1504 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 53, NO.
5, OCTOBER 2006
Interfacing Renewable Energy Sources to the
Utility Grid Using a Three-Level Inverter
Salvador Alepuz, Member, IEEE, Sergio Busquets-Monge, Student Member, IEEE, Josep Bordonau, Member, IEEE,
Javier Gago, David González, Member, IEEE, and Josep Balcells, Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper presents a novel approach for the con-
nection of renewable energy sources to the utility grid. Due
to the increasing power capability of the available generation
systems, a three-level three-phase neutral-point-clamped voltage-
source inverter is selected as the heart of the interfacing system.
A multivariable control law is used for the regulator because
of the intrinsic multivariable structure of the system. A current
source (playing the role of a generic renewable energy source)
is connected to the grid using a three-level inverter in order to
verify the good performance of the proposed approach. Large-
and small-signal d–q state-space averaged models of the system
are obtained and used to calculate the multivariable controller
based on the linear quadratic regulator technique. This controller
simultaneously regulates the dc-link voltage (to operate at the
maximum power point of the renewable energy source), the mains
power factor (the power is delivered to the grid at unity power
factor), and the dc-link neutral-point voltage balance. With the
model and regulator presented, a specific switching strategy to
control the dc-link neutral-point voltage is not required. The
proposed controller can be used for any application, since its
nature makes possible the control of any system variable. The
good performance of the presented interfacing solution in both
steady-state and transient operation is verified through simula-
tion and experimentation using a 1-kW neutral-point-clamped
voltage-source-inverter prototype, where a PC-embedded digital
signal processor board is used for the controller implementation.
Index Terms—Distributed power generation, grid interface,
multilevel conversion, multivariable control, photovoltaic power
system, three-level inverter, wind power system.
I. I NTRODUCTION
I N RECENT years, there has been an increasing interest
in renewable-energy sources such as wind power systems
or photovoltaic power systems (for grid-connected systems
[1]–[5] or stand-alone systems). In parallel, the progress in
technology has led to more powerful systems. Wind generator
prototypes have reached 4.5 MW in a single turbine [6], and
photovoltaic power systems of 1 MW (peak) and more are
becoming popular.
The best solution to increase the power in power systems
is to step up the voltage in order to limit currents and reduce
Manuscript received March 30, 2005; revised June 20, 2005. Abstract publ-
ished on the Internet July 14, 2006. Parts of this paper were presented at IEEE
IECON’02 Seville, Spain, November 5–8, 2002, EPE-PEMC’02, Cavtat and
Dubrovnik, Croatia, September 9–11, 2002, and IEEE PESC’03, Acapulco,
Mexico, June 15–19, 2003. This work was supported by the Ministerio de
Ciencia y Tecnología, Madrid, Spain under Grants DPI2000-0006-P4-02 and
TIC2002-03036.
The authors are with the Department of Electronic Engineering, Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya, 08028 Barcelona, Spain (e-mail: Sergio.Busquets@
upc.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2006.882021
0278-0046/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
losses. Hence, the trend is to migrate from low-voltage to
medium-voltage power systems, working with increased rated-
voltage wind generators and series connection of solar panels
in photovoltaic power systems.
Multilevel converters, and specifically three-level converters,
are a good tradeoff solution between performance and cost in
high-voltage and high-power systems. The main advantages
of three-level inverters are reduced voltage ratings for the
switches, good harmonic spectrum (making possible the use of
smaller and less expensive filters), and good dynamic response
[7]. However, the control complexity increases compared to
conventional voltage-source inverters (VSI). The topology em-
ployed in this paper is the three-level three-phase neutral-
point-clamped (NPC) inverter [8]. In this topology, the dc-link
neutral-point voltage needs to be regulated. Otherwise, higher
device voltage stress and output voltage distortion will occur.
The objective of this paper is to verify the good performance
of the three-level inverter as an interface between a generic re-
newable energy source (wind or photovoltaic power source) and
the utility grid using a multivariable linear quadratic regulator
(LQR) controller for the system regulation.
A summary of our previous work with this converter and
controller follows. In [9], a procedure to model three-level con-
verters is proposed, and the model obtained with this procedure
is analyzed. In [10] and [11], a multivariable LQR regulator for
the comprehensive control of the three-level inverter with an
LC filter and resistive load is proposed. This control approach
is also applied in [12] to simulate a photovoltaic power system
connected to the utility grid using a three-level inverter. Finally,
the dissertation in [13] shows that the proposed model and
control approach for the three-level converter can be used for
any application, since the multivariable structure allows the
control of any variable.
Other models and control approaches have been presented
for the three-level converter. The model in [14] lacks a global
description of the dc-link side and the ac-side dynamics. The
controller is designed using the small-signal model. The model
in [15] is based on line-to-line switching functions. Information
about the ac neutral-point voltage and dc-link neutral-point
voltage is not included within the model. This information can
be useful to determine ac-side common-mode voltages that
cause motor-bearing currents [16]. Controllers are designed
using the d–q transformation, and the dc-link unbalance is
compensated by means of the switching strategy [17], [18].
Some applications can be found in literature considering the
connection of a three-level converter to the grid; for instance, in
static VAr compensation (SVC) applications [14] or as part of a
ALEPUZ et al.: INTERFACING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES TO THE UTILITY GRID 1505

Fig. 1. Block diagram of a renewable power system for direct connection to

the ac mains.

superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system [15].

A discussion about the application of multilevel converters to
wind power systems can be found in [19]. A photovoltaic power
source is connected to the grid in [20] and [21] using cascaded
full-bridge topologies.
In this paper, a multivariable state-space model [22] for the
complete system (dc link + three-level VSI + ac filter + grid)
is obtained using line switching functions and the d–q transfor-
mation. This model describes the open-loop dynamic behavior
of the complete system. The steady-state solution and the small-
signal model are found from this model, which incorporates Fig. 2. Generic renewable energy source connected to the grid using a three-
all the state variables, ac currents, and dc-link voltages. In this level VSI. (a) Circuit diagram with NPC topology. (b) Equivalent switching
approach, emphasis is put onto the multivariable structure of the model.
system. The regulator can be implemented using any linear or
nonlinear multivariable control law. Hence, this approach does
not use the switching strategy for dc-link regulation. by the inverter. The power management block controls the dc
An optimal linear-adaptive regulator has been chosen for the voltage to maximize the power extracted from the renewable
controller using the LQR control technique [23]. Integral action energy source. For instance, in photovoltaic systems, it is well
has been incorporated within the LQR regulator in order to known that the dc voltage seen by the solar cells is controlled
complement the proportional action of this type of controller using maximum-power-point-tracking (MPPT) algorithms.
[24]. The proposed regulator allows controlling any converter
state variable in small- and large-signal operation. It will be ap-
plied to control the relevant variables related to any renewable B. System Model
energy source connected to the grid using a three-level inverter:
The inverter in Fig. 1 is the key element in the system, since
dc-link voltage, dc-link neutral-point voltage balance, and
this block controls the operating dc voltage at the renewable
ac-mains power factor.
energy source and defines how the energy is delivered to the ac
This paper is organized as follows. Section II describes the
mains. Fig. 2 presents the circuit diagram for the connection of a
system, as well as the proposed state-space model for the sys-
generic renewable energy source to the ac mains. The renewable
tem. Section III describes the calculation of the LQR controller.
energy source and additional components are represented as
Section IV describes the system implementation. Section V
a current source connected to the dc side of the inverter. The
presents the simulation and experimental results, and this paper
inverter is connected to the ac mains through an inductive
is concluded in Section VI.
filter. Inductors in Fig. 2 represent the inductance from both
the output filter and the distribution line. Finally, the network
II. S YSTEM D ESCRIPTION AND M ODELING is assumed to be a voltage source (power sink in this case) per
phase. Line switching functions have been used instead of line-
A. System Block Diagram
to-line switching functions for the switching model in Fig. 2(b).
Fig. 1 represents a block diagram of a renewable energy- A general model for the three-level converter is presented
management system. The renewable energy source (solar cells in [9] and [25]. This model describes the general dynamics of
or wind generator) is directly connected to the ac mains. The the dc-side and the ac-side including the dynamics of dc-link
power flow is always from the renewable source to the ac mains, neutral-point (o) voltage and the ac neutral-point (N) voltage.
and no batteries are required. Hence, the inverter is operating in This model is adapted to the application studied here. The mod-
one quadrant. The control of the dc voltage seen by the renew- eling procedure described in [9], [25], and [26] is applied to the
able energy source and the ac mains power factor is performed system in Fig. 2, yielding the large-signal nonlinear averaged
1506 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 53, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2006

state-space model given in (1). There are four independent state
variables in (1):
1) the dc-link voltage (νpn = νp − νn ) and the dc-link volt-
age balance (νo = νp + νn );
2) two line currents (inductor currents) in the d–q domain
(iyd , iyq ). These state variables are the transformed com-
ponents of the abc-frame inductor currents (ia , ib , ic ).
Zero components of ac voltages (νy0 ) and line currents
(iy0 ) are zero, since symmetric abc voltages and balanced
ac operation are considered.
This state-space model is valid for large-signal operation, and
it is nonlinear since the control variables are found inside the
state matrix. From the large signal model in (1), assuming a
symmetric modulation pattern, balanced dc-link voltages and
an ac-mains unity power factor, the steady-state expressions in
(2) can be obtained from (1), forcing time derivatives to zero
and substituting all variables by the steady-state values
Vyd wr · L · Idc · Vyq
Dpd = Dnd = − 2 +V2
Vpn Vyd yq

The control variables (dpd , dpq , dnd , dnq ) are the trans- Vyq wr · L · Idc · Vyd
formed (into d–q domain) components of the duty ratios Dpq = Dnq = + 2 +V2
Vpn Vyd yq
(dap , dan , dbp , dbn , dcp , dcn ) of the line switching functions
(Sap , San , Sbp , Sbn , Scp , Scn ) shown in Fig. 2(b). The zero Vpn · Idc · Vyd
Iyd = 2 +V2
components of the duty ratios (dp0 , dn0 ) do not appear in (1) Vyd yq
because they are multiplied by the zero component of the ac
Vpn · Idc · Vyq
current (iy0 = 0, isolated ac neutral point). Iyq = 2 +V2
Vyd
The input variables are the d–q components (νyd , νyq ) of yq

the phase-to-neutral ac mains voltages (νa
N , νb
N , νc
N ) and V0 = 0. (2)

the current idc . The model assumes a relatively high switching
frequency, and no losses are considered The linearization of the large-signal model (1) around an
 dpd −dnd dpd +dnd  
  0 ωr  operating point results in the small-signal model in (3), shown
iyd 2·L 2·L iyd

d  iyq   −ωr dpq −dnq dpq +dnq  at the bottom of the page. Three additional state variables have
0   iyq 
 = −dpd +dnd −dpq +dnq 2·L 2·L
·  been included (I îyq , I ν̂pn , I ν̂0 ) in order to introduce an integral
dt pn 
ν 0 0  νpn
C
−dpd −dnd −dpq −dnq
C control of the state variables îyq , ν̂pn , ν̂0 , as detailed in [11].
ν0 0 0 ν0
C C
   
− L1 0 0 III. I NVERTER C ONTROL U SING THE LQR T ECHNIQUE
νyd
 0 − L1 0 
+ 2 · νyq  (1) The LQR technique determines a matrix [K] so that the
0 0 C idc cost function in (4) is minimized for a linear system whose
0 0 0
dynamics is defined by d/dt[x] = [A] · [x] + [B] · [u] by means
where of applying a control law [u] = −[K] · [x]. The cost function
νpn = νp − ν n ; in (4) specifies the cost of deviations in the state variables, as
ν0 = νp + ν n ; well as the cost of the control effort. This function can therefore
νyd , νyq as d–q components of νa
N , νb
N , νc
N ; potentially take into consideration the relative cost of the dif-
iyd , iyq as d–q components of ia , ib , ic ; ferent components in the system. For example, additional volt-
dpd , dpq as d–q components of dap , dbp , dcp ; age filtering requires more capacitance, and additional current
dnd , dnq as d–q components of dan , dbn , dcn . filtering requires more inductance. According to the relative

   Dpd −Dnd Dpd +Dnd   

îyd 0 ωr 2·L 2·L 0 0 0 îyd
 îyq   Dpq −Dnq Dpq +Dnq  
0   îyq 
   −ωr 0 2·L 2·L 0 0 
 ν̂pn   −Dpd +Dnd −Dpq +Dnq  
ν̂pn 
d    0 0 0 0 0  
 ν̂0  =  C
 −Dpd −Dnd
C
·  ν̂0 
0
−Dpq −Dnq

dt    0 0 0 0   
 C C  I îyq 
 I îyq   0 1 0 0 0 0 0  
 I ν̂pn  
  I ν̂pn 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
I ν̂0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 I ν̂0
 Vpn +V0 V0 −Vpn 
0 0  1 
2·L 2·L −L 0 0
 Vpn +V0 V0 −Vpn 
ˆ   0
 0 0 2·L 2·L  − L1 0  
  dpd  2 
 − ICyd Iyd I
− Cyq
Iyq
 ˆ   0 0 C 
ν̂yd
 C C   d   
+  − Iyd I I
− Cyq 
I · nd
+ 0 0 0  ·  ν̂yq  (3)
 − Cyd − Cyq   dˆpq   
 0C 0 0 0   0 0 0 îdc

 0

 dˆnq 
0 0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ALEPUZ et al.: INTERFACING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES TO THE UTILITY GRID 1507

cost of capacitances and inductances, the weight of the voltage Weight Wd allows guaranteeing that the control variables
deviation and the current deviation can be adjusted. remain within their natural range (duty ratios in abc coordi-
∞ nates — dap , . . . , dcn — must be within 0 and 1).
 The control of the dc-link voltage is assured by the pro-
J= [x]T · [Q] · [x] + [u]T · [R] · [u] · dt. (4)
portional and integral action introduced by weights Wνpn and
0 WIνpn . Similarly, the control of the dc-link neutral-point volt-
The linear small-signal model in (3) is used to calculate the age balance is assured by weights Wνo and WIνo .
controller. The system is controllable [23], [27]–[29], and the To achieve unity power factor, the vector in d–q coordi-
observability does not need to be checked because complete nates related to the line currents, iy = (iyd , iyq ), must be in
state feedback is available. phase with the vector related to the phase-to-neutral ac mains
The LQR controller is calculated using the linear small- voltages, vy = (νyd , νyq ). This is expressed in the following
signal model. However, this regulator is effective for the control equation:
of the large-signal system due to the robustness of the LQR iyd νyd
technique [23]. = . (6)
iyq νyq
In our previous papers [10], [11], [25], [26], the inverter was
connected to a stiff voltage in the dc side, with an LC low pass To guarantee unity power factor, a proportional action to
filter and a resistive load on the ac side. The controlled variables both “d” and “q” components of the current perturbation is
were the dc-link neutral-point voltage balance and the load considered by means of weights Wiyd and Wiyq . It is intuitive
voltage. Here, a different set of variables will be controlled. to set these coefficients to the same value. However, an integral
action cannot be added to both components because the steady-
1) DC-link voltage (νpn ): The operating voltage of the
state values of the current in (2), with respect to which the
renewable energy source has to be controlled in order to
perturbations (small-signal model) are computed, have been
deliver the maximum power to the grid.
calculated assuming no losses. Therefore, the actual current
2) DC-link neutral-point voltage balance (νo ): In the NPC
vector is not expected to match exactly the vector calculated in
topology, it has to be guaranteed that all devices operate
(2). If we tried to force this equality, an instability would occur.
under the same stress, blocking half the dc-link voltage.
Instead, we will proceed as follows.
3) Mains power factor: The goal is to transfer the energy
First, axis “d” is chosen to be in phase with a virtual set
generated at the renewable energy source to the ac mains
of three-phase mains’ voltages, symmetric and balanced with
in the most efficient manner (unity power factor).
respect to phase “a.” This is done by sensing phase “a” of the
The cost function presented in (4) is defined with the expres- mains voltage and detecting the zero crossing. In the particular
sions in (5) case where the actual mains voltages are symmetric and bal-
anced, axis “d” and vector vy will be in phase (then νyq = 0).
Second, an integral action is introduced to iyq by means of
[x̂]T = [ îyd îyq ν̂pn ν̂0 I îyq I ν̂pn I ν̂0 ] WIiyq . This will ensure that the “q” component of the line
currents matches the calculated value. When a set of symmetric
[û]T = [ dˆpd dˆnd dˆpq dˆnq ]
and balanced mains voltages is considered, the value of iyq
 
Wiyd 0 0 0 0 0 0 should be zero, no matter whether we consider losses or not.
 0 Wiyq 0 0 0 0 0  If the voltages are slightly unsymmetrical and/or unbalanced,
 
 0 0 Wνpn 0 0 0 0  the value of iyq will be close to zero.
 
[Q] =  0 0 0 Wν0 0 0 0  The use of the cost function in (4) provides a tradeoff result
 
 0 0 0 0 WIiyq 0 0  for the control of all the selected variables, defining the trajec-
 
0 0 0 0 0 WIνpn 0 tory of the state variables accordingly. With this procedure, the
0 0 0 0 0 0 WIν0 LQR algorithm gives a control matrix [K], which can be seen
  as two different matrices: [KP ] proportional matrix, and [KI]
Wd 0 0 0
integral matrix (integral action).
 0 Wd 0 0 
[R] =  . (5) Different values for the controller weights have been tested
0 0 Wd 0
through simulation using MatLab and Simulink. The set of
0 0 0 Wd
values found to guarantee a fast response and zero steady-state
error are
These expressions are used for the LQR controller calcu-
lation performed using a built-in MatLab function. The LQR Wiyd = Wiyq = 1, Wνpn = Wν0 = 0.01,
control law provides essentially a multivariable proportional
regulator. The integral action that allows canceling steady-state WIiyq = 30 000, WIνpn = WIν0 = 30, and
errors has been included in the controller by adding three new Wd = 100.
state variables to the small-signal model in (3). These new
variables are the integral of the state variables îyq , ν̂pn , and ν̂0 . As described above, the LQR controller is calculated using
A weight for each variable is considered (Wiyd , Wiyq , Wνpn , the small signal model for a steady-state operating point. In this
Wνo , WIiyq , WIνpn , WIνo , Wd ). particular application, the operating point can be defined by the
1508
Fig. 3. Block diagram for the closed-loop configuration of the system.
values of dc-link voltage and current. Large-signal operation
control is achieved by using this small-signal calculated LQR
controller to the whole range of operation (taking advantage of
the LQR robustness).
IV. S YSTEM I MPLEMENTATION
The scheme in Fig. 3 is used for simulation and experimental
testing purposes.
The three-level NPC VSI prototype has been implemented
using IGBTs, and the ratings are 200 Vdc and 5 Adc. The pas-
sive component values have been chosen to be C = 100 µF and
L = 5 mH. The renewable energy source electrical behavior
has been emulated using a dc power supply configured as a
dc current source. The ac mains has been connected through
an isolation transformer and an autotransformer in order to
regulate the ac mains voltage value.
The feedback block is implemented using Hall effect sen-
sors (LEM LA25 and LEM LV25). Since only four analog
inputs to the PC-embedded digital signal processor (DSP) board
(dSPACE1102) are available, and nine different variables have
to be sensed, these variables had to be multiplexed. Each
variable is sampled for 400 µs out of every 1.6 ms. The last
sampled value is held for the following 1.2 ms until the next
sampling period begins.
The abc-to-dq transformation, controller, dq-to-abc transfor-
mation, and pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) modulator blocks
are performed by the DSP board. The transformations are syn-
chronized by detecting the zero crossing of voltage νa
N . The
controller uses the sensed νyd , νyq , and idc , the Vpn command,
and (2) to calculate the steady-state value of all duty ratios and
state variables. The perturbations of the state variables are then
computed as the difference between the sensed and the steady-
state values. The LQR-integral controller matrix [K] is then
multiplied by the vector of state-variable perturbations (and
selected integrals of these values) to obtain the deviations of the
duty ratios to be applied to the initially calculated steady-state
values. The zero component duty ratios (dp0 , dn0 ) are required
to generate the duty ratios in abc coordinates (dap , . . . , dcn ).
dp0 and dn0 do not appear in the state-space model (1)–(3), and
hence, they are not determined in the previous computational
process. Then, the values of dp0 and dn0 can be selected
arbitrarily within a margin (duty ratios in abc coordinates must
be between 0 and 1). This degree of freedom to select the
values of dp0 and dn0 can be useful to control other additional
variables; for instance, the voltage between the ac neutral-point
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 53, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2006
and the dc-link neutral-point (vNo ) or the common-mode load
voltage in ac-drive applications. In this paper, dp0 and dq0 have
been set to the same constant value (0.8).
The required time by the DSP to acquire the input sig-
nals, process the abc-to-dq transformation, controller, dq-to-abc
transformation to generate the new set of duty ratios in abc
coordinates, and deliver these duty ratios is 400 µs. The com-
putational effort with the proposed control scheme is around
40 µs, and the rest is used by dSPACE1102 to acquire input
signals and to deliver output signals.
Sinusoidal duty ratios (dap , . . . , dcn ) exiting the d–q trans-
formation block are the inputs of the PWM modulator block,
which outputs the line switching functions (Sap , . . . , Scn ).
Classical carrier-based PWM modulation has been selected for
the switching strategy. The switching frequency has been set to
9 kHz. This block is implemented using the DSP built-in PWM
timers, which run at the switching frequency, regardless of the
control-system sampling time. A distributor block generates
then the control signals for the switches (S1 , . . . , S66 ) from the
switching functions (Sap , . . . , Scn ). This block is implemented
using a logical gate structure and a delay system to introduce
the blanking time.
V. S IMULATION AND E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
In the following, a set of simulations and experimental results
will be presented to evaluate the goodness of the proposed
control approach.
Fig. 4 shows the simulated and experimental phase-to-neutral
voltage (νa
N ) and current (ia ) waveforms for phase “a” in
steady-state operation. It can be noted that the fundamental
component of voltage and current are in phase. In Fig. 4(b),
the displacement power factor is cos(ϕ) = 1. The measured
total harmonic distortion of the current is THD = 8.19%. The
resulting power factor is PF = 0.994. The control approach
presented is therefore guaranteeing a good displacement factor
and a low-current distortion. A discussion about the current
distortion value is included at the end of Section V.
A change in the operating point of the system has been tested.
Figs. 5–7 show the evolution of several variables during a step
transient in the voltage command νpn from 100 to 80 V. The
step in the voltage command occurs at time = 20 ms. In Fig. 5,
during the first 20 ms (initial steady state), both νp and νn are
balanced, having a voltage of around 50 V each. During the
transient, both dc-link voltages remain fairly balanced because
of the controller action. The time required to reach the final
ALEPUZ et al.: INTERFACING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES TO THE UTILITY GRID 1509

Fig. 5. DC-link voltages (νp , νn ) during a step transient in νpn (νpn =

100 V → 80 V, idc = 0.5 A).

Fig. 4. Phase-to-neutral voltage (νa
N ) and current (ia ) for phase “a”
(νpn = 100 V, idc = 2 A). (a) Simulation. (b) Experimental results. Fig. 6. Three-phase currents (ia , ib , ic ) during a step transient in νpn (νpn =
100 V → 80 V, idc = 0.5A).

steady state is long (more than 100 ms), which is due to the
significant output capacitance of the dc power supply employed
to emulate the renewable energy source. A shorter settling time
can be achieved if the controller is designed to admit larger ac
currents. However, ac currents should be limited according to
the semiconductor devices’ ratings and filter inductor satura-
tion. Hence, there is a tradeoff between the speed of the system
response and the maximum ac current values.
Fig. 6 presents the evolution of the three-phase currents.
Initially, the currents (and therefore the output power)
significantly increase to discharge the dc-link capacitors from
νpn = 100 to 80 V. As νpn attains the steady-state value, the
currents decrease to their steady-state value. As mentioned
above, for a given step in the voltage command νpn , if a faster
response is desired, higher current values will result.
Fig. 7 shows the phase-to-neutral voltage and current for
phase “a.” It can be observed that both variables are fairly in Fig. 7. Phase-to-neutral voltage (νa
N ) and current (ia ) for phase “a” during
phase during all the step transient. a step transient in νpn (νpn = 100 V → 80 V, idc = 0.5 A).
1510
Fig. 8. Inverter efficiency versus input power.
Fig. 9. Unbalanced three-phase phase-to-neutral ac mains voltages.
Fig. 8 presents the inverter efficiency at different input power
levels calculated as Pout /Pin [refer to Fig. 2(a)]. The efficiency
in all measurements was above 90%.
In order to verify the robustness of the proposed controller,
a slightly unbalanced ac mains voltages (see Fig. 9), created
by means of the autotransformer, have been applied in all
experiments. Results already shown in Figs. 4–7 confirm the
good operation of the controller, even under unbalanced ac
mains voltages.
A more detailed analysis of the ac current distortion shows
that part of this distortion is due to the relatively long time
required by the DSP used in the experiments to generate
the new set of duty ratios (400 µs) and due to the long time
the sensed variables’ values are held (1.2 ms). This has been
verified through simulation. The total harmonic distortion of the
simulated current waveform (ia ) in Fig. 4(a) is THD = 8.87%,
which is reasonably close to the experimental result. If the
simulation is performed reducing the DSP computational time
from 400 to 200 µs, the resulting current distortion is then
reduced to THD = 6.87%.
On the other hand, part of the current distortion is due to the
unbalance in the set of three-phase mains voltages. Assuming
a DSP computational time of 200 µs and balanced ac mains
voltages, the simulation results present an additional reduction
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 53, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2006
in the current distortion from the mentioned above THD =
6.87% (unbalanced mains) to THD = 3.31% (balanced mains).
Moreover, the THD value decreases as the power
delivered to the utility grid increases: A THD = 3.39%
was obtained assuming a DSP computational time of 200 µs,
unbalanced mains voltages, and an output power of 500 W; a
THD = 0.93% was obtained for the same previous conditions
but balanced voltages.
VI. C ONCLUSION
An interfacing system for the connection of renewable en-
ergy sources to the utility grid by means of a three-level NPC
VSI has been presented. The controller of the system is based
on the multivariable LQR control technique. For the controller
calculation, a comprehensive model for the system is developed
using line switching functions. The good performance of the
system in both steady state and transient operation has been
verified through simulation and experimentation using a 1-kW
prototype. The proposed controller for the inverter has proven
to guarantee a nearly unity mains power factor, a tight regu-
lation of the dc-link voltage, and dc-link neutral-point voltage
balance, even with unbalanced ac mains voltages. Additionally,
a good agreement has been found between the simulations and
the experimental results, verifying that the developed model
properly describes the system performance.
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Salvador Alepuz (M’03) was born in Barcelona,
Spain, in 1967. He received the M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degrees in electrical and electronic engineering from
the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC),
Barcelona, Spain, in 1993 and 2004, respectively.
Since 1994, he has been an Associate Professor
with the Mataró School of Engineering, Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona. His main re-
search interests include modulation and control of
multilevel converters.
Sergio Busquets-Monge (S’99–M’01–S’04) was
born in Barcelona, Spain. He received the degree in
electrical engineering from the Universitat Politèc-
nica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in 1999, and the
M.S. degree in electrical engineering from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacks-
burg, VA, in 2001. He is currently working toward
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering at the
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya.
From 2001 to 2002, he was with Crown Interna-
tional, Inc. He is currently an Assistant Professor
with the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. His research interests include
multilevel conversion, power-converter modeling, control and automated de-
sign, power-factor correction, and EMI suppression techniques.
1511
Josep Bordonau (S’87–M’89) was born in Sitges,
Spain. He received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical engineering (with honors) from the Univer-
sitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in
1984 and 1990, respectively.
He has been Lecturer and Assistant Professor with
the Department of Electronic Engineering, Universi-
tat Politècnica de Catalunya, where he has been an
Associate Professor since 1991. He has been active
in more than 25 research projects with international
companies and institutions. He has authored more
than 50 journal and conference papers and is the holder of a European patent.
His fields of interest are multilevel conversion and ac power conversion applied
to renewable energy systems and energy-management systems.
Javier Gago was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1965.
He received the Master of Engineering and Doc-
toral degrees from the Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in 1991 and 2003,
respectively.
Since 1993, he has been an Assistant Profes-
sor with the Department of Electronic Engineering,
Barcelona. His research interests are electromagnetic
compatibility, HF modeling of analog and digital
ICs, printed circuit boards (PCBs), modeling, and
instrumentation.
David González (M’96) was born in Barcelona,
Spain, in 1968. He received the Master of Engi-
neering and Doctoral degrees from the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in 1993
and 2001, respectively.
Since 1995, he has been an Assistant Profes-
sor in the Department of Electronic Engineering,
Barcelona. His research interests are electromagnetic
compatibility in industrial electronics, HF modeling
of switched converters, and power conversion and
power quality.
Josep Balcells (M’95) was born in Vila-Rodona,
Spain, in 1949. He received the Master of Engi-
neering and the Ph.D. degrees from the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain,
in 1975 and 1983, respectively.
From 1975 to 1986, he was an Associate Profes-
sor. From 1978 to 1986, he was the Head of R&D in
Power Electronics with AGUT SA (now a GE Group
Company). Since 1986, he has been Professor of
Electronics Engineering Department at UPC. He has
led several research projects funded by the Spanish
Ministry of Ciencia y Tecnologia and also by the European Union in the
V Frame Program. His research interests are electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) in power systems, measurement and filtering of disturbances produced
by power converters, and design of EMC-compliant power converters.
Dr. Balcells has been serving as an Associate Editor of the IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS since 2003.