Physics for JEE Main and Advanced

Electrostatics and Current Electricity

1st Edition Shashi Bhushan Tiwari
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Prelims.indd 2 31-08-2019 15:00:22
 Shashi Bhushan Tiwari

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Prelims.indd 3 31-08-2019 15:00:22

 Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited,
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Electrostatics and Current Electricity

Copyright © 2020 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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 Dedicated to
All those who are behind technological innovations
to fight climate change

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Prelims.indd 6 31-08-2019 15:00:24
 Preface

This book forms a part of the series “Your Personal Coach”. Like other books in this series, this book has been written
on two core principles:
(i) a text book must have continuity and flow in what it discusses.
(ii) nothing contributes more in understanding Physics than a good example.
I have tried to unfold the concepts gradually, one-by-one; illustrating each of them with examples. The main aim is to
make the students learn the basic principles of Physics independently.
Many of the experiments that you do in your school laboratory are related to the electric circuits. I found it appropriate
to include a chapter on Measurements and Errors in this book. A lot of questions in this chapter have been deliberately
framed on measurements related to the electric circuits.
I shall be grateful to everyone who would provide feedback or help me with useful suggestions.

S.B. Tiwari

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Prelims.indd 8 31-08-2019 15:00:25
 How to use this Book

To make full use of this book one must go through the topics sequentially while working through the examples and in-
chapter problems given under heading “Your Turn”. By doing this you will have a fair amount of grasp over all the
essentials in a chapter.
Miscellaneous examples given at the end of each chapter have problems which involve multiple concepts or have some
mathematical complexity or are tricky. If you are studying the subject for the first time or are hard pressed for time, you
may skip the section on miscellaneous examples.
Almost every solved example starts with explanation of physical situation and basic principles involved. This feature
comes under heading “Concepts” at the beginning of each example.
I have highlighted the important points of learning under the heading “In short”. Here, I have also taken important
learning points from the examples. While going through the chapter it is essential to go through these points.
Physics cannot be mastered without practice. Keeping this in view I have given three Worksheets (exercises) after every
chapter. Worksheet 1 has multiple choice objective type questions with single correct answer. Worksheet 2 has multiple
choice questions having one or more than one correct answers. Worksheet 3 has subjective problems. A good number of
problems has been given in the Worksheets to give you a good practice on concepts learnt.
After few chapters, at regular intervals, you will find separate assignments on miscellaneous type problems. These are
problems based on latest trend of competitive examinations and contain Match the Column type questions and problems
based on a given paragraph. Attempt these questions only after you gain enough confidence in the related chapters.
I have kept these problems in separate chapters so that you have no bias or hint about the equation/s to use.
In the last chapter, you will find a collection of questions asked in competitive examinations since 2005. This is an
ideal collection of problems for revision.
In the end of the book, solutions to all questions has been given. Solutions are quite descriptive and easy to
understand.
Those who desire to practice at even higher level, I recommend my book – “Problems in Physics for JEE
Advanced”.
I hope you will enjoy this book.

S.B. Tiwari

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Prelims.indd 10 31-08-2019 15:00:27
 Acknowledgements

I thank to all who helped me in preparation of this book. My special thanks to –

• My students, who have taught me a lot.
• The management at McGraw-Hill which has shown a lot of patience.

S.B. Tiwari

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Prelims.indd 12 31-08-2019 15:00:29
 Contents

Preface  vii 8. Electric Flux 1.19

How to use this Book  ix • Your Turn 1.21
Acknowledgements  xi 9. Gauss’s Law 1.21
• Your Turn 1.24
1. Electrostatic Field 1.1–1.70 10. Application of Gauss’s Law in
1. Introduction 1.1 Calculation of Electric Field 1.25
2. Charge 1.1 10.1 Spherical symmetry 1.25
2.1 Charging of material bodies 1.1 • Your Turn 1.27
2.2 Properties of charge 1.3 10.2 Cylindrical symmetry 1.28
2.3 Electroscope 1.3 • Your Turn 1.29
• Your Turn 1.5 10.3 Symmetry on a plane 1.30
3. Fundamental Question in Electrostatics 1.5 Your Turn 1.31
4. Coulomb’s Law 1.5 11. Spherical Charge with Cavity 1.32
4.1 Coulomb’s law in a medium 1.6 • Your Turn   1.34
4.2 Coulomb’s law in vector notation 1.7 12. Electrostatic Properties of Condutors 1.34
• Your Turn 1.8 • Your Turn 1.39
5. Principle of Superposition 1.8 13. Motion of a Charged Particle
• Your Turn 1.10 in an Electric Field 1.40
6. Electric Field 1.10 • Your Turn 1.41
6.1 Electric field due to a point charge 1.10 14. Conservative Nature of Coulomb Force 1.41
6.2 Electric field obeys superposition • Your Turn 1.42
principle 1.11 15. Gauss’s Law in Gravitation 1.42
• Your Turn   1.13 • Your Turn 1.43
6.3 Electric field due to continuous 16. Dielectric Breakdown 1.43
distribution of charge 1.14 • Your Turn 1.43
• Your Turn 1.16  Miscellaneous Examples 1.43
7. Electric Field Lines 1.17  Worksheet 1 1.55
• Your Turn 1.19  Worksheet 2 1.61

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 xiv Electrostatics and Current Electricity

 Worksheet 3 1.64 9. Potential of a Conductor 2.24

 Answer Sheet 1.68 9.1 Charge sharing 2.24
9.2 Surface charge density 2.25
2. Electrostatic Potential 2.1–2.59 9.3 Grounding a conductor 2.25
1. Introduction 2.1 • Your Turn 2.27
2. Electrical Potential Energy 2.1 10. Electrostatic Self-Energy 2.28
2.1 Potential energy of a pair 10.1 Electrostatic potential energy
of point charges 2.1 of a uniformly charged, thin
• Your Turn 2.4 spherical shell 2.28
2.2 Potential energy for a system 10.2 Electrostatic potential energy of a
uniformly charged spherical
of more than two charges 2.4
volume 2.28
3. Electric Potential 2.5
• Your Turn 2.30
• Your Turn 2.5
11. Accelerating and Retarding ­
3.1 Electric potential due to a Potential Difference 2.30
point charge 2.6
12. Electric Dipole 2.31
3.2 Potential due to multiple charges 2.6
12.1 Potential due to a dipole 2.31
• Your Turn 2.8
12.2 Electric field due to a dipole 2.31
3.3 Electric potential on the axis
• Your Turn 2.31
of a charged ring 2.9
12.3 Field and potential on axis
3.4 Electric potential on the axis
of a uniformly charged disc 2.9 and equator 2.32
• Your Turn 2.11 • Your Turn 2.33
4. Conservation of Energy and 13. Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 2.33
Work–Energy Theorem 2.11 13.1 Potential energy of a dipole
• Your Turn 2.14 in a uniform field 2.34
5. Relation between Electric Field 13.2 Dipole in a non-uniform field 2.34
and Potential 2.15 • Your Turn 2.35
5.1 Potential difference in a 14. Dielectric in Electric Field 2.35
uniform field 2.15
 Miscellaneous Examples 2.36
5.2 Potential difference in terms of
 Worksheet 1 2.45
rectangular components of field 2.16
 Worksheet 2 2.51
• Your Turn 2.18
 Worksheet 3 2.55
5.3 Getting electric field from
potential function 2.18  Answer Sheet 2.58

• Your Turn 2.19

3. Miscellaneous Problems on
6. Equipotential Surfaces 2.20
Chapters 1 & 2 3.1–3.9
• Your Turn 2.22
Match the Column 3.1
7. Potential due to a Uniformly
Charged Shell 2.22 Passage based Problems 3.3
8. Electric Potential due to a  Answer Sheet 3.9
Uniform Spherical Volume Charge 2.22
• Your Turn 2.24

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 Contents xv

4. Capacitors 4.1–4.63 14. Multi Plate Capacitor 4.27

• Your Turn 4.28
1. Introduction 4.1
15. Charge Sharing between Two Capacitors 4.28
2. Capacitance of a Conductor 4.1
• Your Turn 4.30
2.1 Capacitance of a spherical conductor 4.1
16. Complex Capacitor Circuits 4.30
• Your Turn 4.2
• Your Turn 4.35
2.2 Energy of a charged conductor 4.2
17. Symmetry in Circuits 4.35
3. Charge Sharing between Two Conductors 4.2
• Your Turn 4.39
• Your Turn 4.3
 Miscellaneous Examples 4.40
4. Capacitor 4.4
 Worksheet 1 4.49
4.1 Capacitance of a parallel
 Worksheet 2 4.56
plate capacitor 4.4
 Worksheet 3 4.59
4.2 Parallel plate capacitor with dielectric 4.5
 Answer Sheet 4.62
4.3 Parallel plate capacitor with
multiple dielectrics 4.6
5. Miscellaneous Problems
4.4 Capacitance of a spherical capacitor 4.6
on Chapter 4 5.1–5.6
4.5 Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor 4.7
• Your Turn 4.8
Match the Column 5.1
5. Energy Stored in a Capacitor 4.9 Passage based Problems 5.3
6. Energy Density in an Electric Field 4.9  Answer Sheet 5.6
7. Force between Plates of a Parallel
Plate Capacitor 4.10 6. Electric Current and Resistance 6.1–6.55
• Your Turn 4.11 1. Introduction 6.1
8. Cell (or, battery) 4.11 2. Electric Current 6.1
9. Charging a Capacitor with a Cell 4.12 3. Current Density 6.2
• Your Turn 4.15 • Your Turn 6.2
10. Grouping of Capacitors 4.15 4. Electric Current in Conductors 6.3
10.1 Parallel combination of capacitors 4.16 4.1 Drift speed 6.3
10.2 Series combination of capacitors 4.16 4.2 Relation between current
• Your Turn 4.20 and drift speed 6.3
11. Balanced Wheatstone Bridge 5. Ohm’s Law 6.4
of Capacitors 4.21 6. Resistance 6.5
• Your Turn 4.23 6.1 Temperature dependence
12. Use of Series–Parallel Grouping to of resistivity 6.6
find Capacitance of a Capacitor filled 6.2 Different type of material 6.6
with Multiple Dielectrics 4.23 • Your Turn 6.7
12.1 Using series grouping 4.23 7. Heating Effect of Current 6.8
12.2 Using parallel grouping 4.24 7.1 Battery as a source of energy 6.9
12.3 Mixed grouping 4.24 7.2 Incandescent bulb 6.9
• Your Turn 4.25 7.3 Electric heater 6.9
13. Short Circuited Capacitor 4.26 7.4 Fuse 6.10
• Your Turn 4.27 • Your Turn 6.11

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 xvi Electrostatics and Current Electricity

8. Kirchhoff’s Laws 6.11 9. Compact Wheatstone Bridge

9. Resistors in Series and Parallel 6.12 (Post Office Box) 7.9
9.1 Series combination 6.13 • Your Turn 7.10
9.2 Parallel combination 6.13 10. Potentiometer 7.10
• Your Turn 6.17 10.1 Comparing emfs of two cells 7.11
10. Wheatstone Bridge of Resistors 6.19 10.2 Measuring internal resistance
of a cell 7.11
• Your Turn 6.20
• Your Turn 7.13
11. Complex Circuits Using Resistances 6.21
 Miscellaneous Examples 7.14
11.1 Another way to use
Kirchhoff’s laws 6.26  Worksheet 1 7.17

11.2 Superposition theorem for cells 6.27  Worksheet 2 7.20

• Your Turn 6.28  Worksheet 3 7.22

12. Real Cells 6.29  Answer Sheet 7.24

• Your Turn 6.30
8. Transient RC Circuits 8.1–8.24
12.1 Capacity of a battery
(The Ampere Hour) 6.30 1. Introduction 8.1
12.2 Maximum power transfer 6.31 2. Charging of a Capacitor 8.1
• Your Turn 6.32 2.1 Condition immediately after
the switch is closed 8.1
12.3 Series grouping of cells 6.32
2.2 Condition after a long time 8.1
12.4 Parallel grouping of cells 6.32
2.3 Dependence of charge and
• Your Turn 6.34
current on time 8.2
 Miscellaneous Examples 6.35
• Your Turn 8.5
 Worksheet 1 6.42
3. Charging of a Capacitor in a Complex
 Worksheet 2 6.48
Network of Resistors 8.5
 Worksheet 3 6.50
• Your Turn 8.7
 Answer Sheet 6.54
4. Discharging of a Capacitor 8.8
• Your Turn 8.9
7. Basic Electrical Measurement 7.1–7.24
5. Leakage in a Capacitor 8.9
1. Introduction 7.1
• Your Turn 8.9
2. Galvanometer 7.1
 Miscellaneous Examples 8.10
3. Ammeter 7.1
 Worksheet 1 8.14
• Your Turn 7.3
 Worksheet 2 8.16
4. Voltmeter 7.3
 Worksheet 3 8.17
• Your Turn 7.4
 Answer Sheet 8.19
5. Resistance Box 7.5
6. Rheostat 7.5 9. Miscellaneous Problems on
7. Verifying Ohm’s Law and Measuring Chapters 6–8 9.1–9.13
a Resistance 7.6
Match the Column 9.1
8. Meter Bridge 7.6
Passage based Problems 9.3
• Your Turn 7.8
 Answer Sheet 9.13

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 Contents xvii

10. Error and Measurement 10.1–10.24 10. Precision and Accuracy 10.17
 Miscellaneous Examples 10.18
1. Introduction 10.1
 Worksheet 1 10.20
2. Reporting a Single Measurement 10.1
 Worksheet 2 10.22
2.1 Uncertainty in a single measurement 10.1
 Worksheet 3 10.23
2.2 Rules to identify significant figures 10.2
 Answer Sheet 10.24
• Your Turn 10.4
3. Errors in Measurement 10.4
11. Miscellaneous Problems on
4. Estimating Uncertainty in Multiple
Chapter 10 11.1–11.3
Measurements 10.5
• Your Turn 10.6 Match the Column 11.1

4.1 Standard deviation 10.6 Passage based Problems 11.1

4.2 Fractional and percentage uncertainty 10.7  Answer Sheet 11.3

• Your Turn 10.7

12. Previous Years' JEE Questions 12.1–12.22
5. Significant Figures in Algebraic Operations 10.8
Electrostatics 12.1
5.1 Multiplication and division 10.8
AIEEE/JEE Main Questions 12.1
5.2 Addition and subtraction 10.8
IIT–JEE/JEE Advanced Questions 12.3
5.3 Rules for rounding off 10.8
Capacitor 12.9
6. Propagation of Uncertainty (Error) 10.9
AIEEE / JEE Main Questions 12.9
• Your Turn 10.9
IIT–JEE / JEE Advanced Questions 12.10
6.1 Error in sum or difference
of quantities 10.9 Current, Electrical Measurements
and RC Circuits 12.11
6.2 Error in product of quantities 10.10
AIEEE / JEE Main 12.11
• Your Turn 10.12
IIT–JEE / JEE Advanced Questions 12.14
7. Sensitivity of a Measuring Instrument 10.13
Error and Measurement 12.18
• Your Turn 10.13
AIEEE / JEE Main Questions 12.18
8. Vernier Caliper 10.14
IIT–JEE / JEE Advanced Questions 12.19
8.1 Measurement with a Vernier caliper 10.14
 Answer Sheet 12.22
8.2 Zero error and correction 10.15
• Your Turn 10.15
9. Screw Gauge or Micrometer 10.16
Solutions S.1–S.160
• Your Turn 10.17

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Prelims.indd 18 31-08-2019 15:00:31

Electrostatic Field
“On graduating from school, a studious young man who would withstand the tedium and monotony of his duties has no
choice but to lose himself in some branch of science or literature completely irrelevant to his assignment”.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mass is a property which causes objects to apply force on
one another. Force of gravitation is caused by mass. There
is yet another property of matter which makes interaction
amongst objects possible. This property is known as charge.
Electric forces resulting due to property of charge are
far stronger than gravitational force. Apart from electric
phenomena, all magnetic phenomena we are aware of
results from the property of charge. In our entire course
of electricity and magnetism we will be dealing with this
property of matter called charge.
Force which keeps a building intact in a strong wind is
electromagnetic. Friction which helps you in walking also
arises due to complex interactions of charged particles. In
fact, all forces which you and I experience in daily life are
fundamentally electromagnetic or gravitational.
In this chapter and the next one, we will discuss the
properties of charges at rest and develop the concept of
electric field and potential.
2. CHARGE
It was Benjamin Franklin, in 18th century, who introduced
the idea that all substances contain what he called “electric
fluid”, or “electric fire”. He introduced the convention of
positive and negative signs. He argued that if a body gets too
much of fire then it gets positively charged and if a body has
deficiency of it then it is negatively charged. What Franklin
had not figured out is what the fire really consists of.
Today, we know that every piece of matter is composed
of atoms and every atom is made of fundamental particles
– electron, proton and neutron. Neutrons are neutral. What it
means is that they do not apply electric force on one another.
Two electrons placed 1 cm apart repel each other with
a force equal to 2.3 × 10–24 N. This is same as force of
repulsion between two protons placed 1 cm apart. [Note that
Chapter_01.indd 1
CHAPTER 1
— Charles Augustin Coulomb
forces are repulsive and not attractive and therefore they are
not the gravitational force]. The electrons and protons have
a god gifted property known as charge which helps them
exert force on one another.
An electron and a proton placed 1 cm apart attract each
other with a force of 2.3 × 10–24 N. We conclude that charges
can attract as well as repel (recall that force of gravitation is
attractive only). There are two types of charges. Like charges
repel and unlike charges attract. To differentiate between the
two types of charges we call them as positive and negative
charges. [We could have called them as blue and red charges
as well; or for that matter dark and bright charges. In fact
any name assigned to the two types of charges would not
have changed the Physics.
Unit of charge is Coulomb (C). At this stage it is difficult
to define how much charge exactly is 1 Coulomb. Assuming
that you have studied a little about electric current in junior
classes, all I can say is 1 C is the quantity of charge that
flows through a wire in 1 second if it carries a current of
1 ampere.
Charge on one electron is equal to –1.602 × 10–19C and
charge on a proton is positive of this value. We often denote
this value by symbol e.
2.1 Charging of Material Bodies
All matter is a mixture of positive protons, negative electrons
and neutral neutrons. There are numerous attractive and
repulsive force pairs inside a piece of matter. But we do
not notice any such force. The balance is perfect! When you
stand near someone you don’t feel any force though both
the bodies have literally infinite amount of charged particles.
Can you imagine what will happen if the God just removed
1 % of electrons in your bodies? You will repel each other
with a force that would be enough to throw both of you out
of the gravitational field of the Earth – somewhere deep into
space travelling at terrible speed!
29-08-2019 10:39:56
 1.2 Electrostatics and Current Electricity
A piece of matter is neutral as it has equal number of
evenly distributed protons and electrons when viewed at
macroscopic scale. If some of the electrons leave a piece of
object and move on to some other object both of them get
charged. The one that loses electrons has excess of protons
(or, is electron deficient) and is said to be positively charged.
The other object which gains electrons acquires negative
charge. A positively or negatively charged body has ability
to exert force on any other charged body.
How can we remove electrons from a body? Once you
provide sufficient energy to an electron it may leave the
body. The smallest energy that an electron will need to
leave a material is known as work function of the material.
Metals have smaller work functions. It is easier to remove
electrons from metals. This energy can be provided in many
different ways. Just by heating a piece of metal or, making
light incident on it we can cause electrons to leave the metal
piece. But there are even simpler ways. Let’s discuss some
simple practical ways of charging a body.
Rubbing
When we rub two objects made of different substance,
enough energy may be imparted to electrons in one object
causing them to leave the object. These electrons will move
to the other object. The electron loser becomes positively
charged and the one which gains electrons becomes
negatively charged. This effect in which certain materials
become electrically charged after they come into frictional
contact with a different material is known as triboelectric
effect.
When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, glass
happens to lose electrons easily, and silk grabs them away
from the glass atoms. So, after rubbing, the glass becomes
positively charged and the silk becomes negatively charged.
When you rub a plastic body with fur, it easily grabs
electrons from the fur. It becomes negatively charged while
the fur becomes positively charged.
If two glass rods are rubbed to silk cloth and they (the
glass rods) are brought close, they repel. When you bring the
glass rod (after being rubbed with silk) close to the plastic
rod (which has been rubbed to fur), they attract.
+ + + –
+ + + –
F to a charged body, will it acquire charge? Most likely, yes.
+ + + –
F F F This does not happen because of free movement of charge
+ + + –
+ + + –
+ + + –
glass plastic
Two glass rods repel A glass rod rubbed with
each other after they a silk cloth and a plastic
have been rubbed with rod rubbed with fur,
a silk cloth. attract one another.
Chapter_01.indd 2
Contact Charging
Substances which allow easy movement of charge are known
as conductors. Metals have free electrons in them which
can move from one point to another inside the material. For
example, when copper atoms come close together to form
a solid, the electrons of neighbouring atoms exert force on
one another. This causes one or two electrons in an atom
to become free. Becoming free means that the electron is
not bound to a particular atom. It is free to move inside
the material without being tied to any particular nucleus.
The free electrons act as charge carriers in such material
and the material act as conductor. In fact, metals are also
good conductors of heat. Also, it is much easier to charge
a conductor by rubbing.
Materials which do not have free charge carriers do not
conduct. Such materials are insulators or non conductors.
When an uncharged (neutral) conductor is put into contact
with another charged conductor, the uncharged conductor
gets charged. Charge on the previously charged conductor
reduces. The charge spreads on both the conductors till both
of them have same potential (We will study about potential
later). Remember, charge is free to move inside a conductor.
This method of charging a neutral conductor by putting it
into contact with a charged conductor is know an charging
by conduction.
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
Uncharged Charged
+
+ +
+
+
+ + +
Placed in contact Both the bodies have
charge after separation
When a neutral non conducting object is placed in contact
from one object to another. It happens mostly because of
jumping of charge from one body to another when there is
a loose contact between them. It is similar to sparking that
we observe when two loose electric wires rub against one
another. Do not worry much about this phenomenon at this
moment. We will learn about it later.
29-08-2019 10:39:57

Induction
Suppose a charged body A (say, having positive charge) is
brought near a neutral body B. The face of body B that is
close to A becomes negatively charged and the away face
acquires positive charge. The mechanism is very simple in
case of conductors. The free electrons get attracted towards
A and pile up on the face of B that is near to A. The
other face becomes positively charged due to deficiency of
electrons. This kind of separation of charge in a neutral body
in presence of other charged body is called induction and
the charges appearing on faces of B are known as induced
charges. Notice that net charge on B is still zero. It is just
a rearrangement of charge particles in B which results in
separation of charges. If A is moved far away from B, the
body B returns back to its original state with no charge
separation.
If the positive face of B is touched by a third neutral
conductor (C), some positive charge will move to C and
now B will have a net negative charge. Now B will be a
negatively charged body if A and C are moved far away.
The induced charges appear on the faces of a non
conductor also when it is placed near a charged body. We
will discuss the exact mechanism of this induction later on.
+ –
+ A
+ –
+
B B +
– +2 + 1 – 6 + 6 = +3mC
+ +
+ – + Interacting charged bodies in an isolated system
+
A neutral body Charged body A brought
close to B. A separation
of charge develops on the
surface of B.
2.2 Properties of Charge
(i) It is matter that carries charge. Electric charge cannot
exist without mass. There is no particle is nature
which has charge but no mass. Mass of an electron is
9.11 ×10–31kg and that of a proton is 1.6727 × 10–27kg.
(ii) Charge is quantized
All experiments so far have revealed that electric
charge occurs in integral multiple of electronic charge
(e). The smallest charge that we can get in nature is
±e = ±1.6 × 10–19. A body can acquire a charge q
given by
q = ± ne, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3... (1)
Thus charge can have only discrete values given by
the above equation. We cannot have a body having
charge equal to 2.5e or, 0.5e or, –9.9e. Charge is
available in packet size of e only. A quantity that
Chapter_01.indd 3
Electrostatic Field 1.3
can take only discrete values is said to be quantized.
Charge is quantized.
  In practice, even a small charge contains a very
large number of electronic charges. For example,
1µC charge has 6 × 1012 units of basic charge e. In
such situations there is nothing wrong in regarding
charge as continuous, much in the same way as we
regard matter to be continuous even though it is made
of discrete grains called atoms.
(iii) Conservation of charge
Total charge of an isolated system remains conserved.
Isolated system is one from which no charge can
leak and no charge from outside world can enter its
boundary. The figure shows four interacting bodies
(A, B, C and D) forming an isolated system. Charge
on the bodies change to values shown in second
figure due to mutual exchange. Note that algebraic
sum of charge remains conserved. The amount of
positive and negative charges are not conserved
separately; it is their sum which remains conserved.
A +2mC +1mC B A 4mC –1mC B
C
C –6mC +6mC D 1mC –1mC D
+4 – 1 + 1 – 1 = +3mC
(iv) Charge is relativistically invariant
In his theory of relativity, Einstein said that mass of a
body increases with its speed. But so is not the case
with charge. Charge on a body does not change with
its speed.
2.3 Electroscope
This is an instrument used to detect charge. A narrow metal
plate is connected to a metal disc. A thin piece of gold leaf
is fixed to the plate. The gold leaf and the metal plate are
inside a dust proof glass box. The metal disc is outside
the box. When a charged body is touched with the disc,
the charge conducts to the metal plate and the leaf. Both the
plate and the leaf have like charges on them. They repel and
the gold leaf spreads out. If the leaf spreads a lot it implies
that it acquired a lot of charge. This means that the charged
body was having a lot of charge (in fact, lot of potential as
we will learn later). To discharge the electroscope, its disc
is connected to ground. The entire charge on the disc, metal
plate and the gold leaf flows to the Earth. The electroscope
is ready to be used again.
29-08-2019 10:39:57
 1.4 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

When 0.28 C of negative charge is removed, the

wire acquires 0.28 C of positive charge.
metal disc
  Example 3 A charged body can attract a neutral object
When you comb your hair on a dry day and bring the comb
near bits of paper, the comb attracts the small paper pieces.
Explain.
Solution
fixed metal gold leaf Gold leaf spreads when a Concepts
plate charged body is put into
contact with the disc Phenomenon of induction

  Example 1 A body has 1 mC of negative charge on it.
How many excess electrons does it have?
Solution
Concepts
Charge is quantized. Adding n electron to a body results
in the body acquiring a charge q = −ne
q 1× 10−3 C
n = = = 6.25 × 1015
e 1.6 × 10−19 C
  Example 2 Even a small piece of matter has huge
amount of charge
A copper wire has mass 6.35 g. Knowing that molar mass
of copper is 63.5 g mol–1 and its atomic number is 29, find
(a) Total charge on all the protons in the wire.
(b) The charge acquired by the wire if it loses 0.0001%
of its total number of electrons.
When you comb your hair, it gains electrons from hairs
and becomes negatively charged. [In fact, you need not
worry much about the sign of the charge]. When the comb
is brought close to the pieces of paper, the phenomenon of
induction takes place. The edge of the paper closer to the
comb becomes positively charged and the further side of
the paper piece acquires negative charge. The comb attracts
the positive side of the paper and repels the negative side.
Overall force on the paper is towards the comb because the
positive edge is closer to the comb and experiences a higher
force. The force is quite strong. Pieces of paper jump against
gravity and cling to the comb.
comb
+ +
+ +

Solution –
Concepts – – paper
– –
(i) One mole Cu atoms have a mass of 63.5 g. Charge on edges of the paper
(ii) Each Cu atom has 29 electrons. piece is due to induction.
(iii) q = ne
Note: If you comb your hair for a long time all your hairs
6.35g will stand up and can spark. This happens prominently during
Number of moles of Cu in the wire =
63.5 gmol−1 dry winter days. [Actually moist air takes away charge from
charged bodies]. Due to combing your hairs get charged
  = 0.1 mol. and repel each other to remain separated from one another.
Number of Cu atoms in the wire = 0.1 × 6.02 × 1023
= 6.02 × 1022   Example 4 Inside a nucleus, a neutron can convert itself
into a proton and an electron. A third particle known as
Number of protons in the wire = 6.02 × 1022 × 29
antineutrino is also formed. Can you guess the charge present
= 1.75 × 1024 on antineutrino?
(a) Charge on all protons, Q = + ne Solution
= 1.75 × 10 × 1.6 × 10–19 C = 2.8 × 105 C
24
Concepts
This is a huge amount of charge.
Conservation of charge
(b) Number of electrons = Number of protons in neutral
wire. n → p + e (antineutrino)
Charge on 10–4 % of all electrons will be Charge on a neutron is zero. Sum of charges on the
10−4 three products must also be zero. Sum of charges on proton
q = –(10–4 % of Q) = − × 2.8 × 105 = –0.28 C and electron is zero. Therefore, third particle must have no
100
charge.

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 Electrostatic Field 1.5

In Short
(i) Charge is a property of matter which is responsible
for all electric and magnetic phenomena.
(ii) Charge is of two types – positive and negative.
(iii) Smallest charge in nature is electronic charge
±e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.
(iv) Charge of an isolated system is conserved.
(v) In real life a body acquires charge due to gaining
electrons or losing them.
(vi) A body which loses electrons gets positively charged
and one which gains them becomes negatively
charged.
(vii) Charge on a body which loses n electrons is
q = +ne and the one which gains n electrons has
a charge q = –ne.
(viii) If two bodies, made of different substances, are
rubbed, electrons may get transferred from one of
them to another. Therefore, the two bodies acquire
equal and opposite charge.
(ix) A conductor is a substance which has plenty of free
electrons in it. These electrons help in movement
of charge inside a conductor. An insulator does not
have free electrons.
(x) When a neutral body is brought close to a charged
body (without touching it), there is separation of
charge in the neutral body. Its face closer to the
charged body acquires an opposite charge and the
far face gets a charge similar to the charged body.
This phenomenon is called induction. It happens in
conductors as well as insulators.

Your Turn
Q.1 A neutral body becomes positively charged due to
rubbing. Has its mass changed?
Q.2 How many electrons will make 1 coulomb of negative
charge?
Q.3 A spray-painting machine has a nozzle that produces
droplets of paint in a cone shaped beam. By some mechanism
each droplet is given a positive
charge as it leaves the nozzle. What
effect will it have on the beam?
Q.4 A petrol tanker has a metallic chain suspended from
its body touching the road. Why?
Q.5 A charged comb attracts bits of paper (refer to
example 3). Paper pieces often jump away from the comb
after contact. Why?
Q.6 A piece of solid has 1022 atoms. If one electron is
removed from each of 0.01 % atoms of the solid, find the
charge acquired by the solid.

3. FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION IN 4. COULOMB’S LAW

ELECTROSTATICS Charles Augustin de Coulomb, a French physicist,
Suppose q1, q2, q3….. are a set of fixed charges. We will call experimentally discovered the law that governs force
these fixed charges as source charges. Consider another between two charges. He gave his law in 1785. Coulomb’s
charge Q and call it test law tells us how to find force between two point charges. [It
q1 cannot be used directly to find force between two extended
charge. The fundamental Q
problem is to find the force Test charges like a charged stick and a charged disk].
q2 q 3 charge
experienced by the test The law states that the electrostatic force between two
q4 point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charge (Q) due to the source
charges. This is our basic aim Source charges magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to
in this chapter. square of the distance between them. Like charges repel
Note that our source charges are stationary though the and unlike charges attract. The force always acts along the
test charge may be moving. [If source charges are moving line joining the two charges.
then they may apply another force – known as magnetic Consider two point charges q1 and q2 kept at a separation
force – on Q. We will study about it later]. r in vacuum. They repel if both charges have same sign and
The Coulomb’s law and the principle of superposition will attract if they are of opposite sign. The magnitude of force
help us answer our fundamental question in electrostatics. that they apply on one another is given by Coulomb’s law
Whatever else we study in this chapter is mathematics to as:
simplify the application of these fundamental laws.

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 1.6 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

q1 r q2 For air er = 1.00054. We will consider er to be 1 for air.

F F
Like charges
Force between two charges kept in air is almost same as
force between them when they are in vacuum.
q1 r q2 For all other media er > 1.
F F ε = e0 er is known as electrical permittivity of the medium.
Unlike charges The reason for decrease in force will be understood clearly
in next chapter when we discuss dielectrics.
q1q2
F∝   Example 5 Two small particles having charge +1C and
r2
–1C are kept at a separation of l m. Find electrostatic force
q1q2 between them. What conclusion can you draws from the
⇒ F =k (2)
r2 result?
where k is a constant. Its experimentally obtained value is: Solution
Nm 2 Concepts
k = 9 × 109
C2 Force is attractive. When direction of force is known, we
Constant k is often written in terms of another will use Coulomb’s law to find magnitude of force only.
constant e0 (pronounced as “epsilon nought”) as We should write both q1 and q2 with positive sign only
in equation (2).
1
k =  (3)
4pe0
q1q2 Nm 2 (1C )(1C )
2 F = k 9 × 109
= ⋅ = 9 ×109 N
C r2 C2 (1m) 2
where e=
0 8.85 × 10−12 (4)
Nm 2
Force is attractive.
1 Force is enormous. It is nearly equal to weight of two
[Note that = 9 × 109 ]
4p× 8.85 × 10−12 hundred thousand elephants! We can draw two important
conclusions from this simple example:
Constant k is written in terms of e0 for historical reasons
and it is very insightful. This simplifies many results in (a) Electrostatic force is quite strong and
Physics. However, you should not worry much about this (b) 1 C is a huge amount of charge. In real life we do
right now. not get objects having few coulomb charge on them.
The constant e0 is known as electrical permittivity of free Practical units of charge are mC, μC, nC etc.
space. Coulomb’s law in terms of e0 is
  Example 6 Force between two electrons
1 q1q2 Find electrostatic force between two electrons kept at a
F= (5)
4pe 0 r 2 separation of 1 cm. Also find gravitational force between
them. What do you conclude?
4.1 Coulomb’s Law in a Medium Solution
Consider two point charges in a medium. For example, Concepts
consider two small charged balls inside a large tank filled Electrostatic force arises due to charge possessed by the
with some insulating oil. Apparent force between two point electrons. It is calculated using Coulomb’s law. Gravitational
charges in a medium is less than the force between them force arises due to mass possessed by the electrons. It is
when they are in vaccum (given by equation 5). calculated using Newton’s law of gravitation. To compare
Force between point charges q1 and q2 kept inside a the two forces (or any two quantities), one way is to get
medium (which extends to a large distance) at a separation their ratio.
r is given by
Electrostatic force is
1 q1q2
F= (6)
4pe 0 e r r 2 e⋅e (1.6 × 10−19 ) 2
Fe = k 2
9 109 ×
=×
r (0.01) 2
er is a dimensionless number greater than or equal to 1. er
is known as relative permittivity of the medium. Sometimes = 2.3 × 10–24 N [Repulsion]
it is also known as dielectric constant and denoted by (K).

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 Electrostatic Field 1.7

Gravitational force is Assume that we wish to write force on Q due to q. You

m⋅m (9.1× 10 ) −31 2 can say that q is the source charge and Q is a test charge.
Fg = G 2
=6.7 × 10−11 × Force on Q can be written as
r (0.01) 2
 qQ
= 5.5 × 10–67 N  [Attraction] F = k  2 rˆ (7)
Ratio of electric and gravitational force is r

While calculating F , we must substitute values of q and
Fe 2.3 × 10−24
= = 4.1 × 1042 Q with their respective signs. The above equation can be
Fg 5.5 × 10−67 written as
We conclude that:  
qQ r qQ 
= F k= 2  k 3 r (8)
(a) Electrostatic force is far more stronger than r r r
gravitational force.   
Since r= r2 − r1
(b) While studying interactions between light weight
charged particles their gravitational interaction can  qQ  
= ∴ F k   3 (r2 − r1 ) (9)
be neglected. r2 − r1

  Example 7 Force between two point charges in vacuum

is F0 when they are placed at separation r. Find apparent   Example 8 A point charge q = –2 μC is kept at the origin
force between them when they are kept well immersed in of a co-ordinate system. Another charge Q = 1 μC is kept
a medium of dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) 3, at a point having co-ordinates (0.6, 0.8) m. Find force on q
at separation 2r. due to Q.
Solution Solution
Concepts Concepts
Force between two charges in a medium is given by (6)  qQ 
F = k  2 rˆ. In this equation r = r is nothing but distance
r
1 q1q2 between the two charges.
F0 = (i)
4pe0 r 2 You must be careful in writing r̂ . It is a unit vector from
source (Q) towards the test charge (q).
Force in medium, with separation 2r is
Put q and Q with sign in the above equation.
1 q1q2 1 1 q1q2
F = = ⋅ [ e r =3]
4pe0 e r (2r ) 2 3 × 4 4pe0 r 2
Distance between charges
F
= 0 2 2
r = 0.6 + 0.8 = 1.0 m
12 y
Vector joining Q to q is Q
 r
4.2 Coulomb’s law in vector notation r = (0 − 0.6)iˆ + (0 − 0.8) ˆj (0.6, 0.8)

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 kept at positions r1
 = −0.6iˆ − 0.8 ˆj 
r
and r2 in the co-ordinate system shown. Position vector of 
 r q x
charge Q with respect to q is r . Unit vector from q to Q ∴ rˆ == −0.6iˆ − 0.8 ˆj
 r
r
is r̂ . Obviously, rˆ =   qQ
r ∴ Required force is F = k 2 rˆ
r
Z 9 × 109 × (−2 × 10−6 )(1× 10−6 )
 = (−0.6iˆ − 0.8 ˆj )
r r Q (1.0) 2
q
= 1.8 × 10 (6iˆ + 8 ˆj )N
−3

r1 
r2

   Y
X r = r2 – r1

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 1.8 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

In Short
(i) Coulomb’s law gives force between two point (iv) Force due to source charge (q) on a test charge (Q)
charges. We can use it directly to get force between can be written in vector form as
two small charged bodies kept at large separation.   qQ 
(ii) Magnitude of force between two charges is F =  k 2  rˆ
 r 
1 q1q2 where r is distance between the two charges and r̂
F=

4pe0 e r r 2 is a unit vector directed from the source charge to
the test charge. While using this equation we must
where e r = 1 for vacuum and air. For all other put q and Q with their respective signs.
medium e r > 1 (v) Electrostatic force is far stronger than the
1 N-m 2 −12 C2 gravitational force.
(iii) k = = 9 × 109 and e= 8.85 × 10
4pe0 C2
0
N-m 2 (vi) 1 coulomb is a large charge.

Your Turn

Q.7 Write dimensional formula for permittivity of free Q.10 In a hydrogen atom a proton is fixed and an electron
space (e0). revolves around it in an orbit of radius r. The electrostatic
Q.8 Force between two charged particles is F0 when they attraction provides the centripetal force. Find speed of the
are kept in vacuum at a separation r. When the charges are electron. Mass of an electron is m and charge on it is –e.
immersed in a gaseous medium force between them for Q.11 A point charge q1 = 10 μC is kept fixed at (1, 1) m.
r Find the force that the charge exerts on another point charge
separation is still F0. Find the relative permittivity of the
2 q2 = 20 μC placed at (4, 5) m. Write the x and y components
gaseous medium. of the force.
Q.9 A charge Q is divided into two point charges having Q.12 Find the smallest possible force between two charged
magnitudes x and (Q – x). Find x which results in maximum particles kept at a separation of 1 m.
force between the charges for a given separation.

5. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION would have been if force between q1 and Q got changed due
to presence of q2! Thanks god, it is not so.
Force between two 
F3 
charges does not alter if F2   Example 9 Three point charges (q, q
a third charge is brought q and Q) are kept at the vertices of a
 right angled isosceles triangle. Equal
near them. Consider q1 F1
Q sides of the triangle have length x each.
a set of fixed source x
charges q1, q2, q3,….. Find the electrostatic force on charge
Force applied by q1 on Q.
 Q q
q3 x
a test charge Q is F1 . q2 Solution
This force between q1 Concepts
and Q remains same
whether q2, q3,… are present or absent. Similarly, forces by Resultant force on Q is vector sum of forces due to the
 other two charges.
q2, q3,… on Q are F2 , F3 ….. respectively. Net force on Q
in presence of all the source charges is given by Force due to q on Q has magnitude
   
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ... (7) qQ
F =k
This may appear trivial. But scientists have taken the pain x2
of verifying this principle. Imagine how difficult physics

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 Electrostatic Field 1.9

Directions of the two forces are as shown. They are 1

perpendicular to one another. ∴ x=
q ( 2 − 1)
Resultant of these two forces
has magnitude:
  Example 11 A uniformly charged rod
FR
= F2 + F2 x A thin plastic rod of length L carries charge all along its
length. The linear charge density is uniform and is equal
2qQ C
= 2F = k F Q to l . A point charge Q is kept at a distance L from one
x2 q m
x
 q end of the rod as shown in figure. Find force on Q due to
Directions of FR is as
F the charge on the rod.
shown with q = 45° FR l C/m
Q + + + + + + + + +
  Example 10 Search the equilibrium position + + + + + + + + +
Two point charges Q and –2Q are held fixed at a separation
L. Where should we place a third charge q on the line joining L L
the two charges, so that it stays in equilibrium? Solution
Solution Concepts
Concepts (i) The rod is made of plastic. This ensures that charge
For equilibrium of q, vector sum of forces on it due to on it will not move and linear charge density will
fixed charges must be zero. The two forces acting on q remain uniform.
should have opposite directions and same magnitude. (ii) Don’t commit a mistake of assuming the entire
  Magnitude of forces due to Q and –2Q can be equal charge of the rod at its center. There is no such
only if q is held closer to Q. rule.
(iii) We will have to take small segments of the rod and
write force on Q due to each of them. Sum of all
x L these forces is the resultant force. Summation has
C Q A –2Q B to be done using integration.
F1 q F2 F1 F2 F2 F1
Consider a segment of length dx on the rod at a distance
x from the charge Q.
Let us denote force on q due to Q by F1 and the force
on q due to –2Q by F2. dq
If q is placed at a point A between the two charges, both Q + + + + + +
F1 and F2 will be in the same direction and equilibrium will dF
not be possible.
x dx
If q is placed at a point B to the right of –2Q, then F1 and
F2 have opposite directions. But in this position magnitude
of F2 is larger than that of F1. In this position q is closer to Charge on the segment is dq = ldx.
the larger charge. Equilibrium is not possible. This infinitesimally small charge is like a point charge.
Equilibrium of q is possible only when it is placed to the Qdq dx
left of charge Q. Consider q at a distance x from Q at point Force on Q due to dq is dF = k 2= kQl 2 .
x x
C. Forces due to all such elements is in same direction and
qQ q (2Q)
F1 = k 2 and F2 = k addition of these forces can be done as
x ( L + x) 2
2L
For equilibrium, F1 = F2 dx
F
= ∫ dF= kQl ∫ x2
1 2 L+x L
⇒ 2
= ⇒ = 2
x ( L + x) 2 x  1
2L

= kQl  − 
[Ratio of two distances cannot be negative. Therefore, we  x L
L+x 1 1  kQl
do not consider = − 2 ]. = kQl  − =
x  L 2 L  2 L

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 1.10 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

Your Turn

Q.13 A regular hexagon has side length x. Five identical Q.16 Positive point charges, Q each, are placed at the
point charges are placed on its vertices. A sixth charge is diagonally opposite corners of a square. Two other identical
placed at the centre of the hexagon. What is direction of charges (q each) are placed at the Q q
electric force experienced by the sixth charge? Assume all remaining two vertices. In this
charges to be negative. arrangement of charges, force on Q
What is magnitude of force on the sixth charge if each is found to be zero.
charge is –q? (a) What is sign of q?
Q.14 Three charges, q each, are placed at the vertices of q
(b) Find . q Q
an equilateral triangle of side length x. Find the electrostatic Q
force on any one charge.
Q.17 Two point charges Q and 2Q are held at a separation
Q.15 A small charged particle (C) A Q d. A third charge q is placed on the line joining the two
having mass m is tied to two strings as charges such that it remains in equilibrium.
shown. A point charge Q is fixed at top (a) What is sign of q if Q is Q
x 2Q
end A of the upper string and another positive?
C
point charge 2Q is fixed at the lower end + q d
B of the other string. All three charges (b) What is distance of q from
lie on a vertical line and there is no x Q?
tension in the strings. Find charge q on B (c) Is equilibrium of q stable for small displacements
the particle. Each string has length x. along the line joining the two charges?
2Q

6. ELECTRIC FIELD Unit of electric field intensity is N/C. Direction of

electric field intensity at a point is in the direction of force
In the chapter of gravitation we got familiar with the concept experienced by a positive test charge placed at that point.
of field. The Earth sets up something known as gravitational 
Fe 
field in the space surrounding it and this field exerts force Fe
on any mass that is there. q1 Q q1 
Q
E
Similarly, it is often more fruitful to describe interaction q2
of charged particles in terms of electric field. Force applied q2
by source charges on a test charge is seen as a two step q3 q3
process. The source charges create something called electric
field in the surrounding space and this electric field exerts
force on any other charge. Till now we thought that Now we will think differently
Consider a set of fixed source charges (q1, q2, q3…. etc). source charges exert direct we will say that all the source
They exert force on a test charge Q. Now, we will say that force on test charge Q. charges have together produced
Resultant of these forces an electric field and the field
the source charges have created an electric field (something
is Fe . exerts force on Q · Fe = QE.
which is invisible, has no smell, has no taste) in surrounding
space and this field exerts force on Q. Existence of an
electric force on Q tells you that there is an electric field. While measuring electric field intensity at a point using
How to tell the strength of electric field at a point? Electric equation (8), one must ensure that test charge is a small point
 charge. This will ensure that by placing Q at the point we
field intensity ( E ) is a vector quantity that is used to tell
strength and direction of field at a point. do not disturb the original source charges.

If a small test charge Q feels an electric force Fe when Electric field intensity is often abbreviated as electric
placed at a point, the electric field intensity at the point is field.
defined as
6.1 Electric field due to a point charge

 Fe Consider only a point charge q as the source charge. We
E = (8)
Q wish to write electric field intensity (E) due to this charge
at a distance r from it.

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 Electrostatic Field 1.11

q r Q
Fe   Example 12 Field on perpendicular bisector of line
P joining two point charges
q r Q  Two identical positive charges q are kept at a separation 2a.
r P
E P is a point on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
the two charges. Distance OP is y. Find electric field at point
A test charge Q is placed at a point P at a distance r from P. Approximate your answer for y >> a.
  1 qQ 
q. Force experienced by Q is Fe =  rˆ P
2 
 4pe 0 r 
y
Electric field at P due to q is
∴
 q q
 Fe  1 q  O
E = 
= rˆ (9)
Q  4pe0 r 2  a a
r̂ is a unit vector from the source charge q to the point P. Solution
Equation (9) tells us that electric field due to a point charge
Concepts
1 q
q at a distance r from it is E = and its direction is (i) Field due to a positive charge is directed radially
4pe0 r 2 q
radially
 outward if q is positive. For negative q, direction of away from it. Magnitude is E = k r 2 .
E is radially inwards towards q.
(ii) Resultant field at P is vector sum of fields produced
due to the two point charges.
Field at P due to charge at 1 is
E E
–q +q q
E1 = k where=r a2 + y2 .
r2
E2 cos q E1 cos q
y
Arrows show the direction of Direction of field due to E2 E1
field at different points due a positive point charge. q
to a negative point charge.
E2 sin q P E1 sin q x
q
6.2 Electric field obeys superposition principle r r
y
Consider an arrangement in which  there are number of
source charges. Electric field ( E ) at a point is obtained by q
y
q
1 cos q = 2
vector addition of electric fields produced due to each of r
the source charges. Field at point P due to presence of q1,
q2 and q3 (see figure) is Field at P due to charge at 2 also has same magnitude.
    q
E = E1 + E2 + E3 (10) E2 = k 2
 r
E3   
E2  Directions
 of E1 and E2 are as shown. We have to  add
q1 P  E1 and E2 to get resultant field at P. Components of E1 and
E1 
E2 along x direction cancel out. Their components along y
q2
direction adds up to give resultant field as
q3 q
=E E1 cos q + E2 cos
= q 2k cos q
r2
q1, q2, q3 are source charges
q  y  2kqy
   = 2k  = 3
E1 E2 and E3 are electric fields due to q1, q2 and q3 r2  r  r
respectively at P. 1

Now you are well equipped to calculate electric field due  r (a 2 + y 2 ) 2

=
to variety of arrangements of source charges. The examples qy
and discussions to follow will make the procedure more ∴ E = 2k directed along y direction
(a + y 2 )3/ 2
2

clear.

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 1.12 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

E Field at A due to q2:

1
Note that k = . P
4pe0 kq2 9 × 109 × 2 × 10−9

E2 =
= = 4.5 N/C (←)
Approximation for the case y >> a can be done r22 22
y
as follows:
[Field due to negative charge is directed towards the
a 2 + y 2  y2 2q charge].
2kqy 2kq Field at A due to q3:
∴ E = 2 (i)
2 3/2
(y ) y kq3 9 × 109 × 1× 10−9
E3 =
=
= 9 N/C(→)
The answer could have been easily guessed. From a r32 12
distance y (>>a), the two point charges will appear to be a Resultant field at A is
single point charge of magnitude 2q and field due to it will E = 4(→) + 4.5(←) + 9(→) = 8.5N/C(→)

be given by (i). (b) Force on positive charge will be in the direction of E.
  Example 13 Three charges q1 = 4  nC, q2 = –2  nC and  N
F= QE= (2 × 10−3 C)  8.5  = 0.019  N(→)
q3 = 1  nC are fixed along a straight line as shown in the figure.  C
1m 1m 1m (c) Force on negative charge is directed opposite to E
A
q1 q2 q3 = 0.019N
F QE
=
∴ F = 0.019 N (←)
(a) Find electric field at a point A located at a distance
of 1 m to the right of q3 (see figure). Note:
(b) A charge Q = 2  mC is placed at A. Find force on it. (i) Pay attention to the way we are thinking. We first
calculated field at A due to source charges (q1, q2 and
(c) A charge Q = –2  mC is placed at A. Find force on it. q3) and then we are assuming that the field exerts
Solution force on test charge Q.
Concepts (ii) Many a times electric field at a point is given without
(i) Field at A is vector sum of fields due to q1, q2 and giving information about the source charges. In such
q3. situations force on a charge Q placed in the field
    is written as F = QE and we don’t care about the
E = E1 + E2 + E3 source.
(ii) If a charge Q is placed at a point  where
 electric
field is E, it experience a force F = QE.   Example 14 Electric field along a line having two point
charges
This means that magnitude  of the force is QE and
its direction is along E if Q is positive. Force is Two point charges, q each are held fixed at a separation.
opposite to field if Q is negative. (see figure). Plot a graph to show variation of electric field
along the line joining the two charges. Take electric field to
(a) Field at A due to q1: be positive in rightward direction.

r3 = 1 m q q

E2 E3 Solution
E1
q1 q2 q3 A Concepts
r2 2m
= (i) Field due to a point charge at a distance x from
q
r1 = 3m it is E = k 2 . Direction of field due to a positive
x
charge is radially away.
q1
E1 = k
(ii) When we choose a point very close to a point
r12
charge (i.e., x → 0), the field becomes very large
9 × 109 × 4 × 10−9 (i.e., E → ∞). For writing field at a point very
= = 4 N/C(→) close to a point charge, one can always forget about
32
contributions made by other charges.
[Field due to a positive charge is radially away from (iii) When we move far away from the system of the
the charge]. two charges E → 0.

Chapter_01.indd 12 29-08-2019 10:40:19

 Electrostatic Field 1.13

Let’s take E along y axis. E is positive if its direction is in In Short

positive x direction. At a point just right to A, field is large
(i) An electric field is said to exist at a point in space
and is in positive direction. At a point just left to B, field
if a charged particle placed at that point experiences
is again very large and directed in negative x direction. At
a force that would not be felt by an uncharged
midpoint C, field is zero as the fields due to two charges
particle.
are equal and opposite. 
(ii) If a point charge Q experiences an electric force Fe
E when placed at a point P, we say  that there is an
 Fe
electric field at P given by E = .
Q
(iii) Electric field due to a point charge q at a distance
A C B q
x r from it is E = k 2 .
q q r
Field is radially away from the charge if q is positive
and the field is directed towards the charge if q is
negative.
(iv) If q1, q2, q3… are fixed source charges then field
at a point is vector sum of fields due to individual
To the immediate left of A field is large towards left and
charges
decreases to become zero as we move far away from the    
charges. To the right of B field is large and decreases as we E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ...
move away. Field is in positive direction. 
(v) A charge Q placed in a field E , experiences a force
 
F = QE .
(vi) Electric field at a point very close to a point charge
is very large. At a point far away from the point
charge, field is nearly zero.

Your Turn

Q.18 Four point charges are kept at the vertices of a Q.22 An equilateral q
square as shown. Side length of the square is x. Find the triangle has side length
electric field at the centre of the square. a and point charges
q have been placed at its a a
4q
vertices as shown. Find
the magnitude and
x direction of the electric
field at the centroid of
–2q a –2q
2q x –q the triangle.

Q.19 Two point charges q1 = 5 nC and q2 = 20 nC are at
separation of d = 2 m. Find the distance of point from q1
where the electric field is zero.
Q.20 A small droplet of ink in an ink-jet printer carries
a charge q = 1.6 × 10–10. It is deflected onto a paper by
applying an electric field. The electric force experienced by
the droplet is F = 3.2 × 10–4 N. Find the strength of field.
Q.21 In example 12, at what distance y (from O), the
electric field is maximum? Draw a rough graph showing
variation of field for O ≤ y < ∞ .
Q.23 A point charge q = –1 nC is kept at a point having
co-ordinates (0, 1, 2) m. Find electric field due to the charge
at a point (1, 2, 3) m.
Q.24 Twelve equal charges, q, are located at the vertices
of a regular 12 sided polygon (for example, one on each
numeral of a clock face).
(a) Find electric field at the center of the polygon.
(b) One of the charges is moved to the centre of the
polygon. Its distance from all other charges is r. Find
force acting on it.

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 1.14 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

6.3 Electric Field due to Continuous Distribution of The figure shows two components of the field–along
Charge the axis (dEx) and perpendicular to it (dEy). Consider an
identical charge element at point B that is located exactly
In real life it is difficult to get a point charge. We have opposite to A. This element will produce a field at P having
charged bodies where charge may be distributed on a line magnitude dE and having its y component in negative y
(curved or straight), on a surface or in a volume. For direction (see figure). Therefore, resultant of the two fields
example, you can easily think of a long thread carrying has no y component. However the components along x
charge or a sheet having charge on its surface or a spherical direction add.
volume occupied by charge.
We can think of our ring as made up of such pairs of small
For finding electric field due to a charged body, we charges located at diametrically opposite ends. It is easy to
need to mentally divide the body into infinitesimally small see that resultant field is along the axis. Y components of
charge elements. We have to write field due to all small field cancel out in pairs.
elements (treating them to be point charges) and add them.
Field at P is obtained by adding x components of field
Such additions are usually done using integration while
due to each element in the ring.
remembering that we are adding vectors.
In case of charge distributed on a line, linear charge ∴=E ∫=
dE ∫ dE cos q
x
density (λ) is the charge present on unit length of the line. All
Its unit is C/m. element
When charge is present on a surface, surface charge k
= cos q∫ dq
density (σ) is a useful quantity and is defined as charge r2
present on unit area. C/m2 is unit of σ.
Note that value of r is same for all elements. Value of
In case of charge present in a three dimensional space, cos θ is also constant as we move from one element to
volume charge density or, simply charge density (ρ) another on the ring.
represents charge inside a unit volume. Unit of ρ is C/m3.
k kQ x  x
Below we present few simple cases of continuous charge ∴ = E cos q ⋅ =
Q ⋅ ∵ cos q = r 
r2 r2 r
distribution and show how integration can be used to find
electric field. We will take up few more cases after learning kQx
=
Gauss’s law, later in this chapter. r3
Qx
6.3.1 Electric field on the axis of a charged ring ⇒ E=k r (a 2 + x 2 )1/ 2 ]
   [∵= (11)
(a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
Figure shows a uniformly charged ring of radius a having
charge Q. P is a point on the axis of the ring at a distance Note the following points:
x from its centre O. We wish to find electric field at P due (i) What is field at the centre +A
to change on the ring. of the ring? Obviously, it is + +
zero. Field produced due to dEB
A
+ + small identical elements of + +
+ r charge at A and B cancel out.
+ a Similarly, all pairs of charges dEA
x +
+ q P dEx at diametrically opposite +
+ O x
x q ends produce zero field at +B
y
+ + dE the centre.
dEy
+ By putting x = 0 in equation (11) we get the same
+
B + result, i.e., E = 0.
(ii) What do we expect if x >> a? Looking at the ring
from point P, we will hardly see a ring. It will appear
Consider an infinitesimally small segment of the ring at
like a small point charge if x >> a. Therefore, field
A. Let the element have a charge dq on it. This element can
at P can be easily guessed to be equal to
be treated as a point charge and we can write electric field
(dE) at P due to this element as Q
E = k 2
dq x
dE = k , where=r a2 + x2 Does equation (11) predict this result? Let’s see.
r2
Qx Qx
Direction of the field (dE) is along AP if the ring carries a E k=
= k
(a 2 + x 2 )3/ 2 3a
2

3/ 2

positive charge and its direction is along PA if the ring is x  2 + 1

negatively charged. x 

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 Electrostatic Field 1.15

a2 k (dq ) x 1 2prdr ⋅ σ ⋅ x
For x >> a, << 1
= dE =
2 3/ 2 2 3/ 2
x2 (r + x )
2 4 pe 0 (r + x )
2

a2
∴ 1 + 1 σx rdr
x2 =
Q
2e0 ( x + r 2 )3/2
2

∴ E  k 2
x Direction of field is along the axis as shown. Every ring
that we consider in the disc will contribute its field in the
(iii) Field is zero at x = 0 (i.e., at the centre of the ring).
same direction. Resultant field at P is obtained by adding
It is certainly zero at a large distance x → ∞. It
contributions due to all such rings.
means that the field increases as we move along the
r =a
axis starting from the centre, becomes maximum at σx rdr
a point and then decreases to be zero at ∞. E
∴ = ∫=
dE
2e0 ∫
r =0 ( x
2
+ r2 )
3/2

E Note that x is a constant in the above integration. As we

move from one ring to another (i.e., r changes), x remains
constant.
On performing the integration we get,
σ  x 
O a x
=E
2e0 1 − 2 2 
(12)
x=  a +x 
√2
[Integration can be performed by method of substitution.
Variation of electric field along the axis z x2 + r 2
Put =
of the ring. x is distance measured from
the centre. dz
= 2r    ⇒ dz = 2rdr
dr
The distance (x0) where the field is maximum can be a a a
found by solving the equation 1 dz  1 
rdr
∫ 2
∴
2 3/2
(x + r ) ∫
2r 0z 3/2
= − 
 z  r =0
=
dE

=r 0 =
= 0. a
dx  1  1 1
dE = −  2 2 
= − ]
Differentiating equation (11) and solving =0  x + r  r =0 x a + r2
2
dx
a What will be the field at P if radius of the disc is too
gives x0 = .
2 large (a >> x)?
In this case, the second term inside the bracket in equation
6.3.2 Electric field on the axis of a charged disc (12) becomes extremely small.
Consider a disc of radius a having charge spread uniformly
on one of its surfaces. The surface charge density is σ. P is a
→0
a point on the axis of the disc at a distance x from its centre a + x2
2

O. We wish to find electric field at P.

σ
∴ E  (13)
+ dr 2e0
+ +
+ + r
+ What this essentially means +
P +
+ + +
+ is that electric field in front of +
+ +
+ +
+ a + +
x dE a large sheet having uniform + + + + P
E
+ +
+
+ charge density is independent +
+
+
+
+ + +
+ of distance (x) from the sheet +
+
and has a constant value given
We can consider the entire disc charge to be made up of by equation (13). In fact, P is a point close to the
infinite number or infinitesimally thin concentric rings. One even if a charged sheet is of sheet somewhere near its
such ring having radius r and width dr has been shown in finite dimensions and you are s
centre Ep = 2e .
the figure. Charge on this ring element is considering point close to its 0

dq = (2pr ⋅ dr )σ centre (Not near the edges), the

field at the point is given by equation (13).
Using equation (11) we can write field at P due to this
ring charge as

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 1.16 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

  Example 15 Half ring and quarter ring Length of element, dl = adθ

A half ring of radius a has charge on the element dq = ldl =lad q .
+ + This is an infinitesimally small element (fit to be
a uniformly spread charge +
along its circumference. The + a + + considered a point charge) producing a field at O given by
+ +
linear charge density is λ. O + dq lad q k l
a dE
= k= k = dq
Find the electric field at the ++ + A
a 2
a2 a
O
centre (O). +
+ + An identical element at B produces a field of same
Using the above result
find the field at O. Using the above result find the field at magnitude in the direction shown in figure. Clearly, y
O due to a uniformly spread charge on quarter of a circle. components of dEA and dEB cancel out and their x components
Linear charge density is again λ and radius of the circle is a. add up.
Picking elements in pairs, we can see that resultant field
Solution
is along x direction only. To get the field, we need to add x
Concepts components of field due to all elements.
(i) Due to symmetry, the resultant field is along x axis p /2
kl
for the semicircle (see figure given below). You can
consider two identical elements on two sides of the
∴=E ∫ dE=
cos q
a −p∫/2
cos qd q

x axis to argue for this. [Please take a note of the limits of integration]
We only need to add x component of field produced kl p /2 kl  p  p 
due to each element. = [sin q]−p
= sin − sin  −  
a  2
/2
a  2 
(ii) The size of the element is easier to express in terms
of its angular width. 2k l l
E
= = (i)
(iii) In case of quarter circle Ex = Ey due to symmetry. a 2pe 0 a
Quarter circle
Consider an element (A) of angular width dθ at position
Two things are important to note:
θ as shown in figure.
(a) Due to symmetry Ex = Ey
A+ + dEB (b) Ex is half of the field given by (i)
+ dq
+ a l + +
∴ E= E= +
x
+ q E x y
4pe 0 a
x +
+ q q
+ O  +
Ex y
x l
+ dEA =E (iˆ + ˆj )
B+ 4pe0 a Ey
+
y

Your Turn

Q.25 In example 15, the half ring has a uniformly Q.27 A wire is in the shape of an arc of a circle subtending
distributed charge Q and field at O is E. Find magnitude of an angle 2θ at the centre as shown. +
field at O in the second diagram where the quarter ring has Radius of the arc is a and it carries a + a
a uniformly spread charge equal to Q. uniform linear charge density λ on it. + q
O
Q.26 A horizontal ring of radius a has a uniformly spread Find electric field at the centre O. How + q
+
negative charge Q on it. A particle having mass m is released much force will an electron experience if +
at a height h on the axis of the ring and it is found to stay it is placed at O? In which direction? +
at rest. Find the charge on the particle. h is height measured
from the plane of the ring.

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 Electrostatic Field 1.17

Q.28 A particle of mass m and charge –Q is constrained Q.29 A circular wire loop of radius R carries a uniformly
to move along the axis of a ring of radius a. The ring has a distributed charge Q along its +
+ +
+ +
uniform linear charge density λ along its periphery. Initially, circumference. Two identical small
+ +
the particle is at the centre of the ring. It is displaced slightly segments of length ∆L are cut and
and released. Show that it will perform SHM and find time removed from the wire. These segments + 120° +

period of its oscillation. are located at an angular separation of + +

120° as shown in figure. Find electric + +

+ +
field at the centre due to the remaining +
charge.

7. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES We draw following conclusions from above discussions:

Michael Faraday pioneered the use of field lines in visualising
a field in a region of space.
Suppose we have been assigned
a task of drawing a diagram
which can correctly represent the
magnitude and direction of
electric field produced due to a +
point charge. After a lot of
thinking one of us may come out
with a brilliant diagram as shown.
The arrows represent the direction
of field at any point and their decreasing size tells us that
field strength decreases as we move away from the charge.
There is an even better idea! We can
have a simple drawing as shown in
second figure, consisting of radially
outwards arrows. Is the information +
regarding strength of the field lost? No.
A
In this diagram the density of field lines
represent the strength of the electric field. EA > EB
Lines are denser (i.e., close together) at
A than at B. We conclude that E A > EB .
There is even deeper significance of
the second diagram. The diagram is in r positive point charge, the lines start at the charge and
agreement with the inverse square law +
1
( E ∝ 2 ). Consider a point charge q.
r
To represent its field we draw N lines
imaginary sphere
emnating radially from it in three
around a point
dimensional space. Draw a sphere of
charge
radius r with its centre at q. Surface
2
area of the sphere is s = 4pr . All N lines pierce through
this surface. We say that density of lines at the surface of
the sphere is
N N
n
= = [= number of lines per m2]
s 4pr 2
Now, we say that strength of field at a point is proportional
to density of lines at the location of the point.
1
⇒ E∝n∝ 2
r
(i) The electric field lines are imaginary geometrical
construction which help us to visualise the nature
of electric field in a region. They have no physical
existence.
(ii) Lines are drawn so that a tangent to a line of force
gives the direction of electric field.
(iii) Lines are drawn so that
density of lines at a location
is proportional to the
–
magnitude of the field there.
Note that electric field
lines due to a negative
point charge are also radial Field lines due to a
pointing towards the charge. negative point charge
Following (additional) rule will be helpful when we try
to construct electric field lines due to a system of charges.
(i) Electric field lines are open ended. They have a
B starting point and a different terminating point.
Electrostatic field lines never form closed loops.
(ii) Field lines originate at a positive charge or at infinity
and they terminate on a negative charge or at infinity.
They never start/end in mid air.
In the above diagrams showing field lines due to a
end at infinity (as there is no nearby negative charge).
In the field line diagram for a negative point charge,
the lines originate at infinity and terminate on the
negative charge.
(iii) How many lines shall we draw? There is no rule to
this. If you have a sharp pencil you can draw many.
However, number of lines originating or, terminating
at a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the
charge. In a field line diagram, if you show N lines
originating from a charge q then you must show 2N
lines terminating at another charge –2q in the same
diagram.
(iv) Two field lines never intersect. Intersection of field
lines will imply two different directions of field at a
point, which is absurd.

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 1.18 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

Following examples will make these rules more lucid.

  Example 16 A student studies the 3

electric field in a region created by + +
some source charges. To represent A
2
the variation of field he draws a field 1
line diagram as shown in the figure.
(a) At which point is the strength
Field lines due to two positive point charges. All
of field higher –1 or 2? lines terminate at infinity field at A is zero.
(b) What can you say about direction of electric field at
point 3?   Example 18 Field lines due to a pair of equal and
Solution opposite point charges
Two point charges, +q and –q, are kept at a separation. Draw
Concepts
the electric field lines in the entire space.
Tangent at a point on the field lines gives the direction
Solution
of field at that point. Density of lines is proportional to
magnitude of field. Concepts
(i) Field lines will originate from +q charge and
(a) Field lines are closer at 1 compared to point 2.
terminate at –q charge.
Therefore, strength of electric field is higher at 1.
(ii) Concepts (iv) and (v) of last example are applicable
E1 > E2 E
here also.
(b) Direction of field at point 3 is
along the tangent as shown in Can you find the direction of electric field at a point (P)
figure. on perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two charges?
Do you think the field line diagram shown here, correctly
  Example 17 Field lines due to two positive point charges represents the direction?
Two point charges, q each, are kept at a separation. Draw B1 A2 B2
A1 P
a rough sketch of electric field lines due to this system of
charge.
Solution
+ –
Concepts
(i) Both charges are positive. Field lines will originate
from them and terminate at infinity.
(ii) Both charges have same magnitude. Therefore,
equal number of lines must originate from them. All lines start at positive charge and end on negative charge.
Line A1 is same at A2 and line B2 is line B1 itself.
(iii) There is a point exactly midway between the two
charges where the field is zero. Density of field   Example 19 Unequal charges
lines at this location must be zero.
A point charge +2q is kept at a separation from another
(iv) If we imagine a plane passing through the two point charge –q. Draw the electric field lines for the system.
charges, the field lines must be symmetrical on
Solution
two sides of the plane.
Concepts
(v) Close to a point charge, the lines will be radial.
This is because field at a point very close to a (i) If we draw n lines originating from 2q charge, only
charge is mainly because of the point charge itself. n
will terminate on –q charge. Rest of the lines
Other charge is at a relatively large distance and 2
its contribution to the field is negligible. will terminate at infinity.
(vi) At a point that is far away from the system of (ii) If we move far away from the system of charges,
charges, field lines will be just like the lines due the field lines must be similar to those produced
to a point charge 2q. by a point charge q.

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 Electrostatic Field 1.19

In Short
(i) Electric field lines originate from positive charge
or at infinity and end on a negative charge or at
infinity.
+ – –q (ii) Field lines are radial for an isolated point charge
2q A
directed away from a positive charge and towards
a negative charge.
(iii) Number of lines at a charge is proportional to its
magnitude.
(iv) Uniform field is represented by equally spaced
Figure shows 14 lines originating from 2q and 7 lines parallel lines.
terminating on –q. Remaining lines terminate at infinity.
(v) Two field lines never intersect.
At point A field is zero. Line density is zero there.
(vi) Absence of field lines in a region indicates that
electric field is zero there.

Your Turn

Q.30 When electric field is of constant magnitude and has Q.32 Three point charges are placed as shown in figure.
a fixed direction in a region of space, it is said to be uniform. Distance of q2 from q1 as well as q3 is d.
Draw field lines to represent a uniform electric field. (a) What can you say about signs of the three charges?
Q.31 Two point charges q1 and q2 are kept at a separation
d. A rough sketch of field lines due to these charges has
been shown in figure.

q1 q3
q2
+ – q2
A
q1

(b) Is there any relation in magnitudes of the charges?

(c) At distance y from q2 the electric field is zero. Prove
d
that 4y6 = (d2 + y2)3.
q1
(a) Pay attention to number of lines and find .
q2
(b) No field line pass through point A. Find distance of
A from q1.

8. ELECTRIC FLUX of field lines piercing through the surface. Obviously, larger
the area more will be the lines passing through it. Thus, flux
Now, we wish to study Gauss’s law which helps us in finding is proportional to area (∆S). E
electric field in many symmetrical situations in effortless If electric field strength is
way. To be able to state the law we need to introduce a new doubled, the density of field DS
physical quantity known as electric flux. lines doubles and number
Imagine a plane surface of area ∆S placed in a uniform of lines piercing through
electric field E. For simplicity, we first assume that field is the surface doubles. It
normal to the surface. Flux of electric field through an area means flux is proportional
is basically a quantity that gives us an idea about number to E. Therefore, number of

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 1.20 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

field lines piercing through the surface is proportional to the with its ends closed, a box shaped surface etc.). A small
product E∆S. circle is placed on the sign of integration to indicate that
This quantity is known as flux of electric field (φ) through the integration is being performed over a closed surface.
the given area ∆S 
dS1 
q E
φ = E DS
There is one more thing which  
DS 1 dS2
decides the flux through an area. It q 2
is orientation of the area relative to q
the direction of the field. Consider E E
the surface shown in above E
diagram to be tilted by an angle
θ from its previous position. Now, For finding flux over a closed surface,
we take
 the direction of area vector
the number of lines passing through the surface has reduced.
(dS) along outward normal.
Flux has reduced. You can easily argue that number of lines
passing through the surface in this new position is same as  
number of lines passing through projection of area ∆S on a =
φ ∫ E ⋅ dS (16)
plane that is normal to the direction of the field. Therefore,
number of lines piercing through the surface is proportional While calculating flux over a closed surface we will always
to E and DScosθ. Flux through the surface is defined as consider the direction of area vector to be along outward
normal.
φ = E DS cos q .
Whenever a field line pierces out of a closed surface flux
We draw a vector of magnitude  ∆S along the normal to the will be positive, and it will be negative when a field line
surface. This is area vector( DS ) for the given surface. Angle pierces into a closed surface. In the figure shown, flux
between DS and E in the above figure is θ. Therefore, flux through small area dS1, is positive [∵ q is acute and cos θ
through a plane surface kept in a uniform electric field can is positive]. Flux through small area dS2 is negative [ angle
be written as  
between dS 2 and E is obtuse].
 
φ = E DS cos q = E ⋅ DS (14)
  Example 20 Flux through a box
Flux is a scalar and its unit is Nm2C–1. Being a scalar,
addition of flux is simple. If a given surface has two parts A box has the shape as shown in figure. Length AD and
and flux through them are f1 and f2, then flux through the DH are l each and the face BCGF is inclined at 30° to the
surface is φ = f1 + f2. We can use this to find flux when a vertical. The box is placed in a uniform electric field E that
surface is not plane as well as when the electric field is not is perpendicular the face AEHD. Find flux of electric field
uniform. through the box. Also write flux through the face CBFG.
Consider a curved surface shown in the figure. It is placed E
H
in an electric field. To find flux through the surface, we divide G
the entire surface into infinite number of infinitesimally l
small areas. We need to write flux through each of these D 30°
C
small areas and add them. Mathematically, this means.

ds  l E
 F
ds K
E 
E
A B
H
E

  Solution
=
φ ∫ E ⋅ dS  (15) Concepts
(i) We will calculate flux through each face of the box
Integration must be performed so as to cover the entire
and add them.
surface.
(ii) Box is a closed surface. For a closed surface
In the context of Gauss’s law, we will be evaluating
outward normal is regarded as the direction of
electric flux over closed surfaces (e.g., a sphere, a cylinder
area vector.

Chapter_01.indd 20 29-08-2019 10:40:35

 Electrostatic Field 1.21

For face CDHG,

 area vector is vertically
 up. Therefore, angle ∴ S E cos 30°
φCBFG =⋅
between E and area vector ( S )is 90°.
2
cos 90° 0
φCDHG ES=
=   = (l ⋅ l sec 30°) E ⋅ cos 30° =l E
∴
∴    φbox =− El 2 + El 2 =
0
Similarly, φ ABFE =
φ ABCD = 0
φ EFGH =
 For face AEHD, area vector is directed towards left and Now pay attention to the following points:
E is towards right. (i) Actually, answer to the question is trivial if you know
∴ θ = 180° that the electric flux is basically measure of number
2
∴ φ AEHD = El cos180° = − El
2 of field lines piercing through a surface. And the flux
is negative if a line pierces into the surface from
[Notice that flux is negative whenever electric field lines outside and is positive if a line goes inside out.
pierce into a closed surface from outside.]
In the given question, any field line going into the
For face CBFG area vector is inclined at 30° to the box will also come out from it. Therefore, number
horizontal. [You can easily think about the direction of area of lines going in is same as number of lines going
vector like this: For surface CHKG area vector is horizontal. out. Thus, flux through the box is zero.
If you tilt this surface outward by 30° the normal will also
(ii) While writing flux through the face CBFG, you just
tilt by 30° from the horizontal].
 need to understand that the lines passing through the
S
surface are the same lines which also pass through
CHKG.
2 2
30° \ φCBFG = φCHKG = El cos 0° = El

E
 
For face CBFG S is inclined to E at 30°.

Your Turn

Q.33 Consider a circular surface of radius r =1 m kept cylinder is parallel to the direction of the field. Cross sectional
in a uniform electric field E =10 N/C. The surface of the area of the cylinder is S and l E
circle makes an angle of 30° with the direction of the field. its length is l. Find the flux
Calculate the magnitude of electric flux through the surface. of electric field through the
cylinder. One end of the x
Q.34 Consider an imaginary cylindrical surface placed in cylinder is at x = 0 and the
an electric field. The field is along x direction and its other is at x = l. x=0 x=l
magnitude changes with x co-ordinate as E = ax. Axis of the

9. GAUSS’S LAW Consider a small patch of area dS on the surface S.

Electric field (due to all the charges q1, –q2 and q3) at the
This law relates the electric flux through a closed surface to location of the patch is E. Flux through this small patch is
the charge present inside it. It can be stated as follows:  
d φ= E ⋅ dS
The flux of electric S
field through a closed Flux through the closed surface is obtained by adding
surface equals the total  fluxes through all such small patches.
E  
charge enclosed by the = φ ∫ E ⋅ dS
surface divided by e0 
+q1 ds The Gauss’s law says that
Consider fixed charges –q2
  qin
q1, –q2 and q3 as shown. ∫ E ⋅ dS = (17)
An imaginary surface S is q3 e0
drawn so as to enclose q1 where qin = charge present inside the closed surface. In
and –q2. present example, qin = q1 – q2.

Chapter_01.indd 21 29-08-2019 10:40:36

 1.22 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

Proof of the Gauss’s Law Using the Coulomb’s Law as negative and the flux is taken to be positive at point
We will prove the Gauss’s law using the Coulomb’s law in where it exits the surface. Flux through the surface is zero
three steps. as number of lines moving into the surface is equal to the
Step 1: Flux due to a point charge inside the surface number of lines moving out of the surface.
Consider a point charge q. Taking it  So, we have proved that electric flux through a closed
E
as centre draw a sphere of radius r. surface due to a point charge placed outside the surface is
 zero.
Let’s take this sphere as our closed dS
surface. Electric field at any point on Step 3: Flux due to multiple charges
the surface of the sphere is (given by q Consider a system of fixed point S
Coulomb’s law) charges as shown in figure. S is
a closed surface, q1, q2, q3 are
q1 q2
1 q charges inside the surface and q4,
E= [in radial direction]
4pe0 r 2 q5 are those outside the surface. q3
While calculating
 flux, we
A small patch of area dS on the surface has area vector consider field E at a location on
q5
q4
along the radius of the sphere in outward direction. Flux the surface which is given by
through the small patch will be superposition of the electric fields due to q1, q2,…… q5
1 q      
=
cos 0°
d φ EdS= dS E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + E5
4pe 0 r 2 
where Ei is field due to qi.
Flux through the entire sphere is
Flux through S is
1 q        
=
φ ∫ d=
φ
4pe 0 r 2
∫ dS φ = ∫ E ⋅ dS = ∫ ( E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + E5 ) ⋅ dS
         
=
⇒ φ
1 q
⋅ 4pr 2
=
q
(i)
= ∫ E ⋅ dS + ∫ E
1 2 ⋅ dS + ∫ E3 ⋅ dS + ∫ E4 ⋅ dS + ∫ EdS
4pe 0 r 2 e0
q1 q2 q3
Now consider a different = + + +0+0
e0 e0 e0
surface S 1 enclosing the
 
same charge q. What is flux
through this surface? The flux S1 S This is because ∫ Ei ⋅ dS is flux through S when only qi
q is present.
is still given by equation (i),
irrespective of the shape of 1 qin
∴=φ (q1 + q2 +=
q3 )
the surface S1. e0 e0
This is because every This completes the derivation of the law for all cases.
field line that passes through
All field lines passing through At the end, I want to make following important comments:
the sphere S must also pass
through the surface S1. We sphere S also pass through S1. (i) The closed surface on which the Gauss’s law is
are repeatedly stressing that electric flux is proportional to applied is sometimes known as the Gaussian surface.
number of field lines passing through a surface. (ii) The Gaussian surface should never be considered to
So, we have proved that flux through a closed surface of be passing through a point charge. A point charge
q shall always be inside the surface or outside it, it
any shape is if a point charge q is lying inside it. should never be on the surface. However, we are
e0
free to choose a Gaussian surface passing through a
Step 2: Flux due to a point charge outside the surface continuous distribution of charge.
Consider a single point
closed
charge q lying outside a S   Example 21   Charge inside a cube
surface
closed surface. The field A point charge q is kept at the centre of a cube.
lines which pierce into (a) Find the flux of electric field through the cube.
the surface will also exit
q (b) Find the electric flux through one of the faces of the
at some other point of the
cube.
surface. We know that when
a line moves into the closed (c) Will the flux through a face change if the charge is
surface, the flux is regarded moved inside the cube? Will the flux through the
entire cube also change?

Chapter_01.indd 22 29-08-2019 10:40:37

 Electrostatic Field 1.23

Solution Field lines appear roughly as shown in the figure. New

Concepts field lines originate at positive charges scattered in space.
This makes the density of lines higher as we move along x
(i) According to the Gauss’s law the electric flux is direction.
independent of the shape of the surface enclosing
+
a charge. +
+ +
(ii) When the charge is at the centre, all faces are +
+ +
+
at identical location for the charge. Due to this + +
+ +
symmetry, flux through each of the faces must be + +
same. + +
+
+
(iii) Symmetry gets destroyed when the charge is moved + +
from the centre.
(a) The six faces of the cube make a closed surface. Flux   Example 23 Flower vase
through this closed surface is given by the Gauss’s Imagine a surface in the shape of a flower vase. q
law. C A point charge q is placed at the centre of the
q B circular opening.
φ=
e0 (a) Find the electric flux through the curved
surface of the flower vase.
(b) Flux through all six faces q (b) The point charge is moved deep into the
are equal D
vase. Consider the opening to be small. What is the
φ q A best approximate value for flux through the curved
∴ φ ABCD = =
6 6e 0 surface that you can give?
(c) When the charge is moved from the centre of the Solution
q Concepts
cube, the flux through the entire cube is still .
e0
(i) Consider an identical vase placed upside down
But, now the six faces are not symmetrically located
over the given vase. The two vases make a closed
with respect to the charge. Flux through a face may
surface.
change.
(ii) When the charge is kept deep inside the vase,
  Example 22 Refer to Your Turn Q.34. How much charge very few field lines will escape through the small
is enclosed inside the cylinder described in the question? opening.
Solution (a) Consider a perfectly closed surface made by two
Concepts identical vase like surfaces. Flux through the closed
(i) Flux through the cylinder was calculated in Q.34 surface made by twin vases is given by the Gauss’s
to be φ = alS. law as
(ii) According to the Gauss’s law there must be positive q
φ= q
charge inside the cylinder. e0
Using Gauss’s law for the closed cylindrical surface Due to symmetry, equal number of field lines
q must pass through both the surfaces.
φ = in
e0 φ 1 q
∴ Flux through given surface = =
2 2 e0
⇒ qin = e0 φ = e0 alS
(b) When the charge is pushed deep into the vase, very
What does this mean? It means l few field lines will escape through the small circular
E
that if we wish to have an electric mouth.
field parallel to x axis which has a q
S ∴ Flux through the given surface will be nearly .
linearly increasing magnitude then e0
a cylindrical volume as considered,
must have charge within it. x=0 x=l
E = ax

Chapter_01.indd 23 29-08-2019 10:40:38

 1.24 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

In Short
(i) Electric flux (φ) through a plane
 surface (S) placed (iv) Electric flux is basically measure of number of field
in a uniform electric field E is defined as lines passing through a surface.
 
φ= E ⋅ S = ES cos q (v) Flux is zero if field lines are parallel to a surface.
 
where q is angle between E and area vector ( S ) . (vi) The Gauss’s law tells us that electric flux though a
q
Area vector is taken along the normal to the surface. closed surface is always equal to in where qin is
e0
(ii) When the area is curved or the field is non uniform, the charge present inside the surface.
we calculated flux as
  (vii) A charge outside a closed surface contributes
=φ ∫ E ⋅ dS nothing to the flux.
(iii) When the flux is calculated over a closed surface, a
small circle is drawn on the integral sign to indicate
this
 
=φ ∫ E ⋅ dS

Your Turn

Q.35 Two point charges q and –q are placed inside a Q.40 A point charge q is located at the centre of a
spherical surface. There is no other charge anywhere else. hemispherical surface. Find the flux of electric field through
(a) Find flux through the sphere. the curved hemispherical surface.
(b) Another point charge Q is placed
q
outside the sphere. Will the electric
–q
field at a point on the surface of the
sphere charge? Will the flux through q
the spherical surface be non zero now?
Q.36 A hemisphere of radius R is placed in a uniform
electric field of strength E. Find the electric flux through
the curved surface if
Q.41 A long line has a uniformly spread charge of linear
density λ on it. Consider a spherical surface of radius R
(a) The field is parallel to the base R
with its centre at a distance from the line. Find flux of
(b) Perpendicular to the base 2
 electric field through the sphere.
Q.37 Electric field in a region is given by= E (12iˆ + 16 ˆj )
N/C. A rectangular surface of area S = 0.1 m2 is placed in
Q.42 A circular loop has radius r = 40 cm. It is placed
in a uniform electric field. The loop is rotated about a
Y-Z plane. Find flux of electric field though the rectangular
diameter that is perpendicular to the field. In a particular
surface.
position the flux of the electric field through the loop is
Q.38 Is it right to say that there is no net charge in a Nm 2
region in which electric field is uniform at all points? found to be maximum and its value is 5.02 × 105 . Find
C
Explain.
the magnitude of the electric field.
Q.39 There is a horizontal Q.43 A cone of base radius R and E
square surface of side length q
height h is located on a horizontal table.
a. A point charge q is placed a
2 A uniform horizontal field E exists in the
vertically above its centre at a a
a region. Determine the flux that enters the h
height from the surface. Find cone from its left side.
2 R
the flux of electric field through a

the surface.

Chapter_01.indd 24 29-08-2019 10:40:40


10. APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW IN
CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD
The Gauss’s law is a fundamental law in electrostatics. It is
always true. But it may not be always useful in calculation of
electric field. It can be used in certain symmetrical situations
only, for finding field due to a given charge distribution.
There are three kinds of symmetry where the Gauss’s law
works. Here, we present them one by one.
10.1 Spherical Symmetry
Consider following three problems:
(i) We have to find electric field due to a point charge
q at a distance r from it (and assume that we do not
know the Coulomb’s law!)
(ii) There is a spherical shell of radius a. A charge q
is uniformly spread on its surface. We have to find
electric field at a point at a distance r from the centre
of the shell. The point lies outside the shell (r > a).
(iii) A charge q is uniformly distributed in a spherical
volume of radius a. We have to find electric field at
a point that lies outside the spherical region and is
at a distance r (>a) from its centre.
The three situations have been shown in the figure given
below. In all three cases we draw an imaginary sphere of
radius r passing through point P where we have to find the
field. This is our Gaussion surface and its centre is at the
point charge (q) or at the centre of the given charged sphere.
We have chosen spherical Gaussian surface because the
three situations given here have spherical symmetry. Why
will the electric field at point 1 be different from the field at
point 2; or from the field at point 3? There is absolutely no
reason. The field at all the points on the spherical Gaussian
surface (in all three cases) must have the same magnitude.

 ds
E This is the common answer to the three problems.
1 E
2 +
+ a +
3 q + (i) Equation 18 gives electric field due to a point charge
r q+
+
A point charge at the centre of A charged shell and spherical
a spherical Gaussian surface. Gaussian surface around it.
E
++ +
+ ++a
+ + ++
q ++ r Electric field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell
A uniformly charged spherical volume of radius a
and a concentric spherical Gaussian surface.
Chapter_01.indd 25
Electrostatic Field 1.25
Also, the field will have identical radial directions at all
points on the spherical Gaussian surface. Why the field at 1
will be radial and at 2 in a different direction? Again there
is no reason for this to happen.
Now, you must be getting a sense 1
2
why we picked a spherical Gaussian
surface. If we choose any other surface q
surrounding our charge, the benefit of
symmetry is lost. Look at the figure 3
given here. We cannot say that the Gaussian surface
electric field will be same at points 1,
2 and 3. For writing the flux we will have to assume field as
E1, E2, E3 etc. at different points. With so many unknowns
we cannot have our answer.
Therefore, we conclude that in all three problems the
electric field has same magnitude (say, E) at all points on
spherical Gaussian surface and has radial direction.
To write the flux, consider a small patch of area dS on
the Gaussian surface. Area vector is radial. Flux through the
patch is
= d φ EdS = cos 0° EdS
Flux through the entire surface is
φ= ∫ d φ= E ∫ dS= E 4pr 2
The last thing that we need to look for is the total charge
present inside the Gaussian surface. In all three cases this
charge is q. Hence, using Gauss’s law, we can write
qin
φ=
e0
q
⇒ E ⋅ 4pr 2 =
e0
1 q
⇒ E= (18)
4pe0 r 2
E
+ We conclude the followings:
+
r q at a distance r from it. This is Coulomb’s law. Yes,
we have proved Coulomb’s law starting from the
Gauss’s law!
(ii) The electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical
shell or a spherical volume at a point outside it, is
identical to the field due to an equal point charge
placed at the centre.
  We will consider two more problems which have
spherical symmetry.
A spherical shell of radius a has a charge q uniformly spread
on its surface. We wish to find electric field due to this
charge distribution at a point (P) inside the shell.
29-08-2019 10:40:41
 1.26 Electrostatics and Current Electricity

Consider a spherical Gaussian surface passing through We must take a note of the following points:
point P that is concentric to the given shell. Once again (i) Field at the centre is obtained by putting r = 0 in the
symmetry of the situation tells us + above equation
that electric field should have same + E +
P Ecentre = 0.
magnitude at all points on the
Gaussian surface. The direction is + r +
(ii) As we move from the centre to the surface of
radial. Flux through the surface can the spherical volume, the field increases linearly.
be written just as we did above. Field on the surface is obtained by putting r = a in
+ + equation (20)
  +
φ= ∫ E ⋅ dS = E ⋅ 4pr
2
1 Q
Gaussian surface Esurface =
How much charge is there inside 4pe 0 a 2
the Gaussian surface? There is no charge at all.
0   Example 24 Spherically symmetric but variable charge
∴ E ⋅ 4pr 2 = ⇒  E = 0 (19) density
e0
A spherical volume of radius a contains a non-uniform
Therefore, electric field inside a uniformly charged shell charge density which varies with distance x from the centre
is zero at all points. a
as ρ = ρ0 , where ρ0 is a positive constant. Find the
Electric field inside a uniformly charged spherical x
volume electric field at a distance x0 from the centre of the sphere for
A spherical volume of radius a has (a) 0 < x0 < a and
+ + E +
a uniform charge density ρ. We are + + +
+ (b) x0 > a.
+ + + + +
supposed to find electric field at a point + + r + Also plot a graph showing the variation of electric field
+ + +
inside the sphere at a distance r (< a). + + + + + + + with x.
+ a +
Draw a spherical Gaussian surface of + ++ + +
radius r having its centre at the centre + + + Solution
+ +
of the charged sphere. Once again due Concepts
Gaussian surface
to symmetry we assume that the field is (i) Though the charge density is non-uniform, it
radial at all points and has same magnitude at all points on is spherically symmetric. If you draw a sphere
the Gaussian surface. Let this magnitude be E. of radius x (< a), the charge density is same at
Flux through the Gaussian surface is all points on the surface of the sphere. What is
  advantage of having a spherical symmetry? We
φ= ∫ E ⋅ dS = E ⋅ 4pr
2
can consider the field to be radial at all points and
Total charge present inside the Gaussian surface is field will have same magnitude at all the points on
the surface of a sphere that is concentric with the
4
qin =ρ pr 3 given sphere.
3
Using the Gauss’s law (ii) For using the Gauss’s law we need to know the
charge contained in a spherical volume of radius
qin x0. For finding the electric field at an outside point
φ=
e0 (x > a) we need to know the total charge in the
spherical volume of radius a.
ρ 4 pr 3
E ⋅ 4pr 2 = 3
e0 Let’s first calculate total charge present inside a spherical
volume of radius x0.
 ρ  Consider a shell of radius x and thickness dx. Charge in
⇒ E =  r (20)
 3e0  the shell is given by
+ +
If total charge inside the spherical volume of radius a is dq = ρ ⋅ 4px 2 dx + +
+ + + +
+
Q, then + + + x dx +
= 4pρ0 a xdx + + +
Q + + + +
ρ = 4 3 Charge inside sphere of radius x0 is + + +
3 pa + a+ x + +
0 +
x0 x0 +
+ + +
Equation (20) in terms of Q becomes q= ∫ dq = 4pρ0 a ∫ xdx
1 Q x =0 x
=
E ⋅ r (21)
4pe 0 a 3 ⇒ q = 2pρ0 ax 2
0 (i)

Chapter_01.indd 26 29-08-2019 10:40:44

Another random document with
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It is not a bad thing to have individuals or nations do right though
they do so from selfish motives. I approved the one-spur-wisdom of
“Paddy” who thought if he could get one side of his horse to go, he
could trust the speed of the other side.
The effect of the proclamation abroad was highly beneficial to
the loyal cause. Disinterested parties could now see in it a
benevolent character. It was no longer a mere strife for territory and
dominion, but a contest of civilization against barbarism.
The Proclamation itself was like Mr. Lincoln throughout. It was
framed with a view to the least harm and the most good possible in
the circumstances, and with especial consideration of the latter. It
was thoughtful, cautious, and well guarded at all points. While he
hated Slavery, and really desired its destruction, he always
proceeded against it in a manner the least likely to shock or drive
from him any who were truly in sympathy with the preservation of the
union, but who were not friendly to Emancipation. For this he kept up
the distinction between loyal and disloyal slaveholders, and
discriminated in favor of the one, as against the other. In a word, in
all that he did, or attempted, he made it manifest that the one great
and all commanding object with him, was the peace and
preservation of the Union, and that this was the motive and main
spring of all his measures. His wisdom and moderation at this point
were for a season useful to the loyal cause in the border states, but it
may be fairly questioned, whether it did not chill the union ardor of
the loyal people of the north in some degree, and diminish rather
than increase the sum of our power against the rebellion: for
moderate cautions and guarded as was this proclamation it created
a howl of indignation and wrath amongst the rebels and their allies.
The old cry was raised by the copperhead organs of “an abolition
war,” and a pretext was thus found for an excuse for refusing to
enlist, and for marshaling all the negro prejudice of the north on the
rebel side. Men could say they were willing to fight for the union, but
that they were not willing to fight for the freedom of the negroes; and
thus it was made difficult to procure enlistments or to enforce the
draft. This was especially true of New York, where there was a large
Irish population. The attempt to enforce the draft in that city was met
by mobs, riot, and bloodshed. There is perhaps no darker chapter in
the whole history of the war, than this cowardly and bloody uprising
in July, 1863. For three days and nights New York was in the hands
of a ferocious mob, and there was not sufficient power in the
government of the country or of the city itself, to stay the hand of
violence, and the effusion of blood. Though this mob was nominally
against the draft which had been ordered, it poured out its fiercest
wrath upon the colored people and their friends. It spared neither
age nor sex; it hanged negroes simply because they were negroes, it
murdered women in their homes, and burned their homes over their
heads, it dashed out the brains of young children against the lamp
posts, it burned the colored orphan asylum, a noble charity on the
corner of 5th ave., and scarce allowing time for the helpless two
hundred children to make good their escape, plundering the building
of every valuable piece of furniture; and colored men, women, and
children were forced to seek concealment in cellars or garrets or
wheresoever else it could be found until this high carnival of crime
and reign of terror should pass away.
In connection with Geo. L. Stearns, Thomas Webster, and Col.
Wagner, I had been at Camp William Penn, Philadelphia, assisting in
the work of filling up the colored regiments, and was on my way
home from there just as these events were transpiring in New York. I
was met by a friend at Newark who informed me of this condition of
things. I, however, pressed on my way to the Chambers street
station of the Hudson River Railroad in safety, the mob being in the
upper part of the city, fortunately for me, for not only my color, but my
known activity in procuring enlistments would have made me
especially obnoxious to its murderous spirit. This was not the first
time I had been in imminent peril in New York city. My first arrival
there, after my escape from slavery, was full of danger. My passage
through its borders after the attack of John Brown on Harper’s Ferry
was scarcely less safe. I had encountered Isaiah Rynders and his
gang of ruffians in the old Broadway Tabernacle at our Anti-slavery
anniversary meeting, and I knew something of the crazy temper of
such crowds; but this anti-draft—anti-negro mob was something
more and something worse—it was a part of the rebel force, without
the rebel uniform, but with all its deadly hate; it was the fire of the
enemy opened in the rear of the loyal army. Such men as Franklin
Pierce and Horatio Seymour had done much in their utterances to
encourage resistance to the drafts. Seymour was then Governor of
the State of New York, and while the mob was doing its deadly work
he addressed them as “My friends,” telling them to desist then, while
he could arrange at Washington to have the draft arrested. Had
Governor Seymour been loyal to his country, and to his country’s
cause, in this her moment of need, he would have burned his tongue
with a red hot iron sooner than allow it to call these thugs, thieves,
and murderers his “friends.”
My interviews with President Lincoln and his able Secretary,
before narrated, greatly increased my confidence in the anti-slavery
integrity of the government, although I confess I was greatly
disappointed at my failure to receive the commission promised me
by Secretary Stanton. I, however, faithfully believed, and loudly
proclaimed my belief, that the rebellion would be suppressed, the
Union preserved, the slaves emancipated, and the colored soldiers
would in the end have justice done them. This confidence was
immeasurably strengthened when I saw Gen. George B. McClellan
relieved from the command of the army of the Potomac and Gen
U. S. Grant placed at its head, and in command of all the armies of
the United States. My confidence in Gen. Grant was not entirely due
to the brilliant military successes achieved by him, but there was a
moral as well as military basis for my faith in him. He had shown his
single mindedness and superiority to popular prejudice by his prompt
co-operation with President Lincoln in his policy of employing colored
troops, and his order commanding his soldiers to treat such troops
with due respect. In this way he proved himself to be not only a wise
General, but a great man—one who could adjust himself to new
conditions, and adopt the lessons taught by the events of the hour.
This quality in General Grant was and is made all the more
conspicuous and striking in contrast with his West Point education
and his former political associations; for neither West Point nor the
Democratic party have been good schools in which to learn justice
and fair play to the negro.
 It was when General Grant was fighting his way through the
Wilderness to Richmond, on the “line” he meant to pursue “if it took
all summer,” and every reverse to his arms was made the occasion
for a fresh demand for peace without emancipation, that President
Lincoln did me the honor to invite me to the Executive Mansion for a
conference on the situation. I need not say I went most gladly. The
main subject on which he wished to confer with me was as to the
means most desirable to be employed outside the army to induce
the slaves in the rebel States to come within the Federal lines. The
increasing opposition to the war, in the north, and the mad cry
against it, because it was being made an abolition war, alarmed Mr.
Lincoln, and made him apprehensive that a peace might be forced
upon him which would leave still in slavery all who had not come
within our lines. What he wanted was to make his proclamation as
effective as possible in the event of such a peace. He said in a
regretful tone, “The slaves are not coming so rapidly and so
numerously to us as I had hoped.” I replied that the slaveholders
knew how to keep such things from their slaves, and probably very
few knew of his proclamation. “Well,” he said, “I want you to set
about devising some means of making them acquainted with it, and
for bringing them into our lines.” He spoke with great earnestness
and much solicitude, and seemed troubled by the attitude of Mr.
Greeley, and the growing impatience there was being manifested
through the north at the war. He said he was being accused of
protracting the war beyond its legitimate object, and of failing to
make peace, when he might have done so to advantage. He was
afraid of what might come of all these complaints, but was
persuaded that no solid and lasting peace could come short of
absolute submission on the part of the rebels, and he was not for
giving them rest by futile conferences at Niagara Falls, or elsewhere,
with unauthorized persons. He saw the danger of premature peace,
and, like a thoughtful and sagacious man as he was, he wished to
provide means of rendering such consummation as harmless as
possible. I was the more impressed by this benevolent consideration
because he before said, in answer to the peace clamor, that his
object was to save the Union, and to do so with or without slavery.
What he said on this day showed a deeper moral conviction against
slavery than I had even seen before in anything spoken or written by
him. I listened with the deepest interest and profoundest satisfaction,
and, at his suggestion, agreed to undertake the organizing a band of
scouts, composed of colored men, whose business should be
somewhat after the original plan of John Brown, to go into the rebel
States, beyond the lines of our armies, and carry the news of
emancipation, and urge the slaves to come within our boundaries.
This plan, however, was very soon rendered unnecessary by the
success of the war in the Wilderness and elsewhere, and by its
termination in the complete abolition of slavery.
I refer to this conversation because I think it is evidence
conclusive on Mr. Lincoln’s part that the proclamation, so far at least
as he was concerned, was not effected merely as a “necessity.”
An incident occurred during this interview which illustrates the
character of this great man, though the mention of it may savor a
little of vanity on my part. While in conversation with him his
Secretary twice announced “Governor Buckingham of Connecticut,”
one of the noblest and most patriotic of the loyal Governors. Mr.
Lincoln said, “Tell Governor Buckingham to wait, for I want to have a
long talk with my friend Frederick Douglass.” I interposed, and
begged him to see the Governor at once, as I could wait; but no, he
persisted he wanted to talk with me, and Governor Buckingham
could wait. This was probably the first time in the history of this
Republic when its chief magistrate found occasion or disposition to
exercise such an act of impartiality between persons so widely
different in their positions and supposed claims upon his attention.
From the manner of the Governor, when he was finally admitted, I
inferred that he was as well satisfied with what Mr. Lincoln had done,
or had omitted to do, as I was.
I have often said elsewhere what I wish to repeat here, that Mr.
Lincoln was not only a great President, but a great man—too great
to be small in anything. In his company I was never in any way
reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color. While I am,
as it may seem, bragging of the kind consideration which I have
reason to believe that Mr. Lincoln entertained towards me, I may
mention one thing more. At the door of my friend John A. Gray,
where I was stopping in Washington, I found one afternoon the
carriage of Secretary Dole, and a messenger from President Lincoln
with an invitation for me to take tea with him at the Soldiers Home,
where he then passed his nights, riding out after the business of the
day was over at the Executive Mansion. Unfortunately I had an
engagement to speak that evening, and having made it one of the
rules of my conduct in life never to break an engagement if possible
to keep it, I felt obliged to decline the honor. I have often regretted
that I did not make this an exception to my general rule. Could I have
known that no such opportunity could come to me again, I should
have justified myself in disappointing a large audience for the sake of
such a visit with Abraham Lincoln.
It is due perhaps to myself to say here that I did not take Mr.
Lincoln’s attentions as due to my merits or personal qualities. While I
have no doubt that Messrs. Seward and Chase had spoken well of
me to him, and the fact of my having been a slave, and gained my
freedom, and of having picked up some sort of an education, and
being in some sense a “self-made man,” and having made myself
useful as an advocate of the claims of my people, gave me favor in
his eyes; yet I am quite sure that the main thing which gave me
consideration with him was my well known relation to the colored
people of the Republic, and especially the help which that relation
enabled me to give to the work of suppressing the rebellion and of
placing the Union on a firmer basis than it ever had or could have
sustained in the days of slavery.
So long as there was any hope whatsoever of the success of
Rebellion, there was of course a corresponding fear that a new lease
of life would be granted to slavery. The proclamation of Fremont in
Missouri, the letter of Phelps in the Department of the Gulf, the
enlistment of colored troops by Gen. Hunter, the “Contraband” letter
of Gen. B. F. Butler, the soldierly qualities surprisingly displayed by
colored soldiers in the terrific battles of Port Hudson, Vicksburg,
Morris Island, and elsewhere, the Emancipation proclamation by
Abraham Lincoln had given slavery many and deadly wounds, yet it
was in fact only wounded and crippled, not disabled and killed. With
this condition of national affairs came the summer of 1864, and with
it the revived Democratic party, with the story in its mouth that the
war was a failure, and with Gen. George B. McClellan, the greatest
failure of the war, as its candidate for the Presidency. It is needless
to say that the success of such a party, on such a platform, with such
a candidate, at such a time would have been a fatal calamity. All that
had been done towards suppressing the rebellion and abolishing
slavery would have proved of no avail, and the final settlement
between the two sections of the Republic, touching slavery and the
right of secession, would have been left to tear and rend the country
again at no distant future.
It was said that this Democratic party, which under Mr. Buchanan
had betrayed the Government into the hands of secession and
treason, was the only party which could restore the country to peace
and union. No doubt it would have “patched up” a peace, but it would
have been a peace more to be dreaded than war. So at least I felt
and worked. When we were thus asked to exchange Abraham
Lincoln for McClellan—a successful Union President for an
unsuccessful Union General—a party earnestly endeavoring to save
the Union, torn and rent by a gigantic rebellion, I thought with Mr.
Lincoln, that it was not wise to “swap horses while crossing a
stream.” Regarding, as I did, the continuance of the war to the
complete suppression of the rebellion, and the retention in office of
President Lincoln as essential to the total destruction of slavery, I
certainly exerted myself to the uttermost, in my small way, to secure
his re-election. This most important object was not attained,
however, by speeches, letters, or other electioneering appliances.
The staggering blows dealt upon the rebellion that year by the
armies under Grant and Sherman, and his own great character,
ground all opposition to dust, and made his election sure, even
before the question reached the polls. Since William the Silent, who
was the soul of the mighty war for religious liberty against Spain and
the Spanish inquisition, no leader of men has been loved and trusted
in such generous measure as Abraham Lincoln. His election
silenced, in a good degree, the discontent felt at the length of the
war, and the complaints of its being an Abolition war. Every victory of
our arms, on flood and field, was a rebuke to McClellan and the
Democratic party, and an endorsement of Abraham Lincoln for
President, and his new policy. It was my good fortune to be present
at his inauguration in March, and to hear on that occasion his
remarkable inaugural address. On the night previous I took tea with
Chief Justice Chase, and assisted his beloved daughter, Mrs.
Sprague, in placing over her honored father’s shoulders the new
robe, then being made, in which he was to administer the oath of
office to the re-elected President. There was a dignity and grandeur
about the Chief Justice which marked him as one born great. He had
known me in early anti-slavery days, and had conquered his race-
prejudice, if he ever had any; at any rate, he had welcomed me to
his home and his table, when to do so was a strange thing in
Washington; and the fact was by no means an insignificant one.
The inauguration, like the election, was a most important event.
Four years before, after Mr. Lincoln’s first election, the pro-slavery
spirit determined against his inauguration, and it no doubt would
have accomplished its purpose had he attempted to pass openly and
recognized through Baltimore. There was murder in the air then, and
there was murder in the air now. His first inauguration arrested the
fall of the Republic, and the second was to restore it to enduring
foundations. At the time of the second inauguration the rebellion was
apparently vigorous, defiant, and formidable; but in reality weak,
dejected, and desperate. It had reached that verge of madness when
it had called upon the negro for help to fight against the freedom
which he so longed to find, for the bondage he would escape—
against Lincoln the Emancipator for Davis the enslaver. But
desperation discards logic as well as law, and the South was
desperate. Sherman was marching to the sea, and Virginia with its
rebel capital was in the firm grip of Ulysses S. Grant. To those who
knew the situation it was evident that unless some startling change
was made the confederacy had but a short time to live, and that time
full of misery. This condition of things made the air at Washington
dark and lowering. The friends of the confederate cause here were
neither few nor insignificant. They were among the rich and
influential. A wink or a nod from such men might unchain the hand of
violence and set order and law at defiance. To those who saw
beneath the surface it was clearly perceived that there was danger
abroad; and as the procession passed down Pennsylvania Avenue, I
for one felt an instinctive apprehension that at any moment a shot
from some assassin in the crowd might end the glittering pageant,
and throw the country into the depths of anarchy. I did not then know,
what has since become history, that the plot was already formed and
its execution contemplated for that very day, which though several
weeks delayed, at last accomplished its deadly work. Reaching the
Capitol, I took my place in the crowd where I could see the
Presidential procession as it came upon the east portico, and where
I could hear and see all that took place. There was no such throng
as that which celebrated the inauguration of President Garfield, nor
that of President Rutherford B. Hayes. The whole proceeding was
wonderfully quiet, earnest, and solemn. From the oath, as
administered by Chief Justice Chase, to the brief but weighty
address delivered by Mr. Lincoln, there was a leaden stillness about
the crowd. The address sounded more like a sermon than a state
paper. In the fewest words possible it referred to the condition of the
country four years before, on his first accession to the presidency—
to the causes of the war, and the reasons on both sides for which it
had been waged. “Neither party,” he said, “expected for the war the
magnitude or the duration which it had already attained. Neither
anticipated that the cause of the conflict might cease with or even
before the conflict itself should cease. Each looked for an easier
triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding.” Then in a
few short sentences, admitting the conviction that slavery had been
the “offense which, in the providence of God, must needs come, and
the war as the woe due to those by whom the offense came,” he
asks if there can be “discerned in this, any departure from those
Divine attributes which the believers in a loving God always ascribe
to him? Fondly do we hope,” he continued, “fervently do we pray that
this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet if God wills
that it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondman’s two
hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until
every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another
drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still
it must be said, ‘The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous
altogether.’
 “With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the
right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work
we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall
have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphans, to do all
which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among
ourselves and with all nations.”
I know not how many times, and before how many people I have
quoted these solemn words of our martyred president; they struck
me at the time, and have seemed to me ever since to contain more
vital substance than I have ever seen compressed in a space so
narrow; yet on this memorable occasion when I clapped my hands in
gladness and thanksgiving at their utterance, I saw in the faces of
many about me expressions of widely different emotion.
On this inauguration day, while waiting for the opening of the
ceremonies, I made a discovery in regard to the Vice-President—
Andrew Johnson. There are moments in the lives of most men, when
the doors of their souls are open, and unconsciously to themselves,
their true characters may be read by the observant eye. It was at
such an instant I caught a glimpse of the real nature of this man,
which all subsequent developments proved true. I was standing in
the crowd by the side of Mrs. Thomas J. Dorsey, when Mr. Lincoln
touched Mr. Johnson, and pointed me out to him. The first
expression which came to his face, and which I think was the true
index of his heart, was one of bitter contempt and aversion. Seeing
that I observed him, he tried to assume a more friendly appearance;
but it was too late; it was useless to close the door when all within
had been seen. His first glance was the frown of the man, the
second was the bland and sickly smile of the demagogue. I turned to
Mrs. Dorsey and said, “Whatever Andrew Johnson may be, he
certainly is no friend of our race.”
No stronger contrast could well be presented between two men
than between President Lincoln and Vice-President Johnson on this
day. Mr. Lincoln was like one who was treading the hard and thorny
path of duty and self-denial; Mr. Johnson was like one just from a
drunken debauch. The face of the one was full of manly humility,
although at the topmost height of power and pride, the other was full
of pomp and swaggering vanity. The fact was, though it was yet early
in the day, Mr. Johnson was drunk.
In the evening of the day of the inauguration, another new
experience awaited me. The usual reception was given at the
executive mansion, and though no colored persons had ever
ventured to present themselves on such occasions, it seemed now
that freedom had become the law of the republic, now that colored
men were on the battle-field mingling their blood with that of white
men in one common effort to save the country, it was not too great
an assumption for a colored man to offer his congratulations to the
President with those of other citizens. I decided to go, and sought in
vain for some one of my own color to accompany me. It is never an
agreeable experience to go where there can be any doubt of
welcome, and my colored friends had too often realized discomfiture
from this cause to be willing to subject themselves to such
unhappiness; they wished me to go, as my New England colored
friends in the long ago liked very well to have me take passage on
the first-class cars, and be hauled out and pounded by rough-
handed brakemen, to make way for them. It was plain, then, that
some one must lead the way, and that if the colored man would have
his rights, he must take them; and now, though it was plainly quite
the thing for me to attend President Lincoln’s reception, “they all with
one accord began to make excuse.” It was finally arranged that Mrs.
Dorsey should bear me company, so together we joined in the grand
procession of citizens from all parts of the country, and moved slowly
towards the executive mansion. I had for some time looked upon
myself as a man, but now in this multitude of the élite of the land, I
felt myself a man among men. I regret to be obliged to say, however,
that this comfortable assurance was not of long duration, for on
reaching the door, two policemen stationed there took me rudely by
the arm and ordered me to stand back, for their directions were to
admit no persons of my color. The reader need not be told that this
was a disagreeable set-back. But once in the battle, I did not think it
well to submit to repulse. I told the officers I was quite sure there
must be some mistake, for no such order could have emanated from
President Lincoln; and if he knew I was at the door he would desire
my admission. They then, to put an end to the parley, as I suppose,
for we were obstructing the door way, and were not easily pushed
aside, assumed an air of politeness, and offered to conduct me in.
We followed their lead, and soon found ourselves walking some
planks out of a window, which had been arranged as a temporary
passage for the exit of visitors. We halted so soon as we saw the
trick, and I said to the officers: “You have deceived me. I shall not go
out of this building till I see President Lincoln.” At this moment a
gentleman who was passing in, recognized me, and I said to him:
“Be so kind as to say to Mr. Lincoln that Frederick Douglass is
detained by officers at the door.” It was not long before Mrs. Dorsey
and I walked into the spacious East Room, amid a scene of
elegance such as in this country I had never witnessed before. Like
a mountain pine high above all others, Mr. Lincoln stood, in his grand
simplicity, and home-like beauty. Recognizing me, even before I
reached him, he exclaimed, so that all around could hear him, “Here
comes my friend Douglass.” Taking me by the hand, he said, “I am
glad to see you. I saw you in the crowd to-day, listening to my
inaugural address; how did you like it?” I said, “Mr. Lincoln, I must
not detain you with my poor opinion, when there are thousands
waiting to shake hands with you.” “No, no,” he said, “you must stop a
little, Douglass; there is no man in the country whose opinion I value
more than yours. I want to know what you think of it?” I replied, “Mr.
Lincoln, that was a sacred effort.” “I am glad you liked it!” he said,
and I passed on, feeling that any man, however distinguished, might
well regard himself honored by such expressions, from such a man.
It came out that the officers at the White House had received no
orders from Mr. Lincoln, or from any one else. They were simply
complying with an old custom, the outgrowth of slavery, as dogs will
sometimes rub their necks, long after their collars are removed,
thinking they are still there. My colored friends were well pleased
with what had seemed to them a doubtful experiment, and I believe
were encouraged by its success to follow my example. I have found
in my experience that the way to break down an unreasonable
custom, is to contradict it in practice. To be sure in pursuing this
course I have had to contend not merely with the white race, but with
the black. The one has condemned me for my presumption in daring
to associate with them, and the other for pushing myself where they
take it for granted I am not wanted. I am pained to think that the
latter objection springs largely from a consciousness of inferiority, for
as colors alone can have nothing against each other, and the
conditions of human association are founded upon character rather
than color, and character depends upon mind and morals, there can
be nothing blame-worthy in people thus equal in meeting each other
on the plain of civil or social rights.
A series of important events followed soon after the second
inauguration of Mr. Lincoln, conspicuous amongst which was the fall
of Richmond. The strongest endeavor, and the best generalship of
the Rebellion was employed to hold that place, and when it fell the
pride, prestige, and power of the rebellion fell with it, never to rise
again. The news of this great event found me again in Boston. The
enthusiasm of that loyal City cannot be easily described. As usual
when anything touches the great heart of Boston, Faneuil Hall
became vocal and eloquent. This Hall is an immense building, and
its history is correspondingly great. It has been the theatre of much
patriotic declamation from the days of the “Revolution” and before;
as it has since my day been the scene, where the strongest efforts of
the most popular orators of Massachusetts have been made. Here
Webster the great “expounder” addressed the “sea of upturned
faces.” Here Choate, the wonderful Boston barrister, by his weird,
electric eloquence, enchained his thousands; here Everett charmed
with his classic periods the flower of Boston aristocracy; and here,
too, Charles Sumner, Horace Mann, John A. Andrew, and Wendell
Phillips, the last superior to most, and equal to any, have for forty
years spoken their great words for justice, liberty, and humanity,
sometimes in the calm and sunshine of unruffled peace, but oftener
in the tempest and whirlwind of mobocratic violence. It was here that
Mr. Phillips made his famous speech in denunciation of the murder
of Elijah P. Lovejoy in 1837, which changed the whole current of his
life and made him preëminently the leader of anti-slavery thought in
New England. Here too Theodore Parker, whose early death not only
Boston, but the lovers of liberty throughout the world, still mourn,
gave utterance to his deep and lifegiving thoughts in words of
fullness and power. But I set out to speak of the meeting which was
held there, in celebration of the fall of Richmond, for it was a meeting
as remarkable for its composition, as for its occasion. Among the
speakers by whom it was addressed, and who gave voice to the
patriotic sentiments which filled and overflowed each loyal heart,
were Hon. Henry Wilson, and Hon. Robert C. Winthrop. It would be
difficult to find two public men more distinctly opposite than these. If
any one may properly boast an aristocratic descent, or if there be
any value or worth in that boast, Robert C. Winthrop may without
undue presumption, avail himself of it. He was born in the midst of
wealth and luxury, and never felt the flint of hardship or the grip of
poverty. Just the opposite to this was the experience of Henry
Wilson. The son of common people, wealth and education had done
little for him; but he had in him a true heart, and a world of common
sense; and these with industry, good habits, and perseverance, had
carried him further and lifted him higher, than the brilliant man with
whom he formed such striking contrast. Winthrop, before the war,
like many others of his class, had resisted the anti-slavery current of
his state, had sided largely with the demands of the slave power, had
abandoned many of his old whig friends, when they went for free soil
and free men in 1848, and gone into the democratic party.
During the war he was too good to be a rebel sympathizer, and
not quite good enough to become as Wilson was—a power in the
union cause. Wilson had risen to eminence by his devotion to liberal
ideas, while Winthrop had sunken almost to obscurity from his
indifference to such ideas. But now either himself or his friends, most
likely the latter, thought that the time had come when some word
implying interest in the loyal cause should fall from his lips. It was not
so much the need of the union, as the need of himself, that he
should speak; the time when the union needed him, and all others,
was when the slaveholding rebellion raised its defiant head, not
when as now, that head was in the dust and ashes of defeat and
destruction. But the beloved Winthrop, the proud representative of
what Daniel Webster once called the “solid men of Boston,” had
great need to speak now. It had been no fault of the loyal cause that
he had not spoken sooner. Its “gates like those of Heaven stood
open night and day.” If he did not come in, it was his own fault.
Regiment after regiment, brigade after brigade, had passed over
Boston Common to endure the perils and hardships of war;
Governor Andrew had poured out his soul, and exhausted his
wonderful powers of speech in patriotic words to the brave departing
sons of old Massachusetts, and a word from Winthrop would have
gone far to nerve up those young soldiers going forth to lay down
their lives for the life of the republic; but no word came. [See Note on
page 413.] Yet now in the last quarter of the eleventh hour, when the
days’ work was nearly done, Robert C. Winthrop was seen standing
upon the same platform with the veteran Henry Wilson. He was there
in all his native grace and dignity, elegantly and aristocratically
clothed, his whole bearing marking his social sphere as widely
different from many present. Happy for his good name, and for those
who shall bear it when he is no longer among the living, that he was
found even at the last hour, in the right place—in old Faneuil Hall—
side by side with plain Henry Wilson—the shoemaker senator. But
this was not the only contrast on that platform on that day. It was my
strange fortune to follow Mr. Winthrop on this interesting occasion. I
remembered him as the guest of John H. Clifford of New Bedford,
afterwards Governor of Massachusetts, when twenty-five years
before, I had been only a few months from slavery—I was behind his
chair as waiter, and was even then charmed by his elegant
conversation—and now after this lapse of time, I found myself no
longer behind the chair of this princely man, but announced to
succeed him in the order of speakers, before that brilliant audience. I
was not insensible to the contrast in our history and positions, and
was curious to observe if it effected him, and how. To his credit I am
happy to say he bore himself grandly throughout. His speech was
fully up to the enthusiasm of the hour, and the great audience
greeted his utterances with merited applause. I need not speak of
the speeches of Henry Wilson and others, or of my own. The
meeting was every way a remarkable expression of popular feeling,
created by a great and important event.
After the fall of Richmond the collapse of the rebellion was not
long delayed, though it did not perish without adding to its long list of
atrocities one which sent a thrill of horror throughout the civilized
world, in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln; a man so amiable,
so kind, humane, and honest, that one is at a loss to know how he
could have had an enemy on earth. The details of his “taking off” are
too familiar to be more than mentioned here. The recently attempted
assassination of James Abraham Garfield has made us all too
painfully familiar with the shock and sensation produced by the hell-
black crime, to make any description necessary. The curious will
note that the Christian name of both men is the same, and that both
were remarkable for their kind qualities, and for having risen by their
own energies from among the people, and that both were victims of
assassins at the beginning of a presidential term.
Mr. Lincoln had reason to look forward to a peaceful and happy
term of office. To all appearance, we were on the eve of a restoration
of the union, and a solid and lasting peace. He had served one term
as President of the Disunited States, he was now for the first time to
be President of the United States. Heavy had been his burden, hard
had been his toil, bitter had been his trials, and terrible had been his
anxiety; but the future seemed now bright and full of hope. Richmond
had fallen, Grant had General Lee and the army of Virginia firmly in
his clutch; Sherman had fought and found his way from the banks of
the great river to the shores of the sea, leaving the two ends of the
rebellion squirming and twisting in agony, like the severed parts of a
serpent, doomed to inevitable death; and now there was but a little
time longer for the good President to bear his burden, and be the
target of reproach. His accusers, in whose opinion he was always
too fast or too slow, too weak or too strong, too conciliatory or too
aggressive, would soon become his admirers; it was soon to be seen
that he had conducted the affairs of the nation with singular wisdom,
and with absolute fidelity to the great trust confided in him. A country,
redeemed and regenerated from the foulest crime against human
nature that ever saw the sun! What a bright vision of peace,
prosperity, and happiness must have come to that tired and over-
worked brain, and weary spirit. Men used to talk of his jokes, and he
no doubt indulged them, but I seemed never to have the faculty of
calling them to the surface. I saw him oftener than many who have
reported him, but I never saw any levity in him. He always impressed
me as a strong, earnest man, having no time or disposition to trifle;
grappling with all his might the work he had in hand. The expression
of his face was a blending of suffering with patience and fortitude.
Men called him homely, and homely he was; but it was manifestly a
human homeliness, for there was nothing of the tiger or other wild
animal about him. His eyes had in them the tenderness of
motherhood, and his mouth and other features the highest perfection
of a genuine manhood. His picture, now before me in my study, by
Marshall, corresponds well with the impression I have of him. But,
alas! what are all good and great qualities; what are human hopes
and human happiness to the revengeful hand of an assassin? What
are sweet dreams of peace; what are visions of the future? A simple
leaden bullet, and a few grains of powder, in the shortest limit of
time, are sufficient to blast and ruin all that is precious in human
existence, not alone of the murdered, but of the murderer. I write this
in the deep gloom flung over my spirit by the cruel, wanton, and cold-
blooded attempted assassination of Abraham Garfield, as well as
that of Abraham Lincoln.
I was in Rochester, N. Y., where I then resided, when news of the
death of Mr. Lincoln was received. Our citizens, not knowing what
else to do in the agony of the hour, betook themselves to the City
Hall. Though all hearts ached for utterance, few felt like speaking.
We were stunned and overwhelmed by a crime and calamity hitherto
unknown to our country and our government. The hour was hardly
one for speech, for no speech could rise to the level of feeling.
Doctor Robinson, then of Rochester University, but now of Brown
University, Providence, R. I., was prevailed upon to take the stand,
and made one of the most touching and eloquent speeches I ever
heard. At the close of his address, I was called upon, and spoke out
of the fullness of my heart, and, happily, I gave expression to so
much of the soul of the people present, that my voice was several
times utterly silenced by the sympathetic tumult of the great
audience. I had resided long in Rochester, and had made many
speeches there which had more or less touched the hearts of my
hearers, but never till this day was I brought into such close accord
with them. We shared in common a terrible calamity, and this “touch
D
of nature, made us,” more than countrymen, it made us “kin.”
 D
I sincerely regret that I have done Mr.
Winthrop great injustice. This Faneuil Hall
speech of his was not the first manifestation of
his zealous interest in the loyal cause during the
late war. While it is quite true that Mr. Winthrop
was strongly against the anti-slavery movement
at the North, his addresses and speeches
delivered during the war, as they have come to
my knowledge since writing the foregoing
chapter, prove him to have been among the most
earnest in his support of the National
Government in its efforts to suppress the
rebellion and to restore the Union.
Frederick Douglas.
 CHAPTER XIII.
VAST CHANGES.

Satisfaction and anxiety—New fields of labor opening—Lyceums and

colleges soliciting addresses—Literary attractions—Pecuniary gain—Still
pleading for human rights—President Andy Johnson—Colored delegation
—Their reply to him—National Loyalist Convention, 1866, and its
procession—Not wanted—Meeting with an old friend—Joy and surprise—
The old master’s welcome, and Miss Amanda’s friendship—
Enfranchisement discussed—its accomplishment—The negro a citizen.

WHEN the war for the union was substantially ended, and peace had
dawned upon the land as was the case almost immediately after the
tragic death of President Lincoln; when the gigantic system of
American slavery which had defied the march of time, resisted all the
appeals and arguments of the abolitionists, and the humane
testimonies of good men of every generation during two hundred and
fifty years, was finally abolished and forever prohibited by the
organic law of the land; a strange and, perhaps, perverse feeling
came over me. My great and exceeding joy over these stupendous
achievements, especially over the abolition of slavery (which had
been the deepest desire and the great labor of my life), was slightly
tinged with a feeling of sadness.
I felt I had reached the end of the noblest and best part of my
life; my school was broken up, my church disbanded, and the
beloved congregation dispersed, never to come together again. The
anti-slavery platform had performed its work, and my voice was no
longer needed. “Othello’s occupation was gone.” The great
happiness of meeting with my fellow-workers was now to be among
the things of memory. Then, too, some thought of my personal future
came in. Like Daniel Webster, when asked by his friends to leave
John Tyler’s Cabinet, I naturally inquired: “Where shall I go?” I was
still in the midst of my years, and had something of life before me,
and as the minister urged by my old friend George Bradburn to
preach anti-slavery, when to do so was unpopular, said, “It is
necessary for ministers to live,” I felt it was necessary for me to live,
and to live honestly. But where should I go, and what should I do? I
could not now take hold of life as I did when I first landed in New
Bedford, twenty-five years before: I could not go to the wharf of
either Gideon or George Howland, to Richmond’s brass foundry, or
Richetson’s candle and oil works, load and unload vessels, or even
ask Governor Clifford for a place as a servant. Rolling oil casks and
shoveling coal were all well enough when I was younger,
immediately after getting out of slavery. Doing this was a step up,
rather than a step down; but all these avocations had had their day
for me, and I had had my day for them. My public life and labors had
unfitted me for the pursuits of my earlier years, and yet had not
prepared me for more congenial and higher employment. Outside
the question of slavery my thoughts had not been much directed,
and I could hardly hope to make myself useful in any other cause
than that to which I had given the best twenty-five years of my life. A
man in the situation I found myself, has not only to divest himself of
the old, which is never easily done, but to adjust himself to the new,
which is still more difficult. Delivering lectures under various names,
John B. Gough says, “whatever may be the title, my lecture is always
on Temperance;” and such is apt to be the case with any man who
has devoted his time and thoughts to one subject for any
considerable length of time. But what should I do, was the question?
I had a few thousand dollars (a great convenience, and one not
generally so highly prized by my people as it ought to be) saved from
the sale of “my bondage and my freedom,” and the proceeds of my
lectures at home and abroad, and with this sum I thought of following
the noble example of my old friends Stephen and Abby Kelley
Foster, purchase a little farm and settle myself down to earn an
honest living by tilling the soil. My children were all grown up, and
ought to be able to take care of themselves. This question, however,
was soon decided for me. I had after all acquired (a very unusual
thing) a little more knowledge and aptitude fitting me for the new