NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Initiate responses rapidly Initiate responses slowly

short-duration responses Long-duration responses

Act via action potentials and neurotransmitters Act via hormones in blood
(electrical impulses) (chemical messages in bloodstream)

Specific location determined by axons Act at diffuse locations- target anywhere

pathways blood reaches

Very short distance Over long distance

Nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback
mechanisms. Stress causes co-activation of hypothalamic neurons and sympathetic division
of autonomic nervous system. -> blood glucose level rise

Endocrine systems controls:

-reproduction
-growth and development
-maintenance of electrolyte,water,nutrients and balance of food
-regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
-mobilization of body defences
Endocrine system

Exocrine (duct) Endocrine (no duct,

prominent blood
vessel)

Endocrine gland: produce hormones-long distance chemical signals(travel in blood/lymph)

Lack ducts

Exocrine glands: produce nonhormonal substance (sweat,saliva)

Have ducts to carry to secretion membrane
Autocrine: chemicals that exert effects on the same cells that secrete them
-prostaglandins released by smooth muscle cells cause those smooth muscle cells to
contract

Paracrine: locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them
-somatostatin released by one population of pancreatic cells inhibit the release of insulin by
a different population of muscle cells

Juxtracrine: cell signals that exert their effect between cells that are in direct/close contact
with one another
-gap junction between animal cells

HORMONES
-2 types: amino acid/steroid hormones

-amino acid: molecular size varies (simple amino acid, peptides-short chain of amino acid,
proteins-long polymer of amino acids).water soluble and cannot cross plasma membrane

-steroid hormone: synthesized form cholesterol. (gonadal and adrenocortical hormones are
steroids) lipid soluble and can travel across plasma membrane
ALL STEORID->lipid soluble. THROID HORMONE only amino acid based lipid soluble.

Source
stored in Secretory vesicles
Transport in blood
Half life in blood
Location of receptors
Mechanism of action at
target cell
Lipid-soluble hormone
All steroid and thyroid
Adrenal cortex, gonads,
thyroid gland
no
Bound to plasma proteins
Long (metabolized by liver)
Inside cell
Activate genes, causing
synthesis of new proteins
water soluble hormone
Amino acid except thyroid
All other endocrine glands
Yes
Usually free in plasma
Short (metabolized by
kidney)
Plasma membrane
Usually act through second
messenger systems

SER->steroid hormone
RER->peptide hormone (peptide hormone can be stored in vesicles and released by
exocytosis.

Secondary messengers/activating specific genes

-receptors at target cells
-hormone euophryine binds to certain smooth muscle cells(receptor) in blood vessel walls,
stimulates them to contract.
-steroid hormone can diffuse into target cells and bind with specific intracellular receptors
-hormone causes :
 Alters plasma membrane permeability/membrane potential by opening/closing ion
channels
 Activates/deactivates enzymes
 Stimulates the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins within the cell
 Induces secretory activity
 Stimulate mitosis
-SER:CAMP AMP signalling mechanism (water soluble hormone)
HORMONES SYNTHESIS & RELEASE

Blood level of hormone:

1. Controlled by negative feedback system
2. vary within narrow desirable range
Factors influence activation of a target cell by a hormone
1. blood level of hormone
2. relative number of receptors for that hormone on/in target cells
3. affinity of the binding between the hormone and the receptor

Interaction of hormone at target cells

1. Permissiveness: one hormone cannot exert its effect without another hormone
being present
E.g. Thyroid & Reproductive hormones
Testosterone needs FSH for normal sperm production
Synergism: more than one hormone produces the same effects at target cell and
their combined effects are amplified
e.g both glucagon + cortisol/epinephrine cause the liver to release glucose to the
blood.
3. Antagonism: one hormone opposes the action of another .
Insulin which lowers the blood glucose level is antagonized by glucagon. May compete for
same receptors, act though different metabolic pathway, cause down-regulation of receptors
for antagonistic hormone.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PIPUTARY GLANDS

FUNCTION of HYPOTHALAMUS:
 Automatic nervous system regulation
 Hormone production
 Endocrine regulation
 Circadian rhythm regulation
 Limbic system interaction
 Various- temperature regulation, feeding

Pituitary gland (Hypophysis gland)

 Pea-shaped organ/ master gland
 Connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum
 Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) :
-downgrowth of hypothalamic neural tissue
-Neural connection to hypothalamus (hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
-Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize the neurohormones (oxytocin & Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) )
- Communicate via action potentials of traveling down axons that connect the
hypothalamus to posterior pituitary
Anterior lobe (Adenohypophysis)
 -originates as an out-pocketing of the oral mucosa
 -hypophyseal portal system: Primary capillary plexus/Hypophyseal portal
veins/ Secondary capillary plexus
 Carries releasing and inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary to regulate
hormone secretion
 All are protein
 All activate cyclic AMP second messenger at targets (EXCEPT GH)
 TSH,ACTH,FSH,LH are all tropic hormones (regulate the secretory action of other
endocrine glands)
Anterior pituitary

Growth hormone (GH) Stimulated by GHRH release ↓:Pituitary dwarfism in

Triggered by low blood children
levels of GH, deep
 sleep,hypoglycemia,increase ↑: Gigantism in children;
blood levels of amino acids, acromegaly in adults
low levels of fatty acid,
exercise Liver- bone, muscle and
Inhibited by insulin like tissues
growth factors
(IGFs),hyperglycemia,
hyperlipidemia, obesity,
emotional deprivation
Thyroid-stimulating Stimulated by TRH in infants Thyroid gland
hormone (TSH) indirectly by cold Thermogenesis metabolism
temperature.
Inhibited by feedback
inhibition exerted by thyroid
hormones on anterior
pituitary and hypothalamus
Adrenocorticotropic Stimulated by CRH. Adrenal glands.
hormone (ACTH) (corticotropin-releasing Cortisol-cell homeostasis
tropic hormone) and function.
Stimulus fever,
hypoglycemia
Inhibited by feedback
inhibition exerted by
glucocorticoids
Follicle-stimulating Stimulated by GnRH Testosterone inhibin-
hormone (FSH) Inhibited by feedback >Spermatogenesis
gonad inhibition inhibin, estrogens
in females. Testosterone in Estradiol Progesterone
males inhibin -> Ovulation
Luteinizing hormone
(LH)gonad
Prolactin(PRL) Stimulated by decreased Lactation
PIH
Inhibited by PIH

PROSTERIOR pituitary

Oxytocin Stimulated by impulses Uterus: stimulates uterine

form hypothalamic neurons
in response to stretching of
uterine cervix /suckling of
infant at breast
Inhibited by
Antidiuretic hormone Stimulated by impulses
(ADH) form hypothalamic neurons
contractions; initiates labor
Breast: initiates milk
ejection
Kidney stimulate kidney
tubule cells to reabsorb
 in response to increased water form he urine back to
blood solute blood
concentration/decreased
blood volume.
Inhibited by adequate
hydration of body & alcohol

PANCREAS
- Exocrine: Acinar cells produce enzyme rich juice for digestion
- Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
1. Alpha cells produce glucagon (20%)
2. Beta cells produce insulin (70%)
3. Delta cells produce somatostatin, inhibits both insulin and glucagon (<10%)
4. PP cells (F cells/Gamma cells) producing pancreatic polypeptide (<5%)
Glucagon
G-protein receptor
Potent hyperglycemic agent
-decreased blood glucose levels
-Rising amino acid levels
-sympathetic nervous system
target liver to:
-glycogenolysis: break down glycogen
into glucose
-gluconeogenesis: synthesize glucose
from Latic acid and other non
carbohydrates
Release glucose to blood
Insulin
Activate tyrosine kinase enzyme receptor ->
cascade leads to increased glucose uptake.
No need for glucose uptake in liver, kidney, brain
Increased blood glucose levels:
-enhances membrane transport of glucose into
fat and muscle cells
-inhibits breakdown of glycogen to glucose
-inhibits the conversion of amino acids/fats into
glucose
-Participates in neuronal development and
learning, memory
no need for glucose uptake in liver, kidney, brain
Insulin triggers cell to:
-catalyze oxidation of glucose for ATP production
-polymerization glucose to form glycogen
-convert glucose to fat( adipose tissue)
1. Elevated blood glucose levels
2. Rise blood levels of amino acids and fatty
acids
3. Release of acetylcholine by
parasympathetic nerve fibres
 4. Hormone glucagon,epinephrine,
growthhormone,thyroxine,glucocorticoids
5. Somatostain ;sympathetic nervous system

DIABETIC MELLITUS (DM)

Type 1: hyposecretion of insulin (no)
Type 2: hypoactivity of insulin (resistant)

Signs:
1. Polyuria: huge urine output (glucose as osmotic diuretic)
2. Polydipsia: excessive thirst (water loss due to polyuria)
3. Polyphagia: excessive hunger and food consumption (cells cannot take up
glucose)

Sugars cannot be used -> fats used causing lipidemia(high level of fatty acids in blood)
Fatty acid metabolism results in formation of ketones
Ketones are acidic, build up cause ketoacidosis
Untreated ketoacidosis cause hyperpnea, disrupt heart activity, oxygen transportation,
severe depression of nervous system lead to coma and death
 Thyroid

Thyroid hormone carried through blood plasma protein-> lipid soluble, does not readily
dissolve in blood
Receptors for TSH: plasma membrane of thyroid follicular cells (sides facing away from
colloid)

Clinical- Homoeostatic imbalance Hyposecretion

Congenital – Cretinism
-Weak cry, poor feeding, constipation, prolonged jaundice
-TH critical for normal growth and brain development in early childhood
-TH replacement crucial and lifelong

ADULTS- myxedema
-low metabolic rate, feeling chilled, constipation, thick ,dry skin, puffy eyes, edema, lethargy,
mental sluggishness
-follicular cells produces colloid but cannot iodinate It.
-lack of iodine decreases TH, triggers increase of TSH
-thyroid enlarges, goiter may develop
-iodine supplements/hormone replacement therapy

HYPER SECRETION
GRVAES’ disease
-autoimmune disease (body kills healthy cells)
-abnormal antibodies mimic TSH, stimulate TH release
-elevated metabolic rate, sweating, rapid and irregular heartbeats, nervousness, weight loss
despite adequate food
-Exophthalmos: eye protrusion as tissue behind eyes becomes edematous and fibrous

Thyroid follicular cells: thyroid hormone

Parathyroid cells in parathyroid gland: parathyroid hormone
Parafollicular cells © in thyroid gland : calcitonin (inhibit release calcium from bone,
stimulate incorporation of ca into bone)

PARATHRYOID gland
-4 yellow brown gland embedded in posterior aspect of thyroid
-contain parathyroid cells that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-parathyroid hormone: digests bone matrix and releases CA to blood, increase reabsorption
of ca by kidneys, promotes activation of vitamin D by kidney, lead to increase absorption of
ca by intestine
Clinical
1. Hyperparathyroidism
- Calcium leaches from bones, soft & deformed bones
- Elevated CA depresses nervous system, formation of kidney stones
- Osteitis fibrosa cystica: severe form, easily fractured bones
2. Hypothyroidism
- Tetany, respiratory paralysis, death

 2 types:

T4 (thyroxine): major form that consists of 2 tyrosine molecules

with 4 bound iodine atoms
T3 (triiodothyronine): form that has 2 tyrosine with 3 bound iodine
atoms

 Affects every cell in the body

 Enter target cell and bind to intracellular receptors
 Effects:
 - increase basal metabolic rate and heat production (calorigenic effect )
-Regulates tissue growth and development (nervous system development and
reproductive capabilities)
-Maintain blood pressure- increase adrenergic receptors in blood vessels

System affected Normal Hyposecretion Hypersecretion

physiological
effect
Basal Metabolic -Normal oxygen -BMR lower than normal -BMR above
rate/ temperature use & BMR -decreased body normal
regulation -calorigenesis temperature - increased body
-enhance effects -decreased appetite temperature
of sympathetic -weight gain -heat tolerance
nervous system -reduced sensitivity to increased
catecholamines - increased
appetite
-loss of weight
carbohydrate/ -promotes -decreased glucose -enhanced
lipid/ protein glucose metabolism catabolism of
metabolism catabolism -elevated triglyceride in glucose, protein,
-mobilize fats blood fat
-essential for -decreased protein -weight loss, loss of
protein synthesis synthesis muscle mass
-enhance liver -edema (fluid trapped in
synthesis of tissues)
cholesterol
nervous system -promotes -infant: slowed/deficient Irritability,
normal brain development, restlessness,
development of intellectual disability insomnia,
nervous system in -adult: mental dulling, personality
infant & fetus depression, memory changes,
-normal adult impairment, hypoactive exophthalmos
nervous system reflexes (graves’ disease)
function
Cardiovascular -normal Decreased efficiency of Increased
system functioning of the heart’s pumping action, sensitivity to
heart low heart rate catecholamines,
rapid heart rate
palpitations, high
blood pressure,
heart failure
Muscular system Normal muscular Sluggish muscle action, Muscle
development and muscle cramp, myalgia atrophy(decrease
function in size) and
weakness
Skeletal system Normal growth Child: growth retardation, In child: excessive
and maturation skeletal stunting and skeletal growth,
 of skeleton retention of child body followed by early
proportions epiphyseal closure
Adult: joint pain and short stature
Adult:
demineralization of
skeleton
Gastrointestinal Promotes normal Decrease GI motility tone Excessive GI
system GI motility, and secretion activity, motility; diarrhoea
increases constipation
secretion of
digestive juices
Reproductive Promotes normal Depressed ovarian Promotes normal
system female function,sterility,depressed female
reproductive lactation reproductive ability
ability and and lactation
lactation
Integumentary Promotes normal Skin pale, thick, and dry; Skin pale, thick,
system female facial edema; hair coarse and dry; facial
reproductive and thick edema; hair coarse
ability and and thick
lactation

ADRENAL GLAND(suprarenal gland)

-pyramid shaped organ perched atop of kidney, enclosed by fibrous tissue and cushion of fat

Adrenal cortex:
-produce hormones, corticosteroids
-zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids
-zona fasciculata : glucocorticoids
-zona reticularis : gonadocorticoids (makes a lot of male sex hormones, androgens)

Adrenal medulla:
Nervous tissue that is part of sympathetic nervous system

Hormone Regulation of Target organ and Effects of

release effect hypersecretion and
hyposecretion
Mineralocorticoids Stimulated by Kidneys: ↑: aldosteronism
(chief aldosterone) renin- Increase blood
angiotensin- levels of Na+ and ↓:Addison’s disease
aldosterone decrease blood (hypertension/urinary
mechanism levels of K+ loss: sodium & water)
(activated by Loss of weight, severe
decreasing Water dehydration,
blood volume or reabsorption hypotension.
blood pressure), usually Low level of
elevated blood K accompanies mineralocorticoids &
levels, and ACTH sodium retention, glucocorticoids
(minor blood volume and
influence) pressure rise

Inhibited by
increased blood
volume,
pressure,
decreased K
levels
Glucocorticoids Stimulated by Body cells: ↑: Cushing’s
(Chief cortisol) ACTH -promote syndrome
gluconeogenesis
Inhibited by and hyperglycemia
feedback -Mobilize fats for
inhibition energy catabolism
exerted by -Assist body to
cortisol resist stressors
-depress
inflammatory and
immune response Moon like face,
buffalo hump on
back, big stomach

↓: Addison’s disease
 Gonadocorticoids Stimulated by -Insignificant ↑: masculinization of
(androgens converted ACTH. effect in males females
to -Contribute to
testosterone/estrogens) females libido ↓: no known effect
-development to
pubic and axillary
hair in females
-source of
estrogens after
menopause

Adrenal medullary hormone

Catecholamines Stimulated by Sympathetic ↑: prolonged fight-
(epinephrine & non preganglionic fibers nervous system or-flight response,
epinephrine) of the sympathetic target organs, mimic hypertension
nervous system sympathetic nervous
system activation, ↓: unimportant
increase heart rate
and metabolic rate,
increase blood
pressure by
promoting
vasoconstriction.

Renin-angiotensin aldosterone mechanism

Angiotensinogen

Angiotensin I

Angiotensin II
MCQ qn
1) Steroid hormones influence cellular activities by __________.
-binding to DNA and forming a gene-hormone complex
(enter cell and form DNA-hormone complex before they change cellular
function)

2) Sympathetic nerve stimuli are responsible for the release of _______

Epinephrine and non-epinephrine (catecholamines) in adrenal medulla

3) the chemical classification of hormones does not include ____.

Glucose-containing hormones
(either amino- acid/steroids)

4)Which of the following signals would affect local cells by releasing chemicals
into extracellular fluid?
Paracrine (local signals that affect adjacent cells)

5) Which of the following is not synthesized in the pituitary gland?

- ADH (ADH & oxytocin -> posterior pituitary synthesised in hypothalamus )

6) Which of the following organ is considered a neuroendocrine organ?

-hypothalamus

7) Eicosanoids are NOT true hormones becos they ______.

-act locally (rather than on distal organs)

8) Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a prohormone for _____.

ACTH

9)Iodination of thyroid hormones is mediated by ______.

-peroxidase enzymes

10)A congenital condition that includes mental retardation, short,

disproportional body size, and a thick tongue and neck is caused by ______.
-deficiency of thyroxin(cretinism)

11) Resistin, an insulin antagonist is a hormone produced by the ______.

-adipose tissue

12) Which of the following is NOT purely endocrine organ?

-Kidney (pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal-> pure or)
13. Autocrine are long-distance chemical signals that travel in blood throughput
the body.
False (Hormones, autocrine are chemicals that exert their effects on the same
cells that secrete them)

14. in which of the following mechanisms of hormone action do intracellular Ca

ions act as final mediator?
PIP2-calcium signalling mechanism

15. As blood levels of ____rise, the expulsive contractions of labor gain

momentum and finally end in birth.
-oxytocin

16. which of the following is NOT one of the areas in which thyroid hormone
plays an important role?
-Helping the body avoid dehydration and water overload (ADH)
(wrong- normal skeletal and nervous system development and maturation

17. Which of the following organs is considered a neuroendocrine organ?

-Hypothalamus (pituitary gland and pancreas does not have any neural function)

18. Lipid-soluble hormones communicate with a target cell by _____

- Binding to receptors inside the cell (do not require 2nd messenger and CAMP)

19. these chemical signals act locally but affect cell types other than the releasing
cells.
- Paracrine (act locally but affect cells other than the releasing cells)
(Autocrine: are short-distance chemical signals that exert their effects on same
cells that secrete them)

20. How do protein kinase affect enzymes?

- They add a phosphate group to enzyme

21. Which of the following is NOT a steroid-based hormone?

-epinephrine (neurotransmitters

22. Which of the following is NOT a step in thyroxine (T4) production?

- the diffusion of iodide from blood plasma into the follicular cell (not involved in iodine transport)

23. Normal development of immune response is due in part to hormones

produced by the ________.
- thymus gland