Chapter
02 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN FLOWERING PLANT
- Androecium ,whorl of stamens (male reproductive organ).
- Long and slender stalk called filament, and the terminal bilobed
structure called anther Dithuous
- Anther is a four-sided (tetragonal) microsporangia at the
corners.
- Surrounded by four wall layers epidermis, endothecium, middle
layers and tapetum.
- The outer three wall layers are for protection and dehiscence of
anther
- Innermost layer, tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains.
- Microsporogenesis : cells of the sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic
divisions to form microspore tetrads
-Microspores dissociate from each other and develop into pollen
grains.
Pollen grain (Male Gametophyte)
- Two-layered wall.
- Hard outer layer called exine is made up of resistant organic
material sporopollenin.
- Exine has apertures called germpores sporopollenin absent
- Inner wall called intine. It is made up of cellulose and pectin.
- Pollen grain contains two cells-
(a) Vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve.
(b) Generative cell is small spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm & a
nucleus.
- In over 60 per cent of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at 2 -
celled stage.
- In rice and wheat, pollen grains lose viability within 30 minutes. In
Transfer of pollen grains (shed from the anther) to stigma.
Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae, it remains viable for
months.
- Pollen grains of many species cause allergies like asthma &
bronchitis.
- Pollen grains are rich in nutrients used as food supplements.
The Megasporangium (Ovule)
-Gynoecium (pistil) represents female reproductive part.
- Pistil has three parts the stigma, style and ovary.
- Inside the ovarian cavity.
Attached by a stalk called funicle.
Hilum junction between ovule & funicle.
Ovule has protective envelopes called integuments.
At the tip small opening micropyle. Opposite the micropylar end chalaza
(basal part).
Mass of cells called nucellus. abundant reserve food materials.
Megasporogenesis : formation of megaspores from megaspore mother
cell (MMC).
MMC undergoes meiotic division producing four megaspores.
One of the megaspores is functional, other three degenerate.
Functional megaspore develops into female gametophyte (embryo sac)
(monosporic development)
Sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in 8-nucleate stages of the
embryo sac.
Three cells at the micropylar end constitute egg apparatus. (two
synergids and one egg cell.)
Synergids have special cellular thickenings called filiform apparatus,
guiding the pollen tubes
Three cells at chalazal end are called antipodals. The large central cell,
has two polar nuclei.
8-nucleate is 7 celled.
Pollination
 AUTOGAMY

- Viola (common pansy),Oxalis and Commelina produce Chasmogamous flowers

with exposed anthers and stigma, and cleistogamous flowers which do not
open.

- Continued self-pollination result in inbreeding depression.

Flowering plants have developed devices to discourage self pollination.
POLLEN-PISTIL INTERACTION
- Pollen release & stigma receptivity are not synchronised.
- Ability of the pistil to recognise the pollen followed by its acceptance or
rejection is the result of a dialogue mediated by chemical components of
the pollen interacting with those of the pistil.

Outbreeding and Artificial fertilisation

- Anther and stigma are placed at different positions

- Self - incompatibility inhibiting pollen germination or pollen tube

growth with self pollen

- Unisexual flowers (dioecy). Prevent both autogamy & geitonogamy.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION
Pollen tube releases two male gametes into the synergid.
One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to produce a diploid cell, the
zygote. (symgamy)
To produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) (triple fusion)
Primary endosperm cell (PEC) develops into the endosperm zygote
develops into an embryo.

1. Endosperm Development
- Endosperm development precedes embryo development.

- Cells of this tissue are filled with reserve food materials.

- PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give rise to free nuclei. (free-
nuclear endosperm). Then cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm
becomes cellular.

- Coconut water is free nuclear liquid endosperm and the surrounding white
kernel is the cellular endosperm.
2. Embryo Development
- Eearly stages of (embryogeny) are similar in both
monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
- globular embryo, heart-shaped embryo, mature embryo.
3. Seeds from ovule
- Ovules mature into seeds, the ovary develops into fruit.
- Seeds are of two types-
(a) Non-albuminous seeds : Endosperm completely
consumed by the embryo (eg.: pea, groundnut, beans).
orchid is monocot and non endospermic
(b) Albuminous seeds : Endosperm may persist in the
mature seed (e.g., castor, coconut, sunflower and cereals.
More than one embryo in a seed is referred as
polyembryony. eg- citrus, mango
4. Ovary into fruits
- Wall of the ovary develops into pericarp.
- Fruits may be fleshy guava, orange, mango, or dry eg. groundnut and
mustard etc.
- In apple, strawberry, cashew, etc. the thalamus also contributes to
fruit formation. Such fruits are called false fruits.
- In a few species in which fruits develop without fertilisation. Such are
called parthenocarpic fruits,
eg. Banana
- Embryo is made up of an embryonal axis one (as in wheat, maize) or two
cotyledons (as in gram and pea).
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons epicotyl,
(terminates with the plumule) portion below the level of cotyledons
hyocotyl (terminates at its lower end in the radicle)
- In some seeds remnants of nucellus are persistent. residual, persistent
nucellus is the perisperm. eg. Pepper & beet.
Chapter

3 HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
topic 1. THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproductive System
Male Female
1. Testis
Testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within scrotum Sex organ Testes Ovary
Scrotum maintains low temperature of testes for spermatogenesis.
testis has 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
Accessory duct Rete testis Oviduct
male germ cells spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions. Vasa efferentia
Sertoli cells provide nutrition to germ cells. Epididymis
Interstitial spaces, contain Leydig cells. Vas deferens VULVA
Leydig cells secrete androgens. External genitalia Penis Mons pubis
Labia majora
Labia minora
Hymen
Clitoris
Accessory glands Seminal vesicle
Prostate
2. Accessory ducts Bulbourethral gland

Seminiferous tubules rete testis vasa efferentia epididymis

vas deferens ejaculatory duct.
4. accessory reproductive glands
3. penis Bulbourethral glands helps in the lubrication of penis.
Is made up of special tissue to facilitate insemination. Seminal vesicle, Prostate gland and Bulbourethral glands secrete
Glans penis is covered by foreskin / prepuce. seminal plasma which is rich fructose, calcium and certain enzymes.

topic 4. gametogenesis
topic 2. THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. female accessory ducts 1. spermatogenesis

Fallopian tubes/Oviduct: The part closer to the ovary is the funnel Spermatogonia (2n/46)
shaped infundibulum.
Possess finger-like projections called fimbriae Mitosis Differentiation
Wider part of the oviduct called ampulla and last part of the
oviduct, isthmus
Wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue, external thin 1ᵒ Spermatocytes (2n/46)
membranous perimetrium, middle layer of smooth muscle, myometrium
inner glandular layer called endometrium Meiosis - I
Cervical canal along with vagina forms the birth canal.
2ᵒ Spermatocytes (n/23)

2. female external genitalia Meiosis - II

Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris. Spermatids (n/23)

Differentiation Spermiogenesis

topic 3. breasts
Spermatozoa (n/23)
Glandular tissue of each breast is divided into mammary lobes
containing alveoli. LH acts at the Leydig cells stimulates secretion of androgens.
Alveoli mammary tubules mammary duct mammary ampulla FSH acts on the Sertoli cells stimulates secretion of some factors
lactiferous ducts
Prolactin
for spermiogenesis.
Progesterone
oxytocin
 sperm 2. oogenesis

Sperm is composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. Oogenesis get arrested in called primary oocytes.
Middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria (power house) primary follicle Secondary follicle
of sperm. tertiary follicle characterised by fluid filled cavity
Human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms antrum. completes its first meiotic division.
during a coitus change into Graafian foliicle. ruptures
to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) ovulation.

1. menstrual or bleeding phase

topic 5. menstrual cycle
3-5 days.
Breakdown of endometrial lining
First menstruation is called menarche. Occurs if the released ouvm is not fertilised.
Menstrual cycle is divided in 3 phases
3. Luteal or Secretory phase
Remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus
luteum.
2. follicular or proliferative phase Secretes large amounts of progesterone
Primary follicles become fully mature Graafian follicle and Menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; menopause.
endometrium of uterus regenerates.
LH surge

topic 7. pregnancy and

topic 6. fertilisation embryonic development
and implantation
Finger like projection on the trophoblast chorionic villi
Sperms swim rapidly, released during coitus & finally Chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated and jointly
reach the fallopian tube. form placenta.
The ovum is also transported to ampulla Placenta produces hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin
Fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation. (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens
Mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the
isthmus & forms 2,4,8,16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
topic 8. embryo
Embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres
Blastomeres in the blastocyst outer layer called One month of pregnancy, heart is formed
trophoblast inner group of cell called the inner cell mass Second month of pregnancy, foetus develops limbs and digits.
Trophoblast layer gets attached to the endometrium inner 12 weeks (first trimester), major organ systems are formed
cell embryo limbs and external gential organs.
Blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the First movements, appearance of hair on the head fifth
uterus. This is called implantation month.
24 weeks eyelids separate, and eyelashes are formed.

topic 9. parturition and lactation

Signals for parturition originate from fully developed foetus and placenta triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
Oxytocin causes stronger uterine contractions, which stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
Milk produced during the initial days of lactation colostrum contains antibodies essential to new born babies.
Chapter
REPRODUCTIVE
4
HEALTH
'Family planning’ programmes were initiated in 1951
Programmes covering reproduction related areas → RCH (Reproductive and Child Health care) programmes.
World population was 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900 → 6 billion by 2000 .
In 1947 , population of India was 350 million → 1 billion in may 2000.
Methods which prevent conception - Contraceptive methods or birth control methods.

Ideal contraceptive should be:

1 User - friendly 2 Easily available 3 Effective 4 Reversible

5 No or least side-effects 6 should not interfere with the user's sexual drive

2. Barrier Methods
1. Natural/Traditional Method
Ovum & sperms are prevented from physically meeting
Avoiding chances of ovum & sperm meeting
Condoms
Periodic Abstinence: Abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the
menstrual cycle Barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath.
Additional benefit of protecting the user from STDs
Nirodh is a brand of condom for male
Withdrawal or Coitus interruptus: Male partner withdraws his penis
from vagina just before ejaculation
Diaphragms, Cervical caps & Vaults
Lactational Amenorrhea: Ovulation and menstrual cycle do not occur Barrier made of rubber inserted into the female reproductive
during the period of intense lactation following parturition; Chances of tract to cover the cervix
conception are almost nil; effective up to period of 6 months

3. IUDs 4. Oral Contraceptives

Inserted by doctors or expert nurses through vagina.
1. Non-medicated IUDs : Lippes loop.
2. Cu Releasing IUDs : Cu-T, Cu-7, Multiload 375
3. Hormone- releasing IUDs : Progestasert, LNG-20.
Administration of small doses of either progestogens or
progestogen-estrogen combinations
Have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days
After a gap of 7 days it has to be repeated in the same pattern

Inhibit ovulation implantation alter quality of cervical mucus

IUDs increases phagocytosis of sperm
Cu⁺² ions suppress sperm motility & the fertilizing capacity of sperms.
Hormone releasing IUDs, make the uterus unsuitable for implantation & the
cervix hostile to sperms.
Most widely accepted methods of contraception in India.
Saheli: Non steroidal preparation, a once a week pill. developed by
scientists of CDRI (Central Drug Research Institute) in Lucknow.
Effective as emergency contraceptives
 5. Injectables/Implants 6. Surgical/ Sterilisation Methods
Blocks gamete transport Sterilisation procedure in the female is called
Effective periods much longer than pills Sterilisation procedure in the male is called tubectomy
vasectomy Highly effective but reversibility is poor.
Vas defems is cut Fallopian Tube is cut

MTP (MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY)

Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term
45 to 50 millions MTPs a year all over the world
Government of India legalized MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions.
Considered safe during the first trimester (up to 12 weeks of pregnancy).
Amniocentesis is a foetal sex determination test based on chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid

STDS
Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse VD (Venereal diseases) or RTI (Reproductive tract infections).

Examples HIV (AIDS) Hepatitis-B Genital herpes Chlamydiasis Gonorrhoea

Genital warts Syphilis Trichomoniasis

Hepatitis-B & HIV can also be transmitted by

1 Sharing of injection with infected persons 2 Transfusion of blood 3 From an infected mother to the foetus

Except for HIV, Hepatitis-B & genital herpes, STDs are curable if detected early.

INFERTILITY
Inability to produce children even after unprotected sexual cohabitation

Assisted reproductive technologies

Test Tube Baby Programme : In vitro fertilisation (IVF) Ova & sperms collected and induced to form zygote under simulated conditions

ZIFT (Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer): Zygote or early embryos (up to 8 blastomeres) transferred into the fallopian tube.

IUT (Intra Uterine Transfer) : Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres transferred into the uterus,

GIFT : Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer) of another female who can not produce
one

ICSI (Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection): sperm is directly injected into the ovum.

AI Technique: Inability of the male partner to inseminate the female due to very low sperm counts. Semen is artificially introduced either into the
vagina or into the uterus (IUI-Intra Uterine Insemination)
 Chapter
PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE
05 AND VARIATION
Inheritance process by which characters are passed from parent to Law of Segregation
progeny
Gregor Mendel, conducted experiments on garden peas (Pisum sativum) Alleles do not show any blending during gamete formation. Alleles get
segregated from each other

Contrasting Traits Studied by Mendel

CONTRASTING TRAITS (Dominant / INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

S.No. Characters
recessive)
1. Stem height Tall/dwarf • Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.)
2. Flower colour Violet/white
3. Flower position Axial/terminal • True-breeding red flowered (RR) and white flowered plants (rr) were
4. Pod shape Inflated or full / constricted crossed, F₁ (Rr)$ was pink.
5. Pod colour Green/yellow
6. Seed shape Round or smooth/wrinkled • F₂ ratio 1 (RR) Red: 2 (Rr) Pink: 1 (rr) White.
7. Seed colour Yellow/green
phenotype ratio 3: 1

Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties. • R was not completely dominant over r
starch grain size shows incomplete dominance.

INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE

CO-DOMINANCE
• Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants F₁ progeny plants were tall,
none were dwarf. in the Filial-1 generation
were dwarf 1/4ᵗʰ 3/4ᵗʰ were tall. alleles, slightly different forms of same • F₁ generation resembles both parents.
gene. example ABO blood grouping in human beings.
• Punnett Square was developed Reginald C Punnett. • Gene (I) has three alleles Iᴬ, Iᴮ and i.
• Phenotypic ratio a 3 : 1, genotypic ratio 1: 2: 1.
• When Iᴬ and Iᴮ are present together they both express
• Organism showing dominant phenotype is crossed with recessive parent-
test cross
• ABO blood grouping good example of multiple alleles.

Law of Dominance PLEIOTROPY

• Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors. That occur in

• Single gene can exhibit multiple phenotypic expression.
pairs
• One member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
• example phenylketonuria
• Used to explain expression of only one parental characters in a monohybrid
cross F₁ and expression of both in the F₂.
• Also explains the F₂ proportion of 3: 1

INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES

• Crossed pea plants having seeds with yellow colour and round shape seeds of • Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment.
green colour and wrinkled shape. • segregation of one pair of characters is independent of the other
• Phenotypes round, yellow; wrinkled, yellow; round, green and wrinkled, green
appeared in the ratio 9:3:3:1.
 Chromosomal Theory of Polygenic Inheritance
Inheritance
Traits which are generally controlled by multiple genes
• In 1900, (de Vries, Correns and von Tschermak) independently rediscovered Eg. Human skin colour and human height
Mendel's results Sutton and Boveri noted behaviour of chromosomes was
parallel to genes
• Two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous chromosomes. SEX DETERMINATION

• Thomas Hunt Morgan worked with (fruit flies), Drosophila melanogaster • Henking (1891) traced nuclear structure through
• Morgan carried out dihybrid crosses in Drosophila spermatogenesis in insects.
• Hybridised yellow-bodied, white-eyed females to brown-bodied, red-eyed males • Henking named this structure X-body.
• F₂ ratio deviated from the 9: 3: 3: 1 ratio.
• The genes were located on the X chromosome proportion of parental gene • X-body of Henking was X-chromosome.
combinations were much higher
• Linkage; physical association of genes on a chromosome
• Tightly linked genes (showed very low recombination) loosely linked genes XO type (XX-XO type)
(showed higher recombination).
Grasshopper & cockroach males have only one X-
choromosome females have a pair of X-chromosomes.
•Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination as a measure of
Eggs fertilised by sperm having an X-chromosome become
the distance between genes and 'mapped' their position females

Eggs fertilised by sperms that do not have an X-chromosome

become males.

ZW type (ZZ-ZW type)

XY type (XX-XY type)
e.g., birds
• Females have one Z and one W chromosome, males have a
pair of Z-chromosomes. Males have one X and one Y chromosome, females have
a pair of X-chromosomes

Sex determination in Honeybee In both (XO and XY type, Male heterogamety.

Based on the number of sets of chromosomes

• Females are diploid 32 chromosomes males are
• Offspring formed from union of sperm and egg develops as female
haploid 16 chromosomes
(queen or worker), unfertilized egg develops as male (drone),
parthenogenesis.
• Haplo-diploid sex-determination

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

• Analysis of traits in generations of a family is called as

MENDELIAN DISORDER
pedigree analysis
Mendelian Disorders are mainly determined by alteration
• A strong tool, to trace the inheritance of a specific trait,
or mutation in the single gene.
 Genetic disorders

Haemophilia

• Sex linked recessive disease

• Protein involved in clotting of blood is affected
• Heterozygous female (carrier) may transmit disease
to sons.
• Queen Victoria was a carrier.

Sickle cell anaemia

• Autosome linked recessive trait (chromosome 11)

• Controlled by alleles Hbᴬ and Hbˢ
• (HbˢHbˢ) show diseased phenotype.

• Substitution of Glutamic acid(Glu) by Valine (Val) at sixth position of Colour blindness

beta globin chain of haemoglobin molecule.

• Single base substitution from GAG to GUG.

• Sex linked recessive disorder due to defect in red or green
cone of eye. Mutation in certain genes present in X
• Change in the shape of the RBC to elongated sickle like structure. chromosome.
• Occurs in about 8 per cent males and 0.4 per cent females.

• Son of a carrier woman has 50 per cent chance of being

colour blind.
Thalassemia

Phenylketonuria
• Autosome linked recessive blood disease
• Reduced rate of synthesis of globin chains that make up • Error of metabolism autosomal recessive trait
haemoblobin. (chromosome 12)
• Thalassemia α is controlled by two linked genes HBA1 and HBA2 on • Affected individual lacks an enzyme (Phenylalanine
chromosome 16 hydroxylase)
• Thalassemia is controlled by gene HBB on chromosome 11 • Phenylalanine gets accumulated. It gets converted to
Phenylpyruvic acid and other derivatives.
• Thalassemia is a quantitative problem while sickle cell anaemia is a
qualitative problem • Mental retardation.

• Reduction in hair & skin pigmentation

 chromosomal disorders Klinefelter’s Syndrome
• Additional copy of X-chromosome (47, XXY)
Absence or excess of chromosomes or their
abnormal arrangement. • Overall masculine development

• Gynaecomastia sterile male.

Down’s syndrome
Turner’s Syndrome
• Additional copy of chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21)
Absence of one X chromosome (45 with XO) females are
• First described by Langdon Down (1866)
sterile
• Short stature small round head , furrowed tongue Lack of secondary sexual characters.
partially open mouth
• Palm crease.
• Development is retarded.
Chapter
MOLECULAR BASIS OF
06 INHERITANCE
THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

Transforming Principle Biochemical Characterisation

1928, Fredeick Griffith,
Streptococcus pneumoniae
S strain → Inject into mice → Mice die
R strain → Inject into mice → Mice live
S strain → Inject into mice → Mice live
(heat killed)
S strain (heat killed)
+ → Inject into mice → Mice die
R strain (live)
The Genetic Material is DNA
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952).
Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive phosphorus
contained radioactive DNA but not radioactive protein because
DNA contains phosphorus but protein does not.
Similarly, viruses grown on radioactive sulfur contained
radioactive protein but not radioactive DNA because DNA does
not contain sulfur.
Radioactive phages were allowed to attach to E. coli bacteria.
Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive
DNA were radioactive, indicating that DNA was the material
that passed from the virus to the bacteria.
Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had radioactive
proteins were not radioactive.
This indicates that proteins did not enter the bacteria from
the viruses. DNA is therefore the genetic material that is
passed from virus to bacteria.
of Transforming Principle
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty
Digestion with DNase did inhibit transformation, suggesting
that the DNA caused the transformation.
DNA
QB Phage > Genetic Material RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the
two types of nucleic acids found in living systems.
ϕ×174 has 5386 nucleotides, Bacteriophage lambda has 48502
base pairs (bp), Escherichia coli has 4.6×10⁶ bp, and haploid
content of human DNA is 3.3×10⁹ bp.
ssDNA acts as genetic material is some viruses like ϕ×174.
Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
A nucleotide has three components - a nitrogenous base, a
pentose sugar (ribose in case of RNA, and deoxyribose for
DNA), and a phosphate group.
Two types of nitrogenous bases - Purines (Adenine and
Guanine), and Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine).
Cytosine is common for both DNA and RNA and Thymine is
present in DNA. Uracil is present in RNA at the place of Thymine.

A nitrogenous base is linked to the pentose sugar through a N-glyosidic linkage to form a nucleoside, such as adenosine or deoxyadenosine,
guanosine or deoxyguanosine, cytidine or deoxycytidine and uridine or deoxythymidine.
When a phosphate group is linked to 5'-OH of a nucleoside through phosphoester linkage, a corresponding nucleotide (or deoxynucleotide depending
upon the type of sugar present) is formed.
Two nucleotides are linked through 3'-5' phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide.
DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus Friedrich Meischer in 1869.
James Watson and Francis Crick, based on the X-ray diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, proposed a very simple
but famous Double Helix model for the structure of DNA.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE DOUBLE HELIX STRUCTURE OF DNA ARE AS FOLLOWS :

Made of two polynucleotide chains, where the backbone is constituted by sugar-phosphate, and the bases project inside.
two chains have anti-parallel polarity.
The two chains are coiled in a right-handed fashion. The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm and there are roughly 10bp in each turn. Consequently, the
distance between a bp in a helix is approximately equal to 0.3 nm.
Diameter of helix is 20 Å .
Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology, which states that the genetic information flows from DNA → mRNA → Protein.
In some viruses the flow of information is in reverse direction, that is, from RNA to DNA. This process is called reverse transcription
 Packaging of DNA Helix Replication
Semiconservative DNA replication

Prokaryotes
The Experimental Proof
DNA (being negatively charged) is held with some proteins (that
have positive charges) in a region termed as 'nucleoid'. Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl, grew E. coli in a medium
The DNA in nucleoid is organised in large loops held by proteins. containing ¹⁵NH₄Cl (¹⁵N is the heavy isotope of nitrogen) as the only
nitrogen source for many generations.
This heavy DNA molecule could be distinguished from the normal
DNA by centrifugation in a cesium chloride ( CsCl) density gradient.
Eukaryotes The various samples were separated independently on CsCl
gradients to measure the densities of DNA.
DNA is negatively charged due to phosphate groups. Very similar experiments involving use of radioactive thymidine to
Histones are rich in the basic amino acid residues lysines and detect distribution of newly synthesised DNA in the chromosomes
arginines. Both the amino acid residues carry positive charges in was performed on Vicia faba by Taylor and colleagues in 1958.
their side chains.
Histones are organised to form a unit of eight molecules called as
histone octamer.
The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively
Machinery and the Enzymes
charged histone octamer to form a structure called nucleosome.
A typical nucleosome contains 200 bp of DNA helix.
Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in In living cells, such as E.coli, the process of replication requires a set
nucleus called chromatin, thread-like stained (coloured) bodies seen of catalysts
in nucleus. The main enzyme is referred to as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase.
The beads-on-string structure in chromatin is packaged to form
chromatin fibers that are further coiled and condensed at
metaphase stage of cell division to form chromosomes.
The packaging of chromatin at higher level requires additional set
of proteins that collectively are referred to as Non-histone
Chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
The chromatin that is more densely packed and stains dark are
called as Heterochromatin.
Euchromatin is said to be transcriptionally active chromatin,
whereas heterochromatin is inactive.

TRANSCRIPTION

Transcription Unit and the Gene

Defining a cistron as a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide, the structural gene in a transcription unit could be said as monocistronic
(mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic (mostly in bacteria or prokaryotes).
In eukaryotes, the monocistronic structural genes have interrupted coding sequences - the genes in eukaryotes are split.
The coding sequences or expressed sequences are defined as exons.
Exons are said to be those sequence that appear in mature or processed RNA. The exons are interrupted by introns. Introns or intervening
sequences do not appear in mature or processed RNA.
 Process of Transcription Genetic Code

Since the two strands have opposite polarity and the DNA-dependent RNA George Gamow, a physicist, who argued that since there are
polymerase also catalyse the polymerisation in only one direction, that is, only 4 bases and if they have to code for 20 amino acids, the
5'→3', the strand that has the polarity 3'→5' acts as a template, and is code should constitute a combination of bases.
also referred to as template strand. Har Gobind Khorana was instrumental in synthesising RNA
molecules with defined combinations of bases (homopolymers
The promoter and terminator flank the structural gene in a and copolymers).
transcription unit. The promoter is said to be located towards 5' end Marshall Nirenberg's cell-free system for protein synthesis
(upstream) of the structural gene (the reference is made with respect finally helped the code to be deciphered.
to the polarity of coding strand). Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase) was also
It is a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA polymerase, and helpful in polymerising RNA with defined sequences in a
it is the presence of a promoter in a transcription unit that also template independent manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA).
defines the template and coding strands.
By switching its position with terminator the definition of coding and
template strands could be reversed.
In bacteria, there are three major types of RNAs: mRNA (messenger
RNA), tRNA (transfer RNA), and rRNA (ribosomal RNA).
There is single DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that catalyses
transcription of all types of RNA in bacteria.
RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates transcription
(Initiation). It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate and
polymerises in a template depended fashion following the rule of
complementarity.
The RNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing the process of
elongation. It associates transiently with initiation-factor (σ) and
termination factor (ρ).
In eukaryotes, there are two additional complexities :
The RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S, and 5.8S).
The RNA polymerase II transcribes precursor of mRNA, the
heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
RNA polymerase III is responsible for transcription of tRNA, 5srRNA, and
snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs).
hnRNA undergoes additional processing called as capping and tailing. In MUTATION
capping an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate) is added SUBSTITUTION POINT MUTATION
to the 5'-end of hn RNA. In tailing, adenylate residues (200-300) are (Insertion/duplication)
added at 3'-end in a template independent manner. FRAME SHIFT MUTATION

tRNA-THE ADAPTER MOLECULE

Salient features of genetic code

Codon is triplet.
Termination codons UAA (Ochre), UAG (Amber) & UGA (Opal).
One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence, it is unambiguous
and specific.
Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon, hence the code
is degenerate. This property is called degeneracy or redundancy.
Codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion. There are no
punctuations.
Code is nearly universal: for example, from bacteria to human UUU
would code for Phenylalanine (phe). Some exceptions to this rule have TRANSLATION
been found in mitochondrial codons, and in some protozoans.
AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine (met), and it also rRNA plays structural & catalytic role.
act as initiator codon. The amino acids are joined by a bond which is known as a
peptide bond. Formation of a peptide bond requires energy.
The ribosome also acts as a catalyst (23S rRNA in bacteria is
the enzyme-ribozyme) for the formation of peptide bond.
 An mRNA also has some additional sequences that are not translated and are referred as untranslated regions (UTR).
The UTRs are present at both 5'-end (before start codon) and at 3'-end (after stop codon). They are required for efficient translation process.
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION
Lac Operon
The elucidation of the lac operon was also a result of a close
association between a geneticist, Francois Jacob and a
biochemist, Jacque Monod. They were the first to elucidate a
transcriptionally regulated system.
Lac operon is a type of inducible operon.
z gene codes for beta-galactosidase
y gene codes for permease
a gene encodes a transacetylase
Operator gene is switched off in the presence of a repressor
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
Human Genome Project was a 13-year project coordinated by
the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of
Health.
Project was completed in 2003.
Sequence of chromosome I was completed only in May 2006
HGP was closely associated with the rapid development of a new
area in biology called Bioinformatics.
Goal of HGP
Many non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic
nematode), Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (rice and
Arabidopsis), etc., have also been sequenced.
Commonly used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the
vectors were called as BAC (bacterial artificial
chromosomes), and YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes).
Fragments were sequenced using automated DNA
sequencers that worked on the principle of a method
developed by Frederick Sanger.
Another challenging task was assigning the genetic and
physical maps on the genome. This was generated using
information on polymorphism of restriction endonuclease
recognition sites, and some repetitive DNA sequences known
as microsatellites.
Salient Features of Human Genome
The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide base
pairs.
The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary
greatly, with the largest known human gene being dystrophin
at 2.4 million bases.
Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins.
Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest
[231)
Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where
single base DNA differences [SNPs - single nucleotide
polymorphism, pronounced as 'snips'] occur in humans.
DNA FINGERPRINTING
99.9 percent of base sequence among humans is the same.
DNA fingerprinting involves identifying differences in some
specific regions in DNA sequence called as repetitive DNA,
because in these sequences, a small stretch of DNA is repeated
many times.
These sequence show high degree of polymorphism and form the
basis of DNA fingerprinting. Since DNA from every tissue (such as
blood, hair-follicle, skin, bone, saliva, sperm etc.), from an
individual show the same degree of polymorphism, they become
very useful identification tool in forensic applications.
Polymorphism (variation at genetic level) arises due to
mutations.
Technique of DNA Fingerprinting was initially developed by Alec
Jeffreys.
He used a satellite DNA as probe that shows very high degree of
polymorphism. It was called as Variable Number of Tandem
Repeats (VNTR).
It includes: Isolation of DNA, digestion of DNA by restriction
endonucleases, separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis,
transferring (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to
synthetic membranes, such as nitrocellulose or nylon,
hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe, and detection of
hybridised DNA fragments by autoradiography.
Chapter

07 EVOLUTION
Topic 1. ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

Universe is almost 20 billion years old.
Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe.
Universe expanded temperature came down, Hydrogen and Helium formed
sometime later.
2
UV rays from the sun brokeup water into hydrogen and oxygen and the
lighter H escaped.
Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO₂ and
others. The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell
as rain, to fill all the depressions and form oceans.

Earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back. Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost
four billion years back.

TOPIC 2, ORIGIN OF LIFE

1. Theory of Spontaneous Generation 2 . Theory of biogenesis
(Abiogenesis or Autogenesis)
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing
Life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, life. Redi's and Spallanzani's experiments also showed the same
mud, etc. Spontaneous generation theory was dismissed once and for all.

3. Oparin Haldane theory

Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first

form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living organic
molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) Theory of chemical evolution.

Conditions on earth were - high temperature, volcanic storms,

reducing atmosphere containing CH4,NH3, etc. Similar conditions
in a laboratory scale. So urey and miller credited.
Water vapour at 800°C Ratio of CH4, NH3 and H2 was 2 : 1 : 2

The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion

years back, They would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein,
Polysaccharides, etc.) This version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through
evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is accepted by majority.

TOPIC 3. EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION

1. Palaeontological Evidences
For example whales, bats, Cheetah and human (all mammals) share
Evidences from fossils . similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs.
2. Comparative anatomy & Vertebrate hearts or brains,
morphology The thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita
Homologous Organs
Organs having same origin but different functions are called homologous
organs. Indicates common. ancestry. Based on divergent evolution.
 Analogous Organs
Organs having different origin but similar function are called
analogous.
Analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution
3. Evidences from Biochemistry
& comparative physiology
Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function
among diverse organ isms give clues to common ancestry.
5. Evidences from anthropogenic
evolution
Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc.,
resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser
time scale.
Antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic organisms/cell.
resulted in selection of resistant varieties.
Evolution is not a directed process in the sense of
determinism. It is a stochastic process based on chance
events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms.
6. Evidences from Biogeographical
distribution
i. Adaptive Radiation
TOPIC 4. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with
altered beaks arose, enabling
Darwin finches on Galapogas island to become insectivorous and
vegetarian finches.
This process of evolution of different species in a given
geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating to
other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation.
ii. Convergent evolution or
adaptive convergence
When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred
in an isolated geographical area one can call this convergent
evolution.
Australian marsupials & placental mammals show convergent
evolution.
Examples of analogy: eye of the octopus and of mammals or the
flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification)
4. Evidences from Genetics
or Natural Selection
In a collection of moths made in 1850s, i.e., before
industrialisation set in,
it was observe that there were more white-winged
moths (Biston betularia)
on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths
(Biston carbonaria)
However, after industrialisation, i.e., in 1920 ,
the proportion was reversed. Because,
predators will spot a moth against a contrasting
background.
During post industrialisation period, the tree trunks became
dark due to industrial smoke and soots.
Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive
due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth survived.
1. Lamarclxism
Before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarck had said that
evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and disuse
of organs
He gave the example of Giraffes
Nobody believes this conjecture any more
2. Darwinism
There has been gradual evolution of life forms. Any
population has built in variation in characteristics.
Fitness of the individual or population enable them to
survive better.
The fitness, according to Darwin, is reproductive fitness.
Alfred Wallace, also gave similar conclusions around the
same time. Thomas Malthus work on population also
influenced Darwin.
Branching descent and natural selection are the two key
concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution.
 3. Mutation Theory (1901)
I. Gene migration or gene flow

Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose brought
forth the idea of mutations and believed that it cause
speciation hence called it saltation.
Mutations are random and directionless Darwinian
variations are small and directional.
ii. Genetic drift
Sudden change occurs by chance, Genetic drift.
Genetic drift or sewall weight effect operates only on very small
isolated population Founder effects and bottle neck effect are
result of it.

iii. Mutation
4. Hardy Weinberg Principle
• Hardy-Weinberg principle stated that allele frequencies in a
iv. Genetic recombination
population are stable and is constant from generation to generation.
v. Natural selection
• Gene pool remains constant. This is called genetic equilibrium. Sum
total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
• In a diploid, p and q represent the frequency of allele A and allele a. • Natural selection can lead to stabilisation, directional change and
[p+q=1] disruption.
• The frequency of AA individuals in is p². Similarly of aa is q², of Aa is
2pq. Hence, p² + 2pq + q² = 1. binomial expansion of (p + q)².

• Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, change

of frequency of alleles in a population would then be interpreted as
resulting in evolution.

• Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

TOPIC 5, A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF

EVOLUTION

2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life
appeared on earth.

By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active.

Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
Chlorophyte ancestors gives rise to Bryophytes and
tracheophytes ancestors.
Tracheophytes ancestors give rise to Zosterophyllum & Rhynia -
type plants. Rhynia - type plants evolved into Psilophyton.
Amphibians evolved into reptiles
Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve
into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya (e.g., Ichthyosaurs).
The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest
of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height
and had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.

Psilophyton is the common ancestor of Sphenopsids (horsetails),
Ferns, Progymnosperms and Gymnosperms (Ginkgos, Gnetales,
Conifers).
Seed ferns gives rise to Cycads & Angiosperms - first dicot 8
then monocot.
Cycads evolved from seed ferns while conifers evolved from
Psilophyton directly.
In 1938 , a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a
Coelacanth which was thought to be extinct.
About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the
earth.
The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small
sized.
When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
Due to continental drift, when South America joined North
America, these animals were overridden by North American
fauna.
Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of
Australia survived because of lack of competition from any
other mammal.
 Topic 6.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

• Dryopithecus (ape like) and Ramapithecus (man like) (15 mya): Hairy,
walked like gorillas &chimpanzee

• Man-like primates (3-4 mya): 4 feet height, fossils of man like bones
found in ethopia & tanzania.

• Australopithecus (2 mya): lived in african grass lands, hunted with

stone weapons, ate fruits. CC = 500 cc
• Homo habilis (hominid): first human like beings. Did not eat meat CC =
650 cc
• Homoerectus (1.5 mya): (java man) ate meat. CC = 900 cc
• Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man): (1 lakh - 40,000 years
ago): lived in east and central Asia. Buried their dead.
CC = 1400 cc
• Cromagnon (Homosapiens fossilis): CC = 1650 cc
• Homo sapiens (Modern man) (75,000-10,000 years ago): Pre- historic
cave art 18000 years ago Bhimbetar rocks developed Agriculture &
settlements. CC = 1450 cc.
Chapter
HUMAN HEALTH AND
8 DISEASE
Topic 1. Introduction

Blood circulation discovered by William Harvey.

Topic 2. Disease
Classification of Diseases

Infectious Non-infectious
disease diseases
Cancerous diseases

Deficiency diseases
Contagious Non-Contagious
Allergic diseases

Addiction

topic 3. VIRAL DISEASES Common Cold

Genital Herpes : Herpes simplex virus

Genital warts human papiloma virus (HPV). Viral disease caused by Rhinovirus.
Yellow fever : Flavivirus (Arbovirus) Symptoms : (i) Nasal congestion, (ii) Nasal
Dengue : Arboviruses (Flavivirus). discharge, (iii) Sore throat, (iv) Hoarseness, (v)
Chikungunya is caused by chikungunya virus and Cough,
transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. (vi) Tiredness, (vii), Headache.
Encephalitis is transmitted by Aedes mosquito.

AIDS : Acquired Immuno

Deficiency Syndrome Viral DNA incorporated into host cell DNA & directs
the infected cell to produce new virus particles.
The macrophages continue to produce virus
HIV have ssRNA genome enclosed by an envelopen (capsid).
therefore macrophages are called HIV Factory.
Transmission : (i) Sexual contact with infected person, (ii) By
Simultaneously HIV enters into helper T- lymphocytes
transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products, (iii) By
(Tʜ) replicates & produce progeny viruses.
sharing infected needles as in case of intravenous drug
Diagnostic test for AIDS is ELISA (Enzyme Linked
abusers, (iv) From infected mother to her child through
Immuno Sorbent Assay).
placenta.
Western blot is used as confirmatory or
After infection, HIV enters in macrophages where RNA of virus
supplemental test for AIDS.
replicates to form viral DNA with the help of enzyme reverse
transcriptase.
 Prevention of AIDS
National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-
governmental organisation (NGOs) are doing a lot to
educate people about AIDS.
Topic 4 - Bacterial Diseases
Gonorrhoeae : Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Tuberculosis (T.B.) or Koch diseases : Mycobacterium tuberculae.
Plague : Yersinia pestis / Pasteurella pestis.
Xenopsylla or rat flea is vector of plague.
Diphtheria (gal ghotu) : Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
Cholera : Vibrio cholerae
Syphilis : Treponema pallidum
Trachoma : Chlamydia trachomatis.
Topic 5 - Protozoa
malaria
Malaria caused by plasmodium (a tiny protozoan).
Different species of plasmodium ( P. vivax, P. malariae, P. falciparum)
are responsible for the different type of malaria.
Malignant malaria is caused by P. falciparum, which is most serious
and can be fatal.
Plasmodium requires 2 hosts human & mosquitoes to complete its life
cycle.
Vector: Female Anopheles mosquito.
Parasites initially multiply asexually with in liver cells & then attack
RBCs and causes their rupture.
Toxic substance Haemozoin released due to rupture of RBC, is
responsible for chill & high fever recurring every 3 to 4 days.
Sexual stages (gametocytes) develop in RBCs.
Fertilisation & development takes place in female mosquito.
Mature infective stages (sporozoites) escape from intestine and
migrate to mosquito salivary glands.
In human body, Plasmodium multiplies a sexually (Schizogony) but in
female Anopheles, Plasmodium undergoes sexual cycle (gametogony)
followed by asexual cycle (sporogony).
treatment of malaria
(i) Avoiding stagnation of water in & around residential areas, (ii)
Regular clearing of household coolers, (iii) Use of mosquito nets,
(iv) Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds, (v) Spraying of
insecticides in ditches, drainage areas & swaps, etc. and (vi)
Doors & windows should be provided with wire mesh to prevent the
entry of mosquitoes.
Typhoid
Caused by Salmonella typhi
Contaminated food & water
Symptoms: (i) Sustained high fever (39°C-40 °C), (ii)
Weakness, (iii) Stomach pain, (iv) Constipation, (v)
Headache, (vi) Loss of appetite
Typhoid confirmed by widal test.
Pneumonia
Streptococcus pneumoniae & Haemophilus influenzae.
Infects the alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs.
Symptoms : (i) Fever, (ii) Chills, (iii) Cough, (iv) Headache.
Inhaling the droplets / aerosols released by an infected
person.
By sharing glasses & utensils with an infected person.
Topic 6 - Fungal Diseases
Ringworm caused by fungi (genera : Trichophyton,
Microsporum and Epidermophyton).
Symptoms : (i) Appearance of dry scaly lesions on skin,
scalp and nails, (ii) Lesions accompanied by intense
itching.
Heat & moisture help these fungi to grow, which makes
them develop in skin folds as in groin or between the
toes.
Topic 7 - Helminth Diseases
Ascariasis: Round worm Ascaris
Symptoms : (i) Internal bleeding, (ii) Muscular pain, (iii) Fever,
(iv) Anemia, (v) Blockage of intestinal passage.
Transmitted by contaminated food & water (also typhoid &
amoebiasis)
filariasis
Filariasis or elephantiasis is caused by the filarial worm-
Wuchereria (W. bancrofti, W.malayi) - member of
aschelminth.
Transmitted by bite of the female Culex mosquito
(vector).
 topic 4. non - infectious diseases

cancer cancer causes

Contact inhibition property shown by normal cells by virtue of Radiation (i) Ionising radiations : X-ray & gamma rays.
which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth. Non-ionizing radiation : UV-ray. UV causes damage of DNA
Tumors are of 2 types : Benign & malignant. leading to neoplastic transformation.
Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location
& do not spread to other parts of the body and cause little
damage. detection and diagnosis of cancer
Malignant tumors are a mass of proliferating cells called
neoplastic or tumor cells. Neoplastic cells grow very rapidly, Cancer detection & diagnosis }
invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissue. These cells
starve the other normal cells by competing for vital nutrients.
Cells released from these tumors reach distant sites through Biopsy & histopathological studies
blood, & they start a new tumor formation there. This property is
called metastasis. Blood & bone marrow test (for leukemia)

Radiography: Uses X-rays

treatment of cancer CT Uses X-rays

Surgery MRI
Generate 3-D image
Radiotherapy
Chemotherapy
Immunotherapy Uses strong magnetic fields

Uses non-ionising radiations

topic 5. immunity
Most accurate technique
Immunity (I)

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity Innate Immunity

4 types of barriers
It is non-specific type of defense.
B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes
Physical Barriers : Skin, Mucus coating of the epithelium
Antibody-mediated CMI lining the respiratory, urogenital \& gastrointestinal (URG)
I tracts also help in trapping microbes- entering our body.
Physical barriers eg Skin Physiological barriers : (a) Acid in stomach, (b) Saliva in
Mucus coating of URG
mouth and (c) Tears from eyes, all prevents microbial
Physiological barriers eg Acid in stomach
growth.
Saliva in mouth
Tears from eyes Cellular Barriers : Leukocytes (WBC) in blood and
macrophages in tissue can phagocytose & destroy microbes.
Cellular barriers Eg-WBCs PMNL WBC : (a) PMNL (polymorpho- nuclear leukocytes) -
Monocytes Neutrophils, (b) Monocytes and (c) Natural killer cells (type
Natural killer of lymphocytes).
Macrophages Cytokine barriers : Interferon is secreted by virus infected
Cytokine barriers Eg- Interferons cells which protects non-infected cells from further viral
infection.
 1⁰ & 2⁰ immune responses carried out with the help of 2 special
type of lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e. (i) B- lymphocytes,
(ii) T- lymphocytes.
Each antibody molecule (Ig) has 4 peptide chains.
Antibody: 2 chains are small called 'light chains' & 2 chains are
longer called 'Heavy chains'. So, antibody is represented by H₂L₂.

topic 8. auto - immunity

Examples of autoimmune diseases:

(i) Rheumatoid arthritis,
(ii) Myasthenia gravis (DPMT 1998) and
types of acquired Immunity (iii) Grave's disease.

Active Immunity
Passive Immunity topic 9. immune system in
the body
topic 6. vaccination and
immunisation Immune system in the body

Principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the

property of memory of the immune system. Lymphoid (L) L. Tissues L. Cells Antibodies
organs

1⁰ Lymphoid organs 2⁰ Lymphoid organs

topic 7. allergy eg - Peyer's patches
eg - Bone marrow - Lymph node
- Thymus - Appendix
Symptoms of allergic reactions : (i) Sneezing, (ii) Watery
- Spleen
eyes, (iii) Running nose, (iv) Difficulty in breathing. - Tonsils
Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine &
serotonin from the mast cells.

MALT : Lymphoid tissue located within the lining of major

topic 10. drug abuse
tracts (urogenital, digestive and respiratory) called
mucosal associated lymphoid tissue.
MALT constitutes about 50 % of the lymphoid tissue in
human body.
tobacco
Tobacco has been used by human beings for more
than 400 years.
acquired Immunity Tobacco contains a large number of chemical
substances including nicotine, an alkaloid.
1⁰ Response: Slow It stimulates secretion of adrenaline
2⁰ or anamnestic Response : When body encounters the same
pathogen subsequently then body elicits (evoke) 2⁰ response.
2⁰ response is highly intensified. This is due to the fact that
our body have memory of the first encounter.
 Commonly abused drugs

Lymphoid (L) Cannabinoids Coka-alkaloid

organs
Cannabis sativa Erythroxylum coca
Marijuana
Morphine Heroin (Smack) Cocaine
Hashish
(coke or
Charas
Poppy plant crack)
Papaver somnifenum Ganja

Drug Abuse

OPOIDS : Acts on GI Tract and Brain

Morphine: Sedative and painkiller ; Depressant ; produced from latex of paper sominiferun
Given to patients to cope from surgery
Heroine : Diacetylation of morphine ; Depressant

Ganga , Marijuana ,Charas, Hash

cannabis sativa
Depressant
Affects CNS and Heart

Coca Alkaloid
Erthroxylum Coca > South American Plant
Stimulant > interfere with neurotransmitter dopamine
Coke; Crack and Cocaine
LSD > Fruiting body of fungus Claviceps
Barbiturates > Sedative
Benzodiazepines > Anti Anxiety
Amphetamines > Stimulant
Chapter STRATEGIES FOR
09 ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD
PRODUCTION
To increase food production Topic 1. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
1. Dairy farm management
2. Poultry farm management
3. Apiculture
• Apis indica is most common species in India.
4. Fisheries

TOPIC 2. ANIMAL BREEDING

In MOET, hormones with FSH- like activity are administered in cow to

induce follicular maturation & super ovulation (instead of 1 egg,
they produce 6-8 eggs).

Artificial insemination
Semen is introduced deliberately into the cervix of a female.

MOET
MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer) is a programme for
herd improvement / livestock improvement

Fertilized egg at 8-32 cells stages, are recovered non-

surgically & transferred to surrogate mothers.
 TOPIC 3. PLANT BREEDING
GREEN REVOLUTION
Wheat
1.Wheat production increased from 11 million
tonnes to 75 million tonnes..
2. ICWMI (International Centre for Wheat &
Maize Improvement) is situated at Mexico.
3. At ICWMI, Norman E. Borlaug developed
semi dwarf wheat. For this Borlaug got
Nobel prize.
4. High-yielding & disease resistant varieties of
wheat are Sonalika & Kalyan Sona.
PLANT BREEDING FOR DISEASE
RESISTANCE
Disease caused by fungi (rust) : (i) Brown rust of wheat, (ii) Red
rot of sugarcane, (iii) Late blight of potato
Disease caused by bacteria : Black rot of crucifers or
Brassica
Disease caused by Virus : (i) Tobacco
Mosaic, (ii) Turnip mosaic.
PLANT BREEDING FOR INSECT
PESTS RESISTANCE
(i) Resistance to jassids in cotton. (ii) Cereal leaf
beetle in wheat
• In wheat, solid stems lead to non-preference by
stem sawfly.
• Smooth leaved & nectar less cotton varieties do not attract
bollworms
• High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and low sugar content in maize leads
to resistance to maize stem borers.
Rice Sugar cane
Semi-dwarf variety of rice were derived from IR-8
(which is developed at IRRI) & Taichung Native-1 1.Saccharum barberi was originally grown
(from Taiwan). in North India, but had poor sugar content
& yield
2. IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) is
situated at Philippines. 2. Saccharum officinarum (tropical canes)
3. Jaya & Ratna are better yielding grown in South India
semi-dwarf varieties of rice,
Methods of breeding for
Disease resistance
Breeding is carried out by : (i) Conventional breeding
technique: Hybridization followed by selection and (ii) By
mutation breeding.
Mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus & powdery
mildew were induced by mutations.
Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus)
was transferred from a wild species & resulted in a new variety
called Parbhani Kranti. Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by
sexual hybridisation between the target & the source plant followed
by selection.
PLANT BREEDING FOR IMPROVED
FOOD QUALITY
• Biofortification: It is the most practical means to improve public
health.
• In biofortification breeding of crops with higher levels of vitamins
& minerals or higher protein & healthier fats.
• In the year 2000, maize hybrids were developed that had twice the
amount of amino acid lysine & tryptophan
• Atlas 66 (Wheat variety), having high protein content has been used as a
donor for improving cultivated wheat.
• IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute- New Delhi) has develop
several vegetables
(i) Vit-A enriched : Corrots, spinach, pumpkin
(ii) Vit-C enriched : Bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato.
• Fe & Ca enriched : Spinach and Bathua.
Topic 4. SCP (SINGLE CELL PROTEIN) Topic 5. TISSUE CULTURE

Micropropagation
Chapter
MICROBES IN
10 HUMAN WELFARE
Protozoa, Bacteria, Fungi, microscopic plant, viruses, viroids & prions.
Prions are proteinacious infections agents.
Microbes cause a large number of diseases in human beings.

topic 1. Microbes in household products

Lactic acid bacteria is used for making curd.
LAB also improves its nutritional quality by increasing vit.-B₁₂
Bacterial fermentation is used for making food such as dosa and Idli.
Dough used for making bread is fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Baker's yeast). Puffed up appearance is due to production of
carbon dioxide.
Toddy is made by fermenting sap from palms.
Large holes in swiss cheese is due to release of carbon dioxide by a bacterium named Propionibacterium sharmanii.
Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing a specific fungi

topic 2. Microbes in industrial products

1. Fermented Beverages 2. antibiotics

Microbes mainly yeasts are used for the production of
beverages like wine, beer, whisky, brandy or rum.
Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is commonly called Brewer's
yeast is used for production of ethanol by fermentation of
malted cereals and fruit juices.
Wine & beer are produced without distillation.
Whisky, brandy & rum are produced by distillation
First antibiotic discovered was penicillin from Penicillium
notatum. Alexander Fleming discovered it while working on
Staphylococci bacteria.
Full potential of penicillin as an effective antibiotic was
established much later by Chain & Florey.
Fleming, Chain & Florey were awarded the Nobel prize in 1945.

3. Chemicals, Enzymes & other Bioactive molecules

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): Production of ethanol.
Lipases used in detergent formulations helpful in removing oily stains from the clothes.
Bottled Juices are clarified by proteases & pectinases.

topic 3. Microbes in
Chemicals, Enzymes and sewage treatment
Bioactive Molecules
Carried out by the heterotrophic microbes
It includes 2 stages:
1. Citric acid → Aspergillus niger (fungus)
2. Acetic acid → Acetobacter aceti (bacterium)
3. Butyric acid → Clostridium butylicum (bacterium) 1. primary treatment (Physical
4. Lactic acid → Lactobacillus (bacterium) remover)
5. Ethanol→ S.cerevisiae (Yeas,fungus)
6. Streptokinase → Streptococcus (bacterium) (Clot buster)
Filtration & Sedimentation
7. Cyclosporin A → Trichoderma polysporum (fungus) Immuno
suppressant (i) Initially floationg debris is removed by sequential filtration.
8. Statins → Monascus purpureus (yeast) & Blood Cholesterol Lowering (ii) Then, the grit (soil & pebbles) are removed by
agent sedimentation.
Supernatant forms the effluent (1°effluent).
Effluent from 1°settling tank is taken for 2°treatment.
 2. Secondary (2°) Treatment or topic 4. MICROBES IN
Biological treatment PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
Bacteria which grow anaerobically4 produce large amount
Effluent is passed into large aeration tanks, allows vigrous of CH along with CO 2 and H 2. These bacteria are
growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs. collectively
4 called
2 methanogens
2 2 Eg. Methanobacterium.
Flocs: Bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form mesh Also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle.
like structures. Gobar (excreta/dung) of cattle is rich in these bacteria.
Consume the major part of organic matter in the effluent. This Biagas contains CH {70%), CO (25%), H (1%) & H S.
reduces the BOD of the effluent. Developed in India mainly due to efforts of IARI & KVIC
Effluent is then passed into settling tanks where the bacterial (Khadi and Village Industries commission)
floes are allowed to sediment. This sediment is called activated
sludge.
A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into aeration
tank to serve as inoculum or starter.
Remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks
called anaerobic sludge digesters.
Anaerobic bacteria growth digest the bacteria & fungi in the TOPIC 6. MICROBES AS
sludge.
Mixture of gases such as CH , H S & CO , these forms biogas.
BIofertilisers
4 2 2
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) initiated Ganga Action
plan a Yamuna Action plan to save rivers from water pollution.
Plants having mycorrhizal associations show other
benefits also: (i) Resistance to root borne pathogens (ii)
Tolerance to salinity & drought and (iii) Overall increase
TOPIC 5. MICROBES AS
in plant growth & development.
BICONTROL AGENTS In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important
biofertiliser.
2
BGA also add organic matter to the soil & increase its
No negative impacts on plants, mammals, bird, fish or non-
fertility.
target insects. Desirable when beneficial insects are being
Organic farming is related to use of biofertilisers.
conserved to aid in an overall IPM (Integrated pest
management) programme.
Microbes as biofertilisers
1. Bacteria ⟶ Symbiotic association
Biological Control of Pests and Diseases
(e.g,Rhizobium)
1. Ladybird→Aphids
⟶ Free-living (e.g. Azotobacter &
2. Dragonflies→Mosquitoes
Azospirillum)
3. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)→ Butterfly, Caterpilla (dried
sperms mix with H₂O) 2. Fungi → Mycorrhiza (e.g. Glomus) (fungi absorbs P
4. Trichoderma→Root borne pathogens from soil)
5. Baculoviruses (Nucleopolyhedrovirus)→ Insects (Species
3. Cyanobacteria (e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena &
specific narrow spectrum)
Oscillatoria)
Chapter
BIOTECHNOLOGY
11 PRINCIPLES & PROCESS
Introduction

(European federation of
Biotechnology)
The definition given by EFB is : "The integration of
natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof &
molecular analogues for products and services."
TOOLS OF THE rDNA TECHNOLOGY
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology was discovered by Cohen &
Boyer.
The key tools : (1) Restriction enzymes, (2) Polymerase enzymes, (3)
Ligases, (4) Vectors and (5) Host organism.

PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA

TECHNOLOGY

(2) Fragmentation / Cutting of DNA by

(1) Isolation of Genetic Material (DNA)
We have to break the cell open to release DNA.
This can be achieved by treating the bacterial cells / plant or
animal tissue with enzymes such as : (i) Lysozyme (bacteria), (ii)
Cellulase (plant cells) and (iii) Chitinase (fungus).
RNA can be removed by treatment with ribonucleases whereas
proteins can be removed by treatment with protease.
restriction endonucleases
2 enzymes responsible for restricting growth of bacteriophage in E.
coli were isolated.
One of these added methyl groups to DNA while the other cut DNA.
The later was called restriction endonuclease (molecular scissors or
chemical knives).

DNA ultimately precipitates out after the addition of chilled

ethanol.

DNA that separates out can be removed by spooling.

Restriction Endonuclease

The first restriction endonuclease was Hind-II.

Hind II (Hin-dee-two) was isolated from bacterium

Nomenclature of restriction enzymes
Haemophilus influenzae Rd.
Hind II always cut DNA molecules at particular point by Escherichia coli RY13
recognising a specific sequence of 6 base pairs.

More than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated

from over 230 strains of bacteria for Eco RI the
recognition sequence
5' GAATTC 3'
3' CTTAAG 5'
 Functioning of Restriction
This leaves single stranded portions at the ends. There
endonuclease are overhanging stretches called sticky ends.
They form hydrogen bonds with their complementary cut
counter parts.
Restriction endonuclease are used in genetic engineering to
Each restriction endonuclease functions by 'inspecting' the
form recombinant molecules of DNA.
length of a DNA sequence.
When cut by the same restriction enzyme the resultant DNA
It will bind to the DNA and cut each of the helix at specific fragments have the same kind of sticky-ends these can be
points in their sugar - phosphate backbones. joined together using DNA ligases.

Each restriction endonuclease recognises a specific

palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA.

Restriction enzymes cut the strand of DNA a little away from

the centre of the palindrome sites but between the same 2
bases on the opposite strands.

3) Isolation of desired DNA

fragment: Agarose Gel Cohen & Boyer in 1972 contracted 1st recombinant DNA by
Electrophoresis linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native
plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium antibiotic resistance.

The cutting of DNA by molecular scissors (restriction
endonucleases) results in the fragments of DNA.
Fragments can be separated by a technique known
as gel electrophoresis / agarose gel electrophoresis.
Since DNA are negatively charged molecules, they can be
separated by forcing them to move towards the anode
under the electric field through a medium / matrix.
Smaller the fragments size, the farther it moves.
DNA fragments can be visualised only after staining the DNA
with ethidium bromide followed by exposure to ultraviolet
radiation.
Bright orange coloured bands of DNA in a ethidium bromide
stained gel exposed to UV-light is observed.
The separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose
gel and extracted from gel piece. This step is known as elution
(i) Denaturation, (ii) Primer Annealing and (iii)
Extension of primers
The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA.
Linking of antibiotic resistance gene with the plasmid vector
became possible with enzyme DNA ligase which act on the cut
DNA molecules & joins their ends to form recombinant DNA.
Plasmids are used as vectors for gene cloning because they self
replicate in bacterial cells.
Vectors used at present are engineered in such a way that
they help easy linking of foreign DNA & selection of
recombinants from non-recombinants.
Some plasmids may have only one or 2 copies per cell whereas
others may have 15-100 copies per cell.

Features required to
facilitate cloning into a
4. Amplification of Gene of interest
using PCR vector

(i) Ori (Origin of Replication)

Sequence from where replication starts also responsible
for controlling the copy number of the linked DNA.

Plasmids have their own ori site.

 (ii) Selectable Marker
Only transformants will grow if we spread the
transformed cell on agar plates.
Vector requires a selectable marker which helps in identifying &
eliminating non-transformants.

Normally, the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as

ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin, etc are
considered useful selectable markers for E. coli.

(iii) Cloning Sites

The vector needs to have very few, preferably single recognition

sites for the commonly used restiction enzymes.

E. coli cloning vector pBR322 showing restriction sites (HindIII, EcoRI,

PvuI, BamHI, SalI, PvuII, PstI, ClaI), ori & antibiotic resistance genes
Alternative selectable markers have been developed which
(ampR & tetR ). Rop codes for the proteins involved in the replication
differentiate recombinants from non-recombinants on the
of the plasmid.
basis of their ability to produce colour in the presence of a
chromogenic substrate.
Ligate a foreign DNA at the BamHI site of tetracycline resistance
gene in the vector pBR322.
Recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of
an enyme results into inactivation of the enzyme, which is
One antibiotic resistance gene (ampR) helps in selecting the
referred to as insertional inactivation.
transformants & the other antibiotic resistance gene (tetR )
gets inactivated due to insertion of alien DNA and helps in
selection of recombinants. Presence of a chromogenic substrate gives blue coloured
colonies, if the plasmid in the bacteria does not have an
insert.

(iv) Vectors for cloning genes in

plants & animals
(a) Vector for plant:
(5) Transferring the recombinant DNA
Agrobacterium tumifaciens into the host (Competent host)
for transformation with r-DNA
(Ti) plasmid is modified into a cloning vector which is no more
pathogenic to the plants but is still able to use the mechanism to
deliver gene of interest into a variety of plants.

Escherichia coli can also be used. Method - i

Treating bacterial cell with a specific concentration of a

divalent cation, such as calcium, which increases the efficiency
(b) Vector for Animal with which DNA enters the bacterium through pores in its cell
wall.
Retroviruses in animals.
Recombinant DNA can then be forced into such cells by
Tools of pathogens into useful vectors for delivering gene of interest incubating the cell with recombinant DNA on ice, followed by
to humans.. placing them briefly at 42°C (heat shock) & then putting them
back on ice.
Recombinant DNA bearing gene for resistance to
antibiotic (e.g., ampicillin) is transferred into E.coli, the
host cells become transformed into ampicillin-resistant
cells.
 Method - ii Microinjection Method - iii Biolistic / gene
(for Animals) gun (for plants)

Cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or

r-DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
tungsten coated with DNA.
Disarmed pathogen vectors, when allowed to infect the cell,
transfer the rDNA into the host.

(6) Culturing the host cells in medium

at large scale
(7) Extraction of the desired
Cells harbouring cloned genes of interest to be grown in image
Product
quantities require bioreactors (where large volume of culture
can be processed).
Include separation & purification, collectively referred to as
A bioreactor has optimum growth condition (temperature, pH, downstream processing. The product has to be formulated with
substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen). suitable preservatives.

The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type. E.g. In case of drugs, strict quality control testing for each
product is required.
A stirred - tank reactor is usually cylindrical or with a curved
base to facilitate the mixing of the reactor contents to
maintain O₆ availability.

Alternatively air can be bubbled through the

reactor.

Bioreactor has an : 1. Agitator system, 2. An O₂ delivery system,

3. A foam control system, 4. A temp- control system, 5. A pH
control system and 6. Sampling ports so that small volumes of the
culture can be withdraw periodically.
Chapter
BIOTECHNOLOGY &
12 ITS APPLICATIONS

INTRODUCTION Genetically Modified

3 critical research areas of biotechnology are :
Organisms
Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism
Genetic modification has :
Creating optimal conditions through engineering
- Chemical pesticides (pest - resistant crops) are used less frequently.
Downstream processing technologies
- Crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (Cold, drought, salt, heat)
- Enhanced nutritional value of food, eg: vitamin ' A ' enriched rice (golden
rice).
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL - Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants
APPLICATIONS IN - Reduce post harvest losses.
- Create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in
AGRICULTURE the form of starches, fuels & pharmaceuticals.

3 options than can be thought for increasing food production:

- Agro-chemical based agriculture
- Organic agriculture
- Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture. 2. Pest-Resistant Plant
Increased yields have partly been due to the use of improved crop
varieties but mainly due to the use better management practices - A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and
& use of agrochemicals (fertilisers & pesticides). causes a great reduction in yield.
- A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which was based
on the process of RNAi (RNA interference).
- RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular
1. Production of Pest defense.
resistant Plants - It involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary dsRNA
molecule that binds to & prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).
Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis. - Both sense & anti-sense RNA are produced in the host cells.
Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria & been - Two RNA's being complementary to each other form a double standed
expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and silenced the specific mRNA of the nematode.
need for insecticides, in effect created a bio-pesticide.
Bt toxin is protein that kill certain insects such as :
1. Lepidopterans
2. Coelopterans 3. Dipterans
B.thuringiensis forms a toxic insecticidal protein that 3. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
exist as inactive protoxins but once an insect ingest
APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form of
toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut which
solubilise the crystals.
- About 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved
The activated toxin binds to the surfare of midgut epithelial cells
for human use over the world. In India, 12 of these are
& create pores that cause cell swelling & lysis
presently being marketed.
Bt toxin genes isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis &
incorporated into several corp plants such as cotton., corn, rice,
potato, etc.
Bt toxins are insect-group specific. CryIAb controls corn borer.
CryIIAb & cryIAc control the bollworms.
 - ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
1. Genetically Engineered
Insulin - Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of
antigens or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against the
pathogen.

- Insulin consists of 2 short polypeptide chains - chain A &

chain B, that are linked together by disulphide bridges.
- In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-
hormones which contains an extra stretch called the C-
peptide.
- C-peptide is not present in the mature insulin & is removed
during maturation into insulin.
- 1983 , Eli Lilly an American company prepared 2 DNA
sequences corresponding to A & B, chains of human insulin 86
introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
- Chains A & B were produced separately, extracted &
combined by creating disulphide bonds to form human insulin
(Humulin).

2. Gene therapy

- Genes are inserted into a person’s cells & tissue to treat

a disease.
- First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4- year
Treatment
old girl with ADA (adenosine deaminase) deficiency which is
crucial for immune system
- ADA deficiency causes SCID (Severe Combined Immuno
Deficiency)
- Bone marrow transplantation and enzyme - replacement
therapy both are not completely curative.
- However, if the gene isolate from marrow cells producing
ADA is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could
3 . Molecular Diagnosis be a permanent cure (gene therapy).

(i) r-DNA technology, (ii) PCR and (iii) ELISA.

- Very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be
detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR. 4. TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
- PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS
patients.
Uses of transgenic Animals
- Detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients,
identify many other genetic disorders. 1. Normal physiology & Development
E.g., Study of complex factors involved in growth such as insulin-like
- A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive growth factor.
molecule (probe).

- Probe is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA 2. Study of Diseases

followed by detection using autoradiography. Like cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and
Alzheimer's.
 3 . Biological Products
Such as, human protein (α-1 antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
In 1997 , the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein
enriched milk (2.4 gram per litre).
having human -lactalbumin and was nutritionally a more balanced
product for human babies than natural cow-milk.
4. Vaccine Safety
Use in testing the safety of vaccines before they are used on
humans.
Eg. polio vaccine.
5. Chemical Safety Testing
For testing toxicity of drugs.
Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them
more sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals.
5. ETHICAL ISSUES
- GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), for validity of GM
research & the safety of introducing GM-organisms for public
services.
- Biopiracy-The use of bio-resources by multinational companies &
other organisations without proper authorisation from the
countries & people concerned without compensatory payment.
- There are an estimated 2,00,000 varieties of rice in India alone.
The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest in the world.
- 27 documented varieties of basmati are grown in lndia.
- 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice
through the US patent & Trademark Office.
- The Indian parliament has recently cleared the second amendment of
the Indian Patents Bill that takes such issues into consideration, and
including patent terms emergency provisions & research &
development initiative.
Chapter

13 ORGANISM AND
POPULATIONS
Ecology: Relationships of living organisms with the
abiotic\biotic components.
Range of conditions that a organism can tolerate,
resources it utilises & a functional role in the ecological
system, comprises niche.

Major Abiotic Factors

Temperature
Most ecologically relevant factor.
Decreases from the equator towards the poles.
Subzero levels in polar regions, 50°C in tropical deserts.
Thermal springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents
exceeds 100°C.

Tolerate wide range of temperature eurythermal.

Restricted to a narrow range of temperature

stenothermal.

Light
Temperature affect the kinetics of the enzymes.
ADAPTATION
Autotrophs produce food through photosynthesis.
Adaptation in desert plants
Photoperiodic requirement for flowering.

Timing their foraging, reproductive & migratory Thick cuticle (sunken stomata).
activities. Special photosynthetic pathway (CAM).
Leaves are reduced.
SOIL Aquatic mammals like seals have layer of fat (blubber)
that acts as an insulator.
pH, mineral composition and topography determine Desert lizard manage their body temperature by
vegetation and type of animals. behavioural means.
(Morphological, physiological, behavioural) attributes
that enable organism to survive & reproduce.
Adaptation in KANGAROO RAT
WATER
Meeting water requirement through internal fat
Second most important factor
oxidation (solid urine).
The productivity & distribution of plants dependent on
water.
For aquatic organisms (chemical composition, pH) are
important.
Tolerant of wide range of salinities (euryhaline).
Restricted to narrow range (stenohaline).
Maintenance of constancy of internal environment homeostasis.
 POPULATION
Population: group of similar individuals (same
species) that live in a geographical area,
share or compete for similar resources &
potentially interbreed.
Population density:
Number of individuals of a species per unit
area.
Tiger census based on pug marks & fecal
pellets.
Fluctuates due to four basic process
(natality & immigration) increase population density,
(mortality & emigration) decrease.
Nₜ₊₁ = Nₜ +[(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population increases if B + I > D + E
Population decreases if B + I < D + E
POPULATION INTERACTIONS
PREDATION
Transferring energy to higher trophic level.
Predator keep prey populations under control.
e.g., The prickly pear cactus introduce in Australia
spread rapidly.
Cactus feeding moth was introduced.
Help in maintaining species diversity by reducing competition. e.g.,
starfish (Pisaster).
Predators in nature are prudent.
Altitude sickness
Symptoms : 1. Nausea, 2. Fatigue & 3. Heart palpitations.
Gradually person get acclimatised.
By : 1 . Increasing RBCs production, 2. Increasing breathing rate & 3.
Decreasing binding affinity of Hb.
Representation of age pyramids for human population
GROWTH MODELS
K = carrying capacity
N = population density at time t
N₀ = Population density. at time 0
Nₜ = Population density after time t
e = Base of natural log (2.71828)
b =Birth rate
d = Death rate
r =Intrinsic rate of natural increase:
Defences Against Predation
Insect & frog are cryptically coloured (caomouflaged).
Monarch butterfly is distasteful to predator.
Thorns of Acacia & Cactus are morphological means of
defence.
Calotropis produces poisonous cardiac glycosides.
 Competition Mutualism

Fitness of one species is lower in the presence of Both the interacting species are benefitted. Examples :
another.
Lichen
Mycorrhiza

Plant-Pollinator relationship: fig pollinated by its partner

Gause's Competitive wasp.
Exclusion Principle Female wasp uses the fruit as egg laying site

Competitively superior species will eventually eliminate the other (Ophrys) employs sexual deceit
species.

e.g., 1. Abingdon tortoise: in Galapagos islands became extinct

after goats were introduced

e.g., 2. Connell's elegant field experiments: Balanus dominates & Parasitism

excludes Chathamalus.
Resource Partitioning: Avoid competition by different times for
feedings or different foraging patterns. Ectoparasites. e.g., 1. Lice on humans. copepods, Cuscuta
Example: Warblers living on the same tree. Endoparasites e.g., 1. Liver fluke Plasmodium

Life cycles of endoparasites are more complex morphological &

anatomical features simplified while emphasising reproductive
potential.

Commensalism
Chapter

14 ECOSYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
comprises biotic & abiotic components. STRUCTURE OF FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

2 main structural features of an ecosystem :

Ecosystem (E) 1. Species composition. 2.Stratification.
Identification & enumeration of plant & animal species of an
ecosystem gives its species composition.
Man-made E Vertical distribution of different species occupying different
Natural ecosystem levels is called stratification.

eg. Crop field Functional Components of ecosystem

Terrestrial E Aquatic E Aquarium
Productivity Decomposition Energy Flow Nutrient cycling
Pond Lake
Wetland River
Forest Grassland Desert Estuary

PRODUCTIVITY
Factors affecting rate of decomposition
Amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit
area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis
is called primary production. controlled by I. Chemical composition of detritus 2 . Climatic factors
Measure in terms of weight (g/m²) or energy (kcal/m²)
Slower if detritus is rich in lignin & chitin
Productivity expressed in terms of (g/m²) y⁻¹ or
(kcal/m²) y⁻¹ Quicker if detritus is rich in nitrogen & water soluble substance
like sugars.
1. Gross primary productivity (GPP) :
2. Net primary productivity (NPP):
Warm & moist environment favour decomposition.
GPP - R = NPP Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibits decomposition
GPP > NPP.
NPP is the available biomass for the consumption to
heterotrophs (herbivores, decomposers).
Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers is called 2°
productivity.

Topic 4. Decomposition

Complex organic Decomposition Simpler inorganic substances

matter (CO₂, H₂O and nutrients)
The important steps in the process of decompositions are : 1. Fragmentation; 2. Leaching; 3. Catabolism; 4 . Humification 5.
Mineralisation.
Detrivers breakdown detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation.
Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon & get precipitated as unavailable salts by the process of leaching.
Bacterial & fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances by the process of catabolism.
Fragmentation, leaching & catabolism in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus.
Humification leads to accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance called humus. Humus is highly resistant to microbial action &
undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
The humus is further degraded by some microbes & release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process called mineralisation.
 ENERGY FLOW
Sun is the only source of energy for alI ecosystems on earth except for
the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem.
Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% of it is PAR
(photosynthetically active radiation).
About 1-5% of incident solar radiation or 2-10% of PAR is captured by
plant for photosynthesis
Energy flow in an ecosystem is always unidirectional from sun to
producers & then to consumers.
Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels.
10% law: Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from
the lower trophic level.
10% law was proposed by Lindeman.
Length of food chain is limited to 3 to 4 trophic levels due to energy loss.
Food chains are of 3 types : 1. GFC (Grazing food chain), 2. DFC (Detritus
food chain) and 3 . PFC (Parasitic food chain)
In a food chain (GFC), the initial organisms
A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted as :
Grass --- --- --- --- Goat --- --- --- --- Man
Producer Herbivore 1 ° Carnivore
1ˢᵗ trophic level 1 ° consumer 2° consumer
2nd trophic level 3ʳᵈ trophic level
Death of organism is the beginning of detritus food chain/web
(DFCJ .
Detritus or dead biomass that serve as an energy source for
decomposers.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
In a terrestrial ecosystem a much larger fraction of energy flow
through the DFC than through the GFC.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a
particular time is called standing crop, which is measured by two
ways : 1. Biomass (mass of living organisms) & 2 . Number in an
unit area.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
2. Pyramid of Biomass
Ecological pyramids are usually of three types:
The pyramid of biomass in sea or lake is generally
I. Pyramid of Number : lnvened/ upright
inverted
2 . Pyramid of Biomass : Jnvcrtcd/ upright
3 . Pyramid of Energy : Always upright 3. Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of energy is always upright.
1. Pyramid of Number
In parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is inverted.
In an a ecosystem dominated by trees the pyramid of number
is spindle shaped /inverted.

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

Same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. e.g., Sparrow.

It assumes a simple food chain.
It does not accomodate a food web.
Decomposer or saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids.

ECOLOGICAL of successions Type of successions

These changes are orderly & sequential parallel with the

changes in the physical environment.
These changes lead finally to a community that is in near
equilibrium with the environment & that is called climax
community.
The entire sequence of communities that successively
change in a given area are called sere or seres. The
individual transitional communities termed seral stages
or seral communities.
The species that invades a bare area are called pioneer
species
4 changes seen : I. Changes in the diversity of species of
organisms. 2 . Increase in the number of species. 3.
Increase in the number of organisms. 4. Increase in total
biomass.
1° succession:where no living organism ever existed. e.g., Newly
cooled lava; Bare rock and Newly created pond or reservoir.
2° succession: where natural biotic comm unities have been
destroyed. e.g., Abandoned farm lands; Burned or cut forest and
Land that have been flooded.
1 ° succession is a natural process. Takes several hundred to
several thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock.
Since some soil or sediment is present, 2° succession is faster
than 1 ° succession.
Chapter
BIODIVERSITY AND
15 CONSERVATION

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity termed by Edward Wilson

3 important components of biodiversity are :
l. Genetic diversity,
2 .Species diversity and
3. Ecological diversity

Genetic diversity

high diversity at genetic level (not at genus level)

Species diversity
The diversity at the species level is called species diversity.
Ecological diversity
Diversity at the ecosystem level is called ecological diversity.

Topic 2. Magnitude of
Biodiversity

• According to IUCN 2004 [International Union for

Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources), total
number of plant & animals species described so far is
slightly more than 1.5 million (15 lakhs).

• Robert May places the global species diversity at about

7 million

• More than 70% of all the species recorded are animals

while plants comprise no more than 22% of the total.

• Among animals insects are the most species rich

taxonomic group making up more than 70% of total
animal species
 • India has only 2.4% of world's land area. India's share of the TOPIC 3. PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
global species diversity is an impressive 8.1%.
• 2 factors which are responsible for uneven distribution of
• In India one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
biodiversity :
• If we accept May's global estimates only 22% of the total 1. Latitudinal gradients
species have been recorded so far.
• general species diversity decreases as we move away from the
equator towards the pole.
TOPIC 4. SPECIES AREA
RELATIONSHIPS • The greatest biodiversity on earth is present in tropical
Amazonian rain forest in South America.

• Alexander von Humboldt observe that with in a region species

richness increases with increasing explored area, but only upto a Amazon rain forest has
more than
limit.
Invertebrates 125000
Plants 40000
• The relationship between species richness & area turns out to be a
Fishes 3000
rectangular hyperbola for wide variety of taxa
[S = CAᶻ] Birds 1300
On a logarithmic scale the relationship is a straight line.
Amphibians 427
| Log S = Log C + Z log A |
Mammals 427
• Regression coefficient (Z) have generally a value of 0.1 to 0 .2
Rentiles 378

• But for a very large area like the entire continent slope of the line
(Z) to be much steeper (Z values in the range of 0.6 to 1.2). e.g., for
frugivorous birds (fruits eating birds) and mammals in the tropical
forest of different continents the slope is found to 1.15.
Where : S = Species richness TOPIC 6, LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
A = Arca
Z = Slope of the line Loss of Biodiversity is mainly due to human activities.
(Regression coefficient)
C = Y- intercept

TOPIC 5. IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES

DIVERSITY TO THE ECOSYSTEM

1. Stability:
2. Productivity
3. Ecosystem Health:
According to David Tilman greater the biodiversity greater is the
primary productivity.

More than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the

Rivet popper hypothesis threat of extinction.

• Rivet popper hypothesis is given by Paul Ehrlich .

• It shows the effect of biodiversity loss on the ecosystem.
• Removal of a rivet (key species that drive major ecosystem
functions) is obviously a serious threat

Effect of loss of biodiversity

• Decline in plants production (productivity)

• Lowered resistant to environmental perturbations like drought
• Increased variability in certain ecosystem process
 TOPIC 7, CAUSES OF LOSSES OF
2. Over-exploitation
BIODIVERSITY
• In the last 500 years many species extinctions (Steller's sea cow,
• 'The Evil Quartet' : Habitat loss and fragmentation , Over passenger's pigeon) were due to over-exploitation by human.
exploitation, Alien species invasions, Co-extinction

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

3. Alien species invasions
• Tropical rain forest once covering more than 14% of the earth land
surface but these rain forest, now cover no more than 6%.
• The Amazon rain forest is so huge that it is called the "lungs of the
planet".

4. Co-extinctions

• When a species become extinct, the plant & animal species

associated with it in an obligatory way also become extinct.
co-evolved plant pollinator mutualism
Threatened species
• Critically Endagered (CR) :extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild in immediate future. Sus saluanius (Pigmy hog).
• Endangered (ER) :

1. Hotspot
TOPIC 8. BIODIVERSITY I. High level of species richness.
CONSERVATION 2. High degree of endemism.
3. Accelerated habitat loss.

1. NARROWLY UTILITARIAN (Direct economic
benefits)
Food (cereals, pulses & fruits), II - Fire wood, III - Fibres, IV –
Construction materials, V - Industrial products (resin, lubricants,
dyes, perfumes), VI - Products of medicinal importance.
• Bioprospecting: Exploring molecular, genetic & species level diversity
for products of economic importance.
Species which are confined to that region & not found anywhere else
are called endemic species & characteristic is called endemism.
Regions of accelerated habitat loss.
Initially 25 biodiversity hotspot s were identified but subsequently 9
more have been added bringing the total number of biodiversity
hotspots in the world to 34.

Three hotspots
• Western Ghat and Srianka,
2. BROADLY UTILITARIAN • Indo-Burma,
• Himalaya.
• Production of oxygen :
• Pollination :
• Aesthetic values : 2. Biosphere reserve
•ETHICAL ARGUMENTS :
• Biodiversity conservation may be in-situ as well as ex-situ.

In-situ conservation
Conservation of organisms in natural habitat, is called in situ
conservation.

3. National park
• India has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national
parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
 4. Sanctuaries 5. Sacred Grooves

In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside of all the

trees & wildlife within were venerated & given total protection.
These area s are called sacred groves.

Example of Sacred Grooves :

l . Khasi & Jaintia hills in Meghalaya.
2 . Arawali Hills of Rajasthan .
3. Western Ghat regions of Karnataka & Maharashtra
4. Sarguja, Chanda & Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.

TOPIC 8, INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS

OF CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

• The Earth Summit : Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. for conservation

of biodiverisity & sustainable utilization of its benefits.

• The World Summit : Johannesburg in South Africa in 2002.

significant reduction in current rate of biodiversity loss at global,
regional & local levels.