,” said
Professor Strong. “The army was under General Miles and an
advance was made from three different directions. The natives were
secretly in sympathy with our soldiers, but Spain had many soldiers
here and the natives were forced to obey them. The fighting was
stopped in the midst of a battle, when a messenger appeared with
news that an armistice had been agreed upon. Then, as you know,
the war came to an end, and some time later, Porto Rico was ceded
by Spain to the United States, along with the Philippines and other
islands of lesser importance.”
After a stop at Cayey over night they pushed westward to Aibonito, a
distance of ten miles further. A gentle breeze was blowing into the
valley from the mountains, making the ride more delightful than ever,
and they visited several plantations in that vicinity.
“This is the best of the weather to be met with in Porto Rico,”
observed the professor, as they moved along at a walk, to take in the
scenery around them. “For a sick man nothing is better, unless, of
course, he needs the bracing air of a high altitude. I think in years to
come folks will come here for their health just as they now go to
Jamaica and the Bermudas.”
At Aibonito the accommodations were very poor, and late as it was
they decided to push on to Coamo, on the river by that name. This
was a distance of seven or eight miles, and Hockley growled at
having to ride so much further. But nobody paid attention to him.
“He is getting to be a regular sore-head,” whispered Frank to Mark.
“If he keeps on I guess the professor will have to take him in hand.”
“He hasn’t gotten over that trick on shipboard,” replied Mark. “And he
has received money. That always puffs him up.”
“Do you think the professor knows about the money?”
“I guess not. Glummy never shows his wad when the professor is
around. But he loves to shove it under our noses,” added Mark.
All were thoroughly tired when Coamo was reached and after supper
were glad enough to retire. They slept soundly, although Darry
afterward declared that he had been bitten almost to death by fleas.
“Yes, Porto Rico has its full share of those pests,” said Professor
Strong, when told of this. “I felt them myself. It is too bad, but there
seems to be no help for it. The natives will have to fight them long
and hard if they ever wish to get totally rid of the pests.”
There was not much to see in Coamo outside of the church and one
or two small public buildings, and some odd looking fishing smacks
on the river, and shortly after breakfast they started on the last stage
of their journey across the island. Their course was now westward,
through Juan Diaz, where they stopped for another day, and towns
of lesser importance. For the greater portion of the distance, the road
here is not more than five miles from the sea, and at certain high
points they could catch glimpses of the rolling Caribbean, flashing
brightly in the sunlight. They crossed half a dozen streams, and at
last turned down the slope leading into the outskirts of Ponce,
named after the well-known discoverer, Ponce de Leon.
“It’s certainly been a delightful trip,” was Sam’s comment. “And we
have seen a good deal of native life. Much more than a fellow could
see by rushing past in a train—if there was a railroad.”
Ponce is situated about three miles north of the harbor, in a wide
plain surrounded by numerous gardens and plantations. The boys
could see numerous churches and public buildings, and as they
came closer saw several fine hotels which have been erected within
the past two years.
“This is something like it,” said Darry, as he smiled at the scene. “Is
Ponce a very large place?”
“It has a population of about thirty thousand,” answered the
professor, “although newcomers are drifting in from the States by
every steamer. It is a great shipping point for all islands south of this,
and, as you know, the terminus of one of the three railroads of Porto
Rico.”
Half an hour saw them in the center of the city, at the hotel the
professor had selected, a hostelry very much like that they had
stopped at in Havana. The street was filled with people coming and
going, and venders were pushing their way this direction and that,
each with a wide board balanced on his head, containing fruits,
candies, or pastries. Around at the side door of the hotel were
several mules, each carrying two trunks, strapped together and hung
over the beast’s sides. And over all a little native boy was running
along with a bundle of newspapers under his arm shrieking at the top
of his lungs: “Americano news! Who buy de papair? Americano
newspapair!”
“Hurrah! At last we have struck the Porto Rican cousin of the Bowery
newsboy!” cried Frank. “I declare, it makes a fellow feel quite at
home. Let’s buy some papers.” And they did, paying what was equal
to fifteen cents each for the sheets. They were New York papers and
nearly a week old, but all were satisfied later on to sit down and read
them thoroughly.
CHAPTER XXII
HOCKLEY IN TROUBLE
On the following morning all the boys, with the exception of Hockley,
were up bright and early. They wanted to see as much as possible of
Ponce, for the professor assured them that the public buildings, the
ancient churches, and the parks and public drives were all well worth
visiting.
“I don’t want to go out,” said Hockley, when called. “The horseback
riding made me stiff. I’d rather rest to-day,” and so, while the others
spent a day visiting a score of places, he was left behind to do as he
pleased.
The money he had received from his indulgent father had been
“burning a hole in his pocket,” to use a common expression. He
wanted a chance to have a good time, and as soon as Professor
Strong and the others had departed he set out for that purpose.
“I’m going to do as I please after this,” he told himself. “And no
Captain Sudlip shall get the best of me either.”
Having finished his breakfast Hockley purchased a package of
cigarettes and then went to the café for a “bracer.” He thought it quite
manly to drink a “bracer,” although he was in no need of the liquor.
To show off he paid for the drink out of a twenty dollar bill he
possessed and at the same time took good care to show the roll of
money he carried.
The foolish boy did not realize that Ponce was at this time filled with
fortune hunters of all sorts, men who had drifted in from the States
and from other places, all anxious to see if American rule of the
island would not give them some chance of bettering their condition.
Many of the fortune hunters were hard working and honest, but there
was another sort, gamblers and those who lived by their wits. These
were the fellows to be met with at the cafés and other drinking
resorts.
Not far from where Hockley was standing stood a man of about forty,
stout, and dressed in a checked suit of loud pattern. The man
boasted of a profusion of heavy jewelry, and from his shirt bosom
sparkled an immense “diamond”—of the sort which can be
purchased in any large city for ten or twenty-five cents. The man
wore patent leather boots, and his general appearance showed him
to be the sport that he was.
In an easy way he lounged up to Hockley. His eye had noted the
youth’s roll of bills and he made up his mind that here was a possible
victim. He put his hand in his pocket and drew forth a large dead
bug.
“Excuse me,” he said, politely and reached for Hockley’s collar. “It’s a
pinching bug, I guess,” and he threw the bug on the floor and
crushed it with his foot.
Of course Hockley thanked the stranger for his kindness and then,
as the latter was not drinking, asked him to have something. The
invitation was promptly accepted, and in return the stranger also
treated.
“My name is Brown,” he said. “J. Rutherford Brown, and I am from
Montana. I take it you are a newcomer in Ponce.”
“I am,” answered Hockley, and told his name and mentioned the
party of which he was a member. “It’s rather slow, traveling around
with those other fellows,” he added. “I want to see some sport.”
“Of course,” rejoined J. Rutherford Brown, enthusiastically. “I like a
little sport myself.”
More talk followed, and in the end it was agreed that the pair should
go on a little trip of their own, down the seashore, to a resort where,
according to the man from Montana, a “bang up, good, all around
time” could be had. “I’ll show you some real life,” said J. Rutherford
Brown. “Nothing like it anywhere.”
They were soon on the way, in a carriage the man from Montana
insisted on engaging. The route lay out of Ponce proper and along a
seaside drive to where some enterprising American hotel men had
erected several buildings, devoted partly to keeping boarders but
mostly to gambling.
The man from Montana had brought a flask of liquor with him, and
he insisted on treating, so that by the time the resort he had in mind
was reached poor Hockley was in anything but a clear state
mentally. He felt strangely elated.
“This is all right,” he repeated several times. “You’re a good fellow,
Brown, a fine fellow. Glad we met. You’ll lose nothing on me, no, sir.
I’ve got money, I have, and I mean to spend it.”
“That’s all right, but I insist on paying my own way,” answered J.
Rutherford Brown, smoothly. “I’ve got money myself.”
Once at the resort it was an easy matter for the sharper to get
Hockley into a side room, where the pair were free from observation.
In pulling a handkerchief from his pocket, the man from Montana let
fall a pack of cards.
“Hullo, you play cards?” asked Hockley. “But of course you do. So do
I. Let’s have a game.”
J. Rutherford Brown was willing, indeed, he was going to suggest a
game himself, and having ordered more liquor, and also a fine
dinner, they sat down. At first they played for fun. But then the man
from Montana spoke of a game in which he had won five dollars, and
poor, deluded Hockley at once insisted they put up something. Thus
the betting started, at a dollar, and the youth was allowed to win
twenty times that sum.
“Told you I could do it,” said Hockley. “But you shall have a chance to
win it back directly after dinner.” And after the meal the game began
again, and lasted the best part of two hours.
It is not my intention in these pages to describe the manner in which
Hockley was fleeced out of his money, nearly a hundred and
seventy-five dollars all told. Let me say flatly that I do not approve of
gambling in any form, and the person who gambles and loses his
money deserves no sympathy. It is a poor way in which to waste
valuable time, and money won at gambling rarely does the winner
any good. It is generally a case of “easy come and easy go,” and
with the coming and going the player loses a self-respect which is
hard to regain.
When the last game was played Hockley sat back in a dazed, blank
way. He had lost it all—every dollar had passed into the hands of J.
Rutherford Brown. And not only his money but also his watch and his
ring, those precious gifts from his father and his mother. At first he
could not realize it.
“Gone!” he muttered hoarsely, and there was almost a sob in his
voice.
“Better luck next time,” returned the man from Montana, cheerfully.
And then he shoved a glass of liquor at the foolish youth, who
clutched and drank it eagerly, in the hope of regaining his “nerve.”
What happened immediately after that Hockley could scarcely tell
with certainty. He remembered being helped into a carriage, and of
taking a long drive, and then all became a blank.
When he came to his senses he sat up in a dazed fashion. He knew
nothing but that his head ached as if it was going to split open and
that his mouth felt parched to the last degree.
“Where am I?” he muttered and stared around him. On all sides were
boxes and barrels, and he had been lying on some of these, with
some old bagging for a pillow. Gradually it dawned upon him that this
was a warehouse and that the rising sun was shining in at several of
the long, slatted windows. A strong smell of tobacco pervaded the
place.
“A tobacco warehouse,” he murmured, slowly. “Now how did I come
here and what makes my head ache so?” He tried to collect his
thoughts. “I went out riding with that stranger and we had a big
dinner together, and then we played cards——”
He stopped short and felt into his pockets. They were empty. Then
he clutched his watch pocket and felt of his finger upon which the
ring had rested. The full realization of what had occurred now burst

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Time and Methods in Environmental

Interfaces Modelling Personal Insights -

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications visit

Publisher: Candice Janco

destabilization occurs. One way to answer is the application of the concept of

Developments in Environmental Modelling, Volume 29, ISSN 0167-8892, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63918-9.00001-6 3

broadly covers the unavoidable multidisciplinary approach in environmental

2.1 MODELLING ARCHITECTURE

2.2 BASICS OF CATEGORY THEORY

(a) (b) (c) (d) h ◦g

1. F preserves composition, i.e., F ðf +gÞ ¼ F ðf Þ+F ðgÞ whenever f +g is defined;

2.3 BASICS OF MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF GENERAL

2.4 FORMAL CONCEPT ANALYSIS IN MODELLING THE

(i) A4A00 ; (i)ʹ B4B00 ;

Let Q be an ordered set, and P 4 Q. Then, P is join-dense in Q if for every

Conversely, if L is a complete lattice, then L is isomorphic to B (G, M, I) if and

g4m : 5gcm and gbm:

A variety is finitely based if it can be defined by a finite set of identities. The

2.5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE CHAOS THEORY

sensitive to initial conditions. In layperson language, when we talk about “chaos” we

Approaches and meaning

3.1 MODEL CHOICE

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

3.2 CONTINUOUS TIME VERSUS DISCRETE TIME IN

equations or systems of such equations. It means that we confront the choice

trajectories are physically admissible (Kreinovich, 2003). Traditionally, this

3.3 TIME IN MODEL BUILDING

Examples of use of the

4.1 USE OF FORMAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT

Table 4.1 Object Versus Attributes in the Context of Animals

4.2 USE OF FORMAL COMPLEX ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTING

so we automatically obtain set G4O : fcg˛Gjðg; mÞ˛Ig, where I is a binary

Molecule L S Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure

Reprinted from Crvenkovic, S., Mihailovic

Es dürfte hieraus hervorgehen, dass der Babirusa sich bezüglich

Das M i l c h g e b i s s des Babirusa ist nach B l a i n v i l l e (l. c. p.

id 2/3 cd 0/1 pd 3/3,

in Worten: „Dans la première dentition …, les incisives sont assez

Ob die obige Formel des Milchgebisses keine Ausnahme erleidet,

Bewehrung der Sau.

Es scheint ziemlich allgemein angenommen zu werden, dass der

Zu obiger Umschau wurde ich veranlasst durch ein kürzlich

Im Unterkiefer sind kurze Eckzähne vorhanden, die 10 und 12 mm

Im Londoner Zoologischen Garten lebten u. a. zwei Babirusa

Ta f e l X Figur 1 (c. ¾ n. Gr.)

H a b . Tonkean, insulae Celebes peninsula septentrionali-orientalis.

leucomus Müll. Schl. von Nord Celebes,

Sc. weberi unterscheidet sich von tonkeanus durch einen schwarzen

1 E v e r e t t (bei H a r t e r t Nov. Zool. III, 150 1896) beobachtete einen Sciurus

Diese Art hat bekanntlich einen grossen weisslichen Fleck jederseits

In dem Fehlen der schwarzen Ohr- und der hellen Halszeichnung

Es liegen mir nun gleichzeitig je 5, kürzlich erhaltene Exemplare von

“He’s down on us now, if he never was before,” was Sam’s

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