Topic 24. Radioactivity

Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594 www.hussainuppal.
com
UNIT 24
ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIOACTIVITY
Compiled by: Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal (O, A level teacher)
Contents of this chapter in relation to syllabus 5054.
26. Radioactivity
Content
26.1 Detection of radioactivity

26.2 Characteristics of the three types of emission
26.3 Nuclear reactions
26.4 Half-life
26.5 Uses of radioactive isotopes including safety precautions
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma rays by appropriate
methods.
(b) state and explain the random emission of radioactivity in direction and time.
(c) state, for radioactive emissions, their nature, relative ionising effects and relative penet rating
powers.
(d) describe the deflection of radioactive emissions in electric fields and magnetic fields.
(e) explain what is meant by radioactive decay.
(f) explain the processes of fusion and fission.
(g) describe, wit h the aid of a block diagram, one type of fission reactor for use in a power station.
(h) discuss theories of star formation and their energy production by fusion.
(i) explain what is meant by the term half-life.
(j) make calculations based on half-life which might involve information in tables or shown by decay
curves.
(k ) describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe way.
(l) discuss the way in which the type of radiation emitted and the half-life determine the use for the
material.
(m) discuss the origins and effect of background radiation.
(n) discuss the dating of objects by the use of 14 C.
27. The Nuclear Atom

Content
27.1 Atomic model
27.2 Nucleus
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the structure of the atom in terms of nucleus and electrons.
(b) describe how the Geiger-Marsden alpha-particle scattering experiment provides evidence for the
nuclear atom.
(c) describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neut rons.
Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594 www.hussainuppal.com
(d) define the terms proton number (atomic number), Z and nucleon number (mass number), A.
(e) explain the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation AZ X to construct equations where
radioactive decay leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.
(f) define the term isotope.
(g) explain, using nuclide notation, how one element may have a number of isotopes
Inside atoms
A simple model of the atom
Everything is made of atom. Atoms are far too small to be small to be seen with any ordinary
microscope - there are more than a billion of them on the surface of this full stop. However, by
shooting tiny atomic particles through atoms, scientists have able to develop models
(descriptions) of their structure. In advanced work, scientists use a mathematical model of the
atom. However, the simple model below is often used to explain the basic ideas.
Figure 24.1 A simple model of the atom.
An atom is made up of smaller particles:

 There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons. Around this, electrons orbit at
high speed. The numbers of particles depends on the type of atom.
 Proton have a positive (+) charge. Electrons have an equal negative (-) charge. Normally, an
atom has the same number of electrons as protons, so its total charge is zero.
 Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. Each is about 1800 times more massive than an
electron, so virtually all of the atom‟s mass is in its nucleus.
 Electrons are held in orbit by the force of attraction between opposite charges. Proton and
neutron are bound tightly together in the nucleus by a different kind of force, called the
strong nuclear force.
Elements and atomic number

All materials are made from about 100 basic substances called elements. An atom is the smallest
„piece‟ of an element has a different number of protons in its atoms: it has a different atomic
number (sometimes called the proton number). There are more examples on the left. The
atomic number also tells you the number of electrons in the atom.
Isotopes and mass number

The atoms of any one element are not all exactly alike. Some may have more neutrons than
others. These different versions of the element are called isotopes. They have identical chemical
properties, although their atoms have different masses. Most elements are a mixture of two or
more isotopes. You can see some examples in the chart on the opposite page.
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass numbe r (or nucleon
number). Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For example, the
metal lithium (atomic number3) is a mixture of two isotopes with mass number 6-7. Lithium -7
is the more common: over 93% of lithium atoms are of this type. You can see how to represent
an atom of lithium -7 using a symbol and numbers.
Nuclide Notation
Mass number (nucleon number)
7
3 𝐿𝑖 symbol for element
Atomic number (proton number)
Ele ment e = Electron ( - )

Isotopes p = proton (+)
n = neutron
Hydrogen-1 > 99% Hydrogen-2 <1%
Hydrogen
H
1 2
1𝐻 1𝐻
Helium-3 <1% Helium-4 > 99 %
Helium
He
3 4
2𝐻𝑒 2𝐻𝑒
Nuclear radiation
Some materials contain atoms with unstable nuclei. In time, each unstable nucleus disintegrates
(breaks up). As it does so, it shoots out tiny particles and, in some cases, a burst of wave energy
as well. The particles and waves „radiate‟ from the nucleus, so they are sometimes called
nuclear radiation. Materials which emit nuclear radiation are known as radioactive materials.
This disintegration of nucleus is called radioactive decay.
Some of the materials in nuclear power stations are highly radioactive. But nuclear radiation
comes from natural sources as well. Although it is convenient to talk about „radioactive
materials‟, it is really particular isotopes of an element that are radioactive. Here are some
examples:
Isotopes
Stable nuclei Unstable nuclei, Found in
Radioactive
Carbon-12 Carbon -14 Air, plants, animals
Carbon-13
Potassium -39 Potassium -40 Rocks, plants, sea water
Uranium -234 Rocks
Uranium -235
Uranium -238
Ionizing radiation
Ions are charged atoms (or group of atoms). Atoms become ions when they lose (or gain)
electrons. Nuclear radiation can remove electrons from atoms in its path, so it has an ionizing
effect. Other forms of ionizing radiation include ultraviolet and X-rays.
If a gas becomes ionized, it will conduct an electric current. In living things, ionization can
damage or destroy cells (see the next spread)
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation

There are three main types of nuclear radiation: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays. Gamma rays are the most penetrating and alpha particles the least as shown in the figure
24.2.
Figure 24.2 Penetration power of different types of radiations
Type of radiation Alpha particles (α) Beta particles (β) Gamma rays (γ)
Each particle is 2 Each particle is an Electromagnetic waves

protons + 2 neutrons electron (created similar to X- rays
(it is identical to a when the nucleus
nucleus of helium -4) decays)

Relative charge +2 -1 0
Compared with
charge
on proton
Mass High, compared with Low -
betas
Speed Up to 0.1 × speed of Up to 0.9 × speed of Speed of light
light light
Ionizing effect Strong Weak Very weak
Penetrating effect Not very penetrating: Penetrating, but Very penetrating:
Stopped by a thick stopped by a few never completely
sheet of paper, or by millimeters of stopped, though lead
skin, or by a few aluminum or other and thick concrete will
centimeters of air metal reduce intensity
Effects of field Deflected by Deflected by Not deflected by
magnetic and electric magnetic and electric magnetic or electric
fields field fields
The nature and properties of the three main radiations are given in the chart above. The diagram
on the same page shows how the different types are affected by a magnetic field. The alpha beam
is a flow of positively (+) charged particles, so it is equivalent to an electric current. It is
deflected in a direction given by Fleming‟s left-hand rule – the rule used for working out the
direction of the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. The beta particles are much
lighter than the alpha particles and have a negative (-) charge, so they are deflected more, and in
the opposite direction. Being uncharged, the gamma rays are not deflected by the field.
Alpha and beta particles are also affected by an electric field – in other words, there is a force on
them if they pass between oppositely charged plates.
Deflection by electric and magnetic fields

Figure 24.3 and 24.4 show how these three kinds of radiation are affected by electric fields and
magnetic fields respectively.
Figure 24.3 Deflection by an electric field
Figure 24.4 Deflection by a magnetic field
The deflection by the electric and magnetic fields show that alpha (𝛼) particles are positively
charged, beta (𝛽) are negatively charged and gamma (𝛾) rays are neutral.
Radiation dangers
Nuclear radiation can damage or destroy living cells, and stop organs in the body working
properly. It can also upset the chemical instructions in cells so that these grow abnormally and
cause cancer. The greater the intensity of the radiation, and the longer the exposure time, the
greater the risk.
Radioactive gas and dust are especially dangerous because they can be taken into the body with
air, food or drink. Once absorbed, they are difficult to remove, and their radiation can cause
damage in cells deep in the body. Alpha radiation is the most harmful because it is the most
highly ionizing.
Normally there is much less risk from radioactive sources outside the body. Sources in nuclear
power stations and laboratories are well shielded, and the intensity of the radiation decreases as
you move away from the source. Beta and gamma rays are potentially the most harmful because
they can penetrate to internal organs. Alpha particles are stopped by the skin.
Background radiation
There is a small amount of radiation around us all the time because of radioactive materials in
the environment. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes from natural sources
such as soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drink – and even space.
Figure 24.5 Sources of background radiation.
In some areas, over a half of the background radiation comes from radioactive radon gas (radon-
222) seeping out of the rocks- especially some types of granite. In high risk areas, houses may
need extra underfloor ventilation to stop the gas collecting or, ideally, a sealed floor to stop it
entering in the first place.
Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

This can be used to detect alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Its structure is shown below in the
picture. The „window‟ at the end is thin enough for alpha particles to pass through. If an alpha
particles enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas
and a pulse of current in the circuit. A beta particle or burst of gamma radiation has the same
effect.
Figure 24.6 Geiger – Muller tube
The GM tube can be connected to the following:

 A rate meter This gives a reading in counts per second. For example, if 50 alpha particles
were detected by the GM tube every second, the ratemeter would read 50 counts per
second.
 A scaler This counts the total number of particles ( or bursts of gamma radiation) setects
by the tube.
 An amplifie r or loudspeaker The loudspeaker makes a „click‟ when each particle (or
bursts of gamma radiation is detected.
When the radiation from the radioactive source is measured, the reading always includes any
background radiation present. So an average reading for the background radiation alone must
also be found and subtracted from the total.
Radioactive decay
Nucleus examp le Al pha particle Beta particle
Mass number (nucleon number): (heliu m nucleus) (electron)

Total number of nucleons
(Protons + neutrons) in the nucleus
4 nucleons Mass negligible co mpared with a
proton or a neutron
4
2𝐻𝑒 - Chemical symbol
4 4
For element 2𝛼 or 2𝐻𝑒
0 0
−1𝛽 or −1𝑒
Atomic nu mber (proton number): Relative charge +2

Also the relative charge on the Relative charge equal but opposite to
nucleus compared with +1 for a that on a proton
proton
If an isotope is radioactive, it has an unstable arrangement of neutrons and protons in its nuclei.
The emission of an alpha or beta particle makes the nucleus more stable, but alters the numbers
of protons and neutrons in it. So it becomes the nucleus of a different element. The original
nucleus is called the parent nucleus. The nucleus formed is the daughter nucleus. The daughter
nucleus and any emitted particles are the decay products.
Alpha decay
Radium -226 (atomic number 88) decays by alpha emission. The loss of the alpha particle leaves
the nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons less than before. So the mass number drops to 222 and
the atomic number to 86. Radon has an atomic number of 86, so radon is the new element
formed:
Figure 24.7 Alpha decay
The decay process can be written as nuclear equation:

226 226 4
88 𝑅𝑎 86 𝑅𝑎 + 2𝛼
During alpha decay:
 The top numbers balance on both sides of the equation (226 = 222 + 4), so the nucleon
number is conserved (unchanged)
 The bottom numbers balance on both sides of the equation (88 = 86 + 2), so charge is
conserved
 A new element is formed, with an atomic number 2 less than before. The mass number is
4 less than before.
Beta decay
Iodine -131 (atomic number 53) decays the beta emission. When this happens a neutron changes
into a proton, an electron, and an uncharged, almost mass less relative of the electron called an
antineutrino. The electron an anti neutrino leave the nucleus at high speed. As a proton has
replaced a neutron in the nucleus, the atomic number rises to 54. This means that a nucleus of
xenon -131 has been formed:
Figure 24.8 Beta (-) decay
The decay process can be written as a nuclear equation:
131 131 0 0
53 𝐼 54 𝑋𝑒 + −1 𝛽 + 0ṽ (ṽ = antineutrino)
During this type of beta decay:

 The top number balance on both sides of the equation (131 = 131 + 0+ 0), so the nucleon
number is conserved.
 The bottom numbers balance on both sides of the equation (53 = 54 – 1 + 0), so charge is
conserved
 A new element is formed, with an atomic number 1 more than before. The mass number
is unchanged.
Note:
Neutrino and anti-neutrino is not a part of O Level physics course so we will use the
equation written below
𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
𝟓𝟑 𝑰 𝟓𝟒 𝑿𝒆 + −𝟏 𝜷
Gamma emission
With some isotope, the emission of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus leaves the protons
and neutrons in an „excited‟ arrangement. As the protons and neutrons rearrange to become more
stable, they lose energy. This is emitted as a burst of gamma radiation.
 Gamma emission by itself causes on change in mass number or atomic number.
Random and Spontaneous nature of decay

Radioactive decay happens spontaneously (all by itself) and at random. There is no way of
predicting when a particular nucleus will disintegrate, and the process is unaffected by pressure,
temperature, or chemical change. However some types of nuclei are more unstable than others
and decay at a faster rate.
Rate of decay and half-life

Iodine -131 is a radioactive isotope of iodine. The chart below illustrate the decay of a sample of
iodine -131. On average, 1 nucleus disintegrates every second for every 1 000 000 nuclei present.
Figure 24.9 decay of Iodine

Radioactive isotope Half-life

Boron -12 0.02 seconds
Radon -220 52 seconds
Iodine -128 25 minutes
Radon -222 3.8 days
Strontium -90 28 years
Radium -226 1602 years
Carbon -14 5730 years
Plutonium -239 24400 years
Uranium -235 7.1 ×108 years
Uranium -238 4.5 ×109 years
To begin with, there are 40 million undecayed nuclei. 8 days later, half of these have
disintegrated. With the number of undecayed nuclei now halved, the number of disintegration
over the next 8 days is also halved. It halves again over the next 8 days… and so on. Iodine -131
has a half- life.
 The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei present in
any given sample to decay.
The half- lives of some other radioactive isotopes are given on the left. It might seem strange that
there should be any short- lived isotopes still remaining. However, some are radioactive
daughters of long- lived parents, with others are produced artificially in nuclear reactors.
Activity and half-life

In a radioactive sample, the average number of disintegrations per second is called the activity.
The SI unit of activity is the Becque rel (Bq). An activity of, say, 100 Bq means 100 nuclei are
disintegrating per second.
The graph at the top of the next two pages shows how, on average, the activity of a sample of
iodine -131 varies with time. As the activity is always proportional to the number of undecayed
nuclei, it too halves every 8 days. So „half- life‟ has another meaning as well:
 The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for the activity of any given
sample to fall to half its original value.
Figure 24.11 Radioactive decay is a

random process. So, in practice, the
curve is a „best fit‟ of points which
vary irregularly like this.
Figure 24.10 Radioactive decay of Iodine – 131. Iodine – 131

has a half life of 8 days. From any point on the curve, it always
takes 8 days along the time axis for the activity to halve
To obtain a graph like the one above, a GM tube is used to detect the particles emitted by the
sample. The number of counts per second recorded by the ratemeter is proportional to the
activity – through not equal to it, because not all of the emitted particles are detected.
Figure 24.12 Understanding half-life.

Worked Example 24.1

In 15 days, the activity of a sample of radioactive bismuth decreases to one-eighth of its original
activity. Calculate its half life.
Solution:
𝐴0
Given: final activity after 15 days is where 𝐴0 = original activity
8
Let the half- life of bismuth be 𝑡 1 .

2
Time/day 0 𝑡1 2𝑡1 3𝑡1

2 2 2
Activity 𝐴0 𝐴0 𝐴0
𝐴0 2 4 8
From the above analysis, the activity decreases to one-eighth of the original activity in a time of
3𝑡1 days.
2
Therefore, 3𝑡1 = 15
2
𝑡1 = 5 days
2
Worked example 24.2

The following data were obtained from an experiment using a sample of a radioactive substance
and a Geiger- Muller counter.
Time/min 0 2 4 6 8
Count rate/ counts per min 285 155 80 40 20
By means of a suitable graph, find the half- life of the given radioactive sample.
Solution:
Let the half- life of the given radioactive sample be 𝑡 1
2
To find the half- life of the given radioactive sample, plot the count rate against time to obtain the
decay curve (figure 24.13).
From the graph,

1st half- life for count rate to decrease from 200 to 100 is given by:
(𝑡1 )1 = 3.3 – 1.2 = 2.1 min

2
2nd half- life for count rate to decrease from 100 to 50 is

given by:
(𝑡1 )2= 5.2 – 3.3 = 1.9 min
2
1 1
(𝑡 ) 1+ (𝑡 ) 2 2.1+1.9
2 2
Therefore, half- life 𝑡1 = = = 2.0 min
2 2 2
Figure 24.13
Note:
The reason for finding two values of the half- life and then taking the average is to obtain a more
accurate half- life by minimizing any random errors.
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear changes
We have already learned that radioactive decay refers to the process of an unstable nucleus of a
radioactive element disintegrating in order to become more stable. We can now represent
radioactive decay by means of a nuclear equation in which a parent nuclide X (unstable) changes
into a daughter nuclide Y (more stable) with the emission of an alpha (α) particles or a beta (β)
particles of gamma (γ) rays.
1. Alpha (α)-decay
𝐴 𝐴 4 4
General equation: 𝑍𝑋 𝑍− 2 𝑌 + 2 𝐻𝑒 + energy
Parent daughter alpha (α)
nuclide nuclide -particle
266 222 4
Example: 88 𝑅𝑎 86 𝑅𝑛 + 2 𝐻𝑒 + energy
radium radon alpha (α)
parent daughter -particle
nuclide nuclide
In alpha (α)- decay, the nuclide 𝐴𝑍 𝑋 has its proton number of atomic number Z decreased and its
mass number or nucleon number A decreased by 4. The daughter nuclide 𝐴𝑍 − 42 𝑌 is formed.
2. Beta (β) – decay

𝐴 4 0
General equation: 𝑍𝑋 𝑍+1 𝑌 + −1 𝑒 + energy
Parent daughter beta (β)
nuclide nuclide -particle
22 24 0
11 𝑁𝑎 12 𝑀𝑔 + −1 𝑒 + energy
sodium magnesium beta (β)
Parent daughter -particle
nuclide nuclide
In beta (β)-decay, the nuclide 𝐴𝑍 𝑋 has its proton number Z increased by 1 but the mass number
of nucleon number A remains unchanged.
3. Gamma (γ) –decay

General equation: ( 𝐴𝑍 𝑋)∗ 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 + gama (γ) –rays
parent daughter
nuclide nuclide
The asterisk (*) indicates that the nucleus is in an excited state. Gama (γ) rays are usually emitted
at the same moment as either an alpha (α) – or beta (β) – particle. In alpha or beta decay, the
nucleus is in an excited state (i.e. is possesses more energy than it normally has). This spare
energy is released as gamma radiation.
Past paper question (June 94)

The Uranium atom 23892 𝑈 emits an 𝛼 particle to become thorium, which then emits a 𝛽 particle to
become protactinium.
What is the proton number (atomic number) of protactinium?
A. 89
B. 90
C. 91
D. 95
Ans wer: C
Explanation Number of protons = 92 – 2 + 1 = 91
Exam tip The nucleus loses 2 protons after alpha decay and gains 1 proton after
beta decay.
Uses of Radio-isotopes
Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes (or radionuclide) some are produced artificially
in a nuclear reactor when nuclei absorb neutrons or gamma radiation. For example, all natural
cobalt is cobalt -59, which is stable. If cobalt -59 absorbs a neutron, it becomes cobalt -60 which
is radioactive.
Here are some of the practical uses of radioisotopes.
Tracers
Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (and safe)
quantities, so they can be used as tracers – their movements
can be tracked. Examples include:
 Checking the functions of body organs. For example, to

check thyroid function, a patient drinks liquid containing
iodine -123, a gamma emitter. Over the next 24 hours, a
detector measures the activity of the tracer to find out how
quickly it becomes concentrated in the thyroid gland.
Figure 24.14 Using radio-
 Tracking a plant‟s uptake for fertilizer from roots to leaves isotopes as tracers
by adding a tracer to the soil water.
 Detecting leaks in underground pipes by adding a tracer to the fluid in the pipe.
For tests like those above, artificial radioisotopes with short half- lives are used so that there is no
detectable radiation after a few days.
Radiotherapy
Cobalt -60 is a strong gamma emitter. Gamma rays can penetrate deep into the body and kill
living cells. So a highly concentrated beam from a cobalt -60 source can be used to kill cancer
cells. Treatment like this is called radiotherapy.
Figure 24.15 A concentrated beam of gamma rays from a cobalt – 60 source will be directed
at one small area of this patient‟s body to kill the cancer cells in a tumour
Testing for cracks

Gamma rays have the same properties as short-wavelength X-rays, so they can be used to
photograph metals to reveal cracks. A cobalt -60 gamma source is compact and does not need
electrical power like an X-ray tube.
Thickness monitoring
In some production processes a steady thickness of material has to be maintained. The diagram
below shows one way of doing this.
Figure 24.16 Using radio-isotopes to monitor thickness of sheets
Carbon dating
There is carbon in the atmosphere (in carbon dioxide) and in the bodies of animals and plants. A
small proportion is radioactive carbon -14 (half- life 5730 years). Although carbon -14 decays,
the amount in the atmosphere changes very little because more is continually being formed as
nitrogen in the upper atmosphere is bombarded by cosmic radiation from space. While plants and
animals are living, feeding and breathing, they absorb and give out carbon, so the proportion of
carbon -14 in their bodies stays constant. But when they die, no more carbon is taken in and the
proportion of carbon -14 is gradually reduced by radioactive decay. By measuring the activity of
the sample, the age of the remains can be estimated. This is called carbon dating. It can be used
to find the age of organic materials such as wood and cloth. However, it assumes that the
proportion of carbon -14 in the atmosphere was the same hundreds or thousands of years ago as
it is today.
Dating rocks
When rocks are formed, some radioisotopes become trapped in them. For example, potassium -
40 decays, more and more of its stable decay product, argon -40 is created. Provided none of this
argon gas has escaped, the age of the rock (which may be hundreds of millions of years) can be
estimated from the proportions of potassium -40 to argon -40. Igneous rock can also be dated by
the proportion of uranium to lead isotopes – lead being the final, stable product of the series of
decays with uranium.
Power Sources
Uranium-235 is the most common fuel used in nuclear power stations. Other radioactive
materials can be used as portable power sources. For example, some satellites use radioactive
materials as their source of power, which comes from the energy released when these radioactive
materials decay.
Some fire alarms contain a small amount of alpha-emitting substance. The alpha (𝑎)- particles
emitted keep the air in the fire alarms slightly ionised and any changes in the level of ionisation
caused by smoke in a fire can be detected and the alarm is set off.
Hazards and precautions

Hazards of radiation
Overexposure to radioactive radiation may result in radiation burns. These will lead to sores and
blisters which may take a long time to heal. Extreme overexposure can lead to radiation sickness,
and ultimately death. Radioactive radiation can also lead to delayed conditions such as death.
Radioactive radiation can also lead to delayed conditions such as eye cataracts or leukaemia,
which may only appear many years later.
Precautions against radiation hazards

To prevent overexposure to radiation or any accidents, the following precautions need to be
taken:
(i) Workers working with gamma (γ)-radiation must wear film badges or pocket
dosimeters in order to keep track of the accumulated dosage they are exposed to over
given periods of time.
(ii) Always keep radioactive sources in lead- lined boxes (figure 24.18). The walls of the
storage rooms of nuclear laboratories are to be built will lead bricks that are 1 m
thick. The outside of the rooms must be labeled “Radioactive Materials”.
Figure 24.17 Radiation symbol Figure 24.18 A lead-lined box to store radio-
active sources
(iii) The radiation symbol (figure 24.17) must be displayed whenever an experiment with
a radioactive source is conducted.
(iv) If possible, person doing radiation experiments should use special protective clothing
such as lead-lined suits as well as wear lead- lined gloves. Tweezers must be used to
pick up strong sources. After completion of the day‟s work, the contaminated clothing
must be changed.
(v) Food and drinks are strictly prohibited when a person is doing a radioactivity
experiments. Otherwise, radioactive dust may be taken into the body together with the
food.
(vi) Avoid unnecessary exposure.
(vii) Avoid direct contact with the source.
(viii) Never point the source to anyone.
(ix) Radioactive sources must be placed out of reach of public.

Past paper question (Nov 95)

When some fresh foods are exposed to 𝛾 rays, the foods‟ keeping qualities are improved and the
foods are safe to eat. Why can people eat these foods without suffering from the effects of
radiation?
A. 𝛾 rays carry no electric charge

B. 𝛾 rays do not make food radioactive
C. 𝛾 rays have very low energy
D. 𝛾 rays have very short half- life
Ans wer: B
Explanation Gamma rays can pass through the food without making them radioactive.
Exam tip Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food so that
the food can be kept longer.
Past paper question (June 2000)

A factory uses a radioactive source and a detector to monitor the thickness of plastic sheets. The
arrangement is as shown.
Which type of radioactive source would be best for this device?
Radiation Half-life
A. 𝛼 1 day
B. 𝛼 10 years
C. 𝛽 1 day
D. 𝛽 100 years
Ans wer: D
Explanation Beta radiation can pass through the plastic sheet and long half- life is
more cost effective as there is no need to replace the source very
frequently.
Exam tip Alpha particles cannot be used as they are stopped by the plastic sheet.
Past paper question (Nov 2000)

Which action will most increase a person‟s exposure to radioactivity?
A. Eating food that has been sterilized by exposure to gamma rays

B. Going for flight in a high- flying aircraft
C. Opening the windows of a house
D. Using a Geiger-Muller tube and a counter
Ans wer: B
Explanation At a higher altitude we are more exposed to the cosmic rays from the
outer space.
Exam tip Food sterilized by gamma rays and Geiger-Muller tube are not
radioactive. Opening the windows of the house does not affect the background radiation we
receive.
Nuclear Energy
Mass and energy
In 1905, while developing his special theory of relativity, Einstein made a startling suggestion
that mass and energy are equivalent. He formulated the equation
E = 𝑚𝑐 2 Where, E = energy
m = the mass and
c = the velocity of light.
A change in energy, whether it be an increased or decreased will lead to a corresponding in mass.

Therefore
Where,
∆m =
∆𝐸 ∆m represents change in mass and ∆𝐸 represents change in energy.
𝑐2
Worked example 24.3

Find the increase in mass when 4200 J of heat is absorbed by 1 kg of water to cause a
temperature rise of 1 K.
(take the velocity of light c = 3 ×108 𝑚𝑠 −1 ).
Solution
Given: energy absorbed ∆𝐸 = 4200 J
Using Einstein‟s mass- energy equation,

∆𝐸 4200
∆m = 2 = -= 4.7 × 10 −14 kg
𝑐 (3 × 10 8 )2
This is a negligibly small mass increase.
Einstein‟s mass-energy equation is more useful when applied to nuclear reactions and
radioactivity.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the process whereby heavy unstable nuclides break up to produce energy.
Naturally –occurring uranium contains a mixture of isotopes of which uranium -238 forms 99%
and uranium -235 forms1%. Uranium -235 is useful for nuclear energy production. When
uranium -235 is bombarded by neutrons, it forms uranium -236 as shown in the following
nuclear equation:
235 1 236
92 𝑈 + 0𝑛 92 𝑈
However, uranium -236 is unstable and breaks down, splitting into two nearly equal radioactive
nuclei, often being barium and krypton, with the production of two or three neutrons. The main
nuclear equation is:
236 141 92
92 𝑈 56 𝐵𝑎 + 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10 𝑛 + energy
Fission fragments
The total mass of the product particles (i.e. 141 92 1

56 𝐵𝑎, 36 𝐾𝑟 and 3 0 𝑛 on the right- hand side of the
equation is appreciably less than the mass of the initial nucleus ( 236
92 𝑈) on the left- hand side of
the equation.
By Einstein‟s mass-energy equation, this loss in mass is accounted for by the gain in energy
released in the form of the increase in the kinetic energies of the product particles. The two fast-
moving fission fragments collide with the surrounding atoms and therefore raise their kinetic
energies and thus their temperatures. This causes heat to be produced.
The three fast- moving neutrons are made to slow down to produce further fission by colliding
with other uranium -235 nuclei to form uranium -236 which again undergoes fission and
generates more fission fragments, more neutrons and more energy. Figure 24.19 shows this chain
reaction in nuclear fission which is used in a nuclear reactor to generate energy.
Figure 24.19 Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process whereby lighter nuclides fuse together to form a heavier nucleus
with the release of energy. The energy released is again due to the loss of mass which is given by
the total mass of the lighter nuclides minus the mass of the heavier nucleus formed. Research is
still going on to produce controlled fusion between two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and
tritium) to give helium. The temperature needed for fusion to start is as high as 100 million
degrees Celsius. Fusion is believed to be the process by which the Sun produces energy. Table
below shows the difference between fission and fusion.
Differences between fission and fusion

Fusion Fission
Reason for energy Reduction in mass when light Fragments of the explosion are
nuclei are fused together. of much lower mass than the
original nucleus.
Process Two light nuclei fuse together Break- up of a heavy nucleus
to form a dingle nucleus; by (unstable) by bombardment with
raising the temperature, nuclei moving particles, e.g. neutrons;
are brought together at high chain reaction enables the
speed to overcome the process to carry on; the fission
repulsion. of a nucleus produces enough
neutrons to cause more fission of
other nuclei.
Rate of reaction Can be controlled Difficult to control.
Alpha Particles Scattering Experiment
Figure 24.20 Alpha particle scattering experiment
Figure 24.21 Alpha particles scattering experiment
The above experiment was carried out in 1911 by Geiger and Marsden under the supervision of
Ernest Rutherford. It produced results which could not be explained by the plum pudding model.
Thin gold foil was bombarded with alpha particles, which are positively charged. Most past
straight through the gold atoms, but the few were repelled so strongly that they bounced back or
were deflected through large angles. Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely empty
space, with its positive charge and some of its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the centre,
in his model, the much lighter electrons orbited the nucleus rather like the planets around the sun.
Star Formation
The birth of a star
Figure 24.22 the formation of solar system
Scientists thinks that the sun and the rest of the solar system formed about 4500 million years
ago in a huge cloud of gas and dust called a nebula. Gravity slowly pulled the material into
blobs. One blob in the centre grew especially large as more and more material crashed into it. It
also heated up as the gravitational potential energy of the incoming material was converted into
thermal energy. Around it, smaller blobs orbited, growing bigger as they swept up most of the
outer material in the cloud. Later these smaller blobs would contract and cool to form planets and
moon.
The sun formed from the large blob at the centre of the cloud. In
time, it became massive enough to collect most of the hydrogen
gas from around it. Deep inside the blob, the gas became hotter
and more compressed. Eventually its temperature and pressure
were high enough to trigger the start of the process called
nuclear fusion, explained on the next page. Fusion releases a
huge amount of energy. Once it had started the blob „lit up‟ to
become a star: the sun. other stars formed – and are being
formed – in the same way.
During the type of fusion that happens in the sun, nuclear

reaction converts hydrogen into helium. Scientists thinks that the Figure 24.23 The great Nebula
sun has enough hydrogen left in its core to keep it shinning for in the constellation of Orion.
another 6000 million years. Stars are forming in this huge
cloud of gas and dust
Fusion power…. In the sun

If hydrogen nuclei can be made to fuse (join) together to form helium nuclei, energy is released.
But nuclei do not readily join because they are electrically charged, and repel each other. To
make them fuse, they have to collide at an extremely high speed. In practice, this means
maintaining a gas at an extremely high temperature: for example 15 000 000 ℃ in the sun‟s
core.
Figure 24.24 Fusion in the sun
…and on earth
One day fusion reactors can be used in power stations, but not for many years yet. The sun‟s
huge size and gravitational pull can maintain the conditions necessary for fusion. But on Earth,
no ordinary container can hold hydrogen at such a high temperature and keep it compressed. To
overcome these problems, scientists are trying to develop a fusion reactor that uses magnetic
fields to trap the nuclei.
Potentially, the advantages of fusion reactors are considerable. They will produce more energy
than kilogram of fuel than any conventional nuclear reactor. Their hydrogen fuel can be
extracted from sea water. Their main waste product, helium, is not radioactive. And they have
built- in-safety: if the system fails, fusion stops.

Topic 24. Radioactivity

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Topic 24. Radioactivity

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Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334-4140594 www.hussainuppal.

26.1 Detection of radioactivity

Candidates should be able to:

27. The Nuclear Atom

Figure 24.1 A simple model of the atom.

An atom is made up of smaller particles:

Elements and atomic number

Isotopes and mass number

Mass number (nucleon number)

Atomic number (proton number)

Ele ment e = Electron ( - )

Helium-3 <1% Helium-4 > 99 %

Alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Figure 24.2 Penetration power of different types of radiations

Each particle is 2 Each particle is an Electromagnetic waves

nucleus of helium -4) decays)

Deflection by electric and magnetic fields

Figure 24.3 Deflection by an electric field

Figure 24.4 Deflection by a magnetic field

Figure 24.5 Sources of background radiation.

Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

Figure 24.6 Geiger – Muller tube

The GM tube can be connected to the following:

Mass number (nucleon number): (heliu m nucleus) (electron)

Atomic nu mber (proton number): Relative charge +2

Figure 24.7 Alpha decay

The decay process can be written as nuclear equation:

Figure 24.8 Beta (-) decay

The decay process can be written as a nuclear equation:

During this type of beta decay:

Random and Spontaneous nature of decay

Rate of decay and half-life

Figure 24.9 decay of Iodine

Radioactive isotope Half-life

Activity and half-life

Figure 24.11 Radioactive decay is a

Figure 24.10 Radioactive decay of Iodine – 131. Iodine – 131

Figure 24.12 Understanding half-life.

Worked Example 24.1

Let the half- life of bismuth be 𝑡 1 .

Time/day 0 𝑡1 2𝑡1 3𝑡1

Worked example 24.2

Count rate/ counts per min 285 155 80 40 20

From the graph,

(𝑡1 )1 = 3.3 – 1.2 = 2.1 min

2nd half- life for count rate to decrease from 100 to 50 is

2. Beta (β) – decay

3. Gamma (γ) –decay

Past paper question (June 94)

Here are some of the practical uses of radioisotopes.

 Checking the functions of body organs. For example, to

Testing for cracks

Figure 24.16 Using radio-isotopes to monitor thickness of sheets

Hazards and precautions

Precautions against radiation hazards

(vi) Avoid unnecessary exposure.

(vii) Avoid direct contact with the source.

(viii) Never point the source to anyone.

(ix) Radioactive sources must be placed out of reach of public.

Past paper question (Nov 95)

A. 𝛾 rays carry no electric charge

Past paper question (June 2000)

Which type of radioactive source would be best for this device?

Past paper question (Nov 2000)