Chapter One

1. Introduction to Sport Nutrition

1.1 Definition of Basic Terms
Nutrition: is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in
relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food
intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.
Food: is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or
animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or
minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide
energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Diet: is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet often implies the use
of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons (with the two often being
related). Although humans are omnivores, each culture and each person holds some food preferences
or some food taboos. This may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons. Individual dietary choices
may be more or less healthy. Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in the quality of life,
health and longevity.
Balanced diet: A diet that contains the proper proportions of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, and water necessary to maintain good health.
Meal: A meal is an eating occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes specific, prepared
food, or the food eaten on that occasion. The names used for specific meals in English vary greatly,
depending on the speaker's culture, the time of day, or the size of the meal.
The type of meal served or eaten at any given time varies by custom and location. In most modern
cultures, three main meals are eaten: in the morning, early afternoon, and evening. Further, the names
of meals are often interchangeable by custom as well. Some serve dinner as the main meal at midday,
with supper as the late afternoon/early evening meal; while others may call their midday meal lunch
and their early evening meal supper.
Nutrient: A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow.
Macronutrients provide the bulk energy an organism's metabolic system needs to function while
micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of
nutrients can be acquired from the environment. Micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues

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and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods
of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals. Plants take in nutrients directly from the soil
through their roots and from the atmosphere through their leaves. Animals and protists have
specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy and utilize
micronutrients for both metabolism and anabolism (constructive synthesis) in the body.
Organic nutrients consist of carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and
vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water (H2O), and oxygen may also
be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered essential if it must be obtained from an external
source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are
produced. Nutrients needed in very small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in
large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent; shortages are
called deficiencies.
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules
so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller
substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of
catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical
and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large
pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In
chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by
the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva.
Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the
digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and
hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After
undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass
called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis.
Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid
and pepsin. As these two chemicals, may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach,
providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same
time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of
muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix

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with the digestive enzymes.
After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the
resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the
duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and
then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully
digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine.
Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is
slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K produced by bacteria in
the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum
during defecation.
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms.
The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food/fuel to energy to run cellular
processes, the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some
carbohydrates, and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow
organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.
Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living
state of the cells and the organism. Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:
• Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy
• Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells
Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of nutrients. Bioenergetics is a term
which describes the biochemical or metabolic pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains energy.
Energy formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.
1.2 Human Body Energy System
ATP Resynthesis
The energy for all physical activity comes from the conversion of high-energy phosphates (adenosine
triphosphate—ATP) to lower-energy phosphates (adenosine diphosphate—ADP; adenosine
monophos- phate—AMP; and inorganic phosphate, Pi). During this breakdown (hydrolysis) of ATP,
which is a water-requiring process, a proton, energy and heat are produced: ATP + H2O —© ADP +
Pi + H+ + energy + heat. Since our muscles don’t store much ATP, we must constantly resynthesize it.
The hydrolysis and resynthesis of ATP is thus a circular process—ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and

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Pi, and then ADP and Pi combine to resynthesize ATP. Alternatively, two ADP molecules can
combine to produce ATP and AMP: ADP + ADP —© ATP + AMP.
Like many other animals, humans produce ATP through three metabolic pathways that consist of
many enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions: the phosphagen system, glycolysis and the aerobic
system. Which pathway your clients use for the primary production of ATP depends on how quickly
they need it and how much of it they need. Lifting heavy weights, for instance, requires energy much
more quickly than jogging on the treadmill, necessitating the reliance on different energy systems.
However, the production of ATP is never achieved by the exclusive use of one energy system, but
rather by the coordinated response of all energy systems contributing to different degrees.
1. Phosphagen System
During short-term, intense activities, a large amount of power needs to be produced by the muscles,
creating a high demand for ATP. The phosphagen system (also called the ATP-CP system) is the
quickest way to resynthesize ATP. Creatine phosphate (CP), which is stored in skeletal muscles,
donates a phosphate to ADP to produce ATP: ADP + CP —© ATP + C. No carbohydrate or fat is
used in this process; the regeneration of ATP comes solely from stored CP. Since this process does not
need oxygen to resynthesize ATP, it is anaerobic, or oxygen-independent. As the fastest way to
resynthesize ATP, the phosphagen system is the predominant energy system used for all-out exercise
lasting up to about 10 seconds. However, since there is a limited amount of stored CP and ATP in
skeletal muscles, fatigue occurs rapidly.
2. Glycolysis System
Glycolysis is the predominant energy system used for all-out exercise lasting from 30 seconds to about
2 minutes and is the second-fastest way to resynthesize ATP. During glycolysis, carbohydrate—in the
form of either blood glucose (sugar) or muscle glycogen (the stored form of glucose)—is broken down
through a series of chemical reactions to form pyruvate (glycogen is first broken down into glucose
through a process called glycogenolysis). For every molecule of glucose broken down to pyruvate
through glycolysis, two molecules of usable ATP are produced. Thus, very little energy is produced
through this pathway, but the trade-off is that you get the energy quickly. Once pyruvate is formed, it
has two fates: conversion to lactate or conversion to a metabolic intermediary molecule called acetyl
coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which enters the mitochondria for oxidation and the production of more
ATP. Conversion to lactate occurs when the demand for oxygen is greater than the supply (i.e., during
anaerobic exercise). Conversely, when there is enough oxygen available to meet the muscles’ needs

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(i.e., during aerobic exercise), pyruvate (via acetyl-CoA) enters the mitochondria and goes through
aerobic metabolism.
When oxygen is not supplied fast enough to meet the muscles’ needs (anaerobic glycolysis), there is
an increase in hydrogen ions (which causes the muscle pH to decrease; a condition called acidosis)
and other metabolites (ADP, Pi and potassium ions). Acidosis and the accumulation of these other
metabolites cause a number of problems inside the muscles, including inhibition of specific enzymes
involved in metabolism and muscle contraction, inhibition of the release of calcium (the trigger for
muscle contraction) from its storage site in muscles, and interference with the muscles’ electrical
charges As a result of these changes, muscles lose their ability to contract effectively, and muscle
force production and exercise intensity ultimately decrease.
3. Aerobic System
Since humans evolved for aerobic activities, it’s not surprising that the aerobic system, which is
dependent on oxygen, is the most complex of the three energy systems. The metabolic reactions that
take place in the presence of oxygen are responsible for most of the cellular energy produced by the
body. However, aerobic metabolism is the slowest way to resynthesize ATP. Oxygen, as the patriarch
of metabolism, knows that it is worth the wait, as it controls the fate of endurance and is the
sustenance of life. “I’m oxygen,” it says to the muscle, with more than a hint of superiority. “I can
give you a lot of ATP, but you will have to wait for it.”
The aerobic system—which includes the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle)
and the electron transport chain—uses blood glucose, glycogen and fat as fuels to resynthesize ATP
in the mitochondria of muscle cells. Given its location, the aerobic system is also called
mitochondrial respiration. When using carbohydrate, glucose and glycogen are first metabolized
through glycolysis, with the resulting pyruvate used to form acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs
cycle. The electrons produced in the Krebs cycle are then transported through the electron transport
chain, where ATP and water are produced (a process called oxidative phosphorylation). Complete
oxidation of glucose via glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain produces 36
molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose broken down. Thus, the aerobic system produces 18
times more ATP than does anaerobic glycolysis from each glucose molecule.
Fat, which is stored as triglyceride in adipose tissue underneath the skin and within skeletal muscles
(called intramuscular triglyceride), is the other major fuel for the aerobic system, and is the largest
store of energy in the body. When using fat, triglycerides are first broken down into free fatty acids

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and glycerol (a process called lipolysis). The free fatty acids, which are composed of a long chain of
carbon atoms, are transported to the muscle mitochondria, where the carbon atoms are used to produce
acetyl-CoA (a process called beta-oxidation).
Following acetyl-CoA formation, fat metabolism is identical to carbohydrate metabolism, with acetyl-
CoA entering the Krebs cycle and the electrons being transported to the electron transport chain to
form ATP and water. The oxidation of free fatty acids yields many more ATP molecules than the
oxidation of glucose or glycogen. For example, the oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate produces 129
molecules of ATP. Understanding how energy is produced for physical activity is important when it
comes to programming exercise at the proper intensity and duration for your clients. So the next time
your clients get done with a workout and think, “I have a lot of energy,” you’ll know exactly where
they got it.
The basic nutritional needs of humans are to supply energy and raw materials for all the various
activities and processes that occur in the body. In addition to the need for water, humans require five
types of nutrients from their food supply; three of these are required in relatively large amounts and
are called macronutrients, consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The other two types of
nutrients, vitamins and minerals, are required in small amounts and are known as micronutrients. If
water were removed, the macronutrients would make up almost all the dry weight of foods.
A calorie is a measure of energy—technically, the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature
of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. Food energy is normally measured in kilocalories (1,000
calories 1 kilocalorie), which can be abbreviated as kcal or Calories with a capital C. Each gram of
carbohydrate or protein can supply 4 kilocalories while, for each gram of fat consumed, the amount of
energy supplied is more than double, 9 kilocalories. Although all the macronutrients can be used as a
source of energy, normally only carbohydrates and fats do so while proteins provide the raw materials,
or building blocks, required for the synthesis of essential metabolites, growth, and tissue maintenance.

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