Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Q1Review Compilation
Q1Review Compilation
of
Name: _________________________
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ego Psychology 79
Defense Mechanism 81
Role Theory 87
Communication Theory 86-87
Culture Theory 87-88
Learning Theory 88
Organizational Theory 89
Human Development 89-94
Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning 97
Theory of Moral Development 98
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development 98-99
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Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic Theory 99-102
Psychosocial Development of Erickson 102-103
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 104-105
Charlotte Towle’s Common Human Needs 105
Humanistic Perspective 106
Common Medical Disorders 110
Psychiatric Disorders 110-111
Culture 123-127
Family 127-130
Deviance / Social Deviance 130- 146
Dynamics of Family Life 146- 154
Social Process in the Groups and Communities 155-172
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Definition of Social Work.
…“The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships
and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human
behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their
environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work… “
Ethical awareness is a fundamental part of the professional practice of social workers. Their ability and
commitment to act ethically is an essential aspect of the quality of the service offered to those who use
social work services. The purpose of the work of IASSW and IFSW on ethics is to promote ethical debate
and reflection in the member organizations, among the providers of social work in member countries, as
well as in the schools of social work and among social work students. Some ethical challenges and problems
facing social workers are specific to particular countries; others are common. By staying at the level of
general principles, the joint IASSW and IFSW statement aims to encourage social workers across the world
to reflect on the challenges and dilemmas that face them and make ethically informed decisions about how
to act in each particular case. Some of these problem areas include:
• The fact that the loyalty of social workers is often in the middle of conflicting interests.
• The fact that social workers function as both helpers and controllers. •
The conflicts between the duty of social workers to protect the interests of the people. with whom they
work and societal demands for efficiency and utility.
• The fact that resources in society are limited. This document takes as its starting point the definition of
social work adopted separately by the IFSW and IASSW at their respective General Meetings in Montreal,
Canada in July 2000 and then agreed jointly in Copenhagen in May 2001 (section 2).
2. International Conventions International human rights declarations and conventions form common
standards of achievement, and recognize rights that are accepted by the global community. Documents
particularly relevant to social work practice and action are:
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Principles
Social work is based on respect for the inherent worth and dignity of all people, and the rights that follow
from this. Social workers should uphold and defend each person’s physical, psychological, emotional and
spiritual integrity and well-being. This means:
1. Respecting the right to self-determination – Social workers should respect and promote people’s right
to make their own choices and decisions, irrespective of their values and life choices, provided this does
not threaten the rights and legitimate interests of others.
2. Promoting the right to participation – Social workers should promote the full involvement and
participation of people using their services in ways that enable them to be empowered in all aspects of
decisions and actions affecting their lives.
3. Treating each person as a whole – Social workers should be concerned with the whole person, within
the family, community, societal and natural environments, and should seek to recognise all aspects of a
person’s life.
4. Identifying and developing strengths – Social workers should focus on the strengths of all individuals,
groups and communities and thus promote their empowerment.
Social Justice
Social workers have a responsibility to promote social justice, in relation to society generally, and in relation
to the people with whom they work. This means: 1. Challenging negative discrimination* – Social workers
have a responsibility to challenge negative discrimination on the basis of characteristics such as ability, age,
culture, gender or sex, marital status, socio-economic status, political opinions, skin colour, racial or other
physical characteristics, sexual orientation, or spiritual beliefs.*In some countries the term “discrimination”
would be used instead of “negative discrimination”. The word negative is used here because in some
countries the term “positive discrimination” is also used. Positive discrimination is also known as
“affirmative action”. Positive discrimination or affirmative action means positive steps taken to redress the
effects of historical discrimination against the groups named in clause 4.2.1 above. 2. Recognising diversity
– Social workers should recognise and respect the ethnic and cultural diversity of the societies in which
they practise, taking account of individual, family, group and community differences. 3. Distributing
resources equitably – Social workers should ensure that resources at their disposal are distributed fairly,
according to need. 4. Challenging unjust policies and practices – Social workers have a duty to bring to the
attention of their employers, policy makers, politicians and the general public situations where resources
are inadequate or where distribution of resources, policies and practices are oppressive, unfair or harmful.
5. Working in solidarity – Social workers have an obligation to challenge social conditions that contribute
to social exclusion, stigmatisation or subjugation, and to work towards an inclusive society.
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Professional conduct.
It is the responsibility of the national organisations in membership of IFSW and IASSW to develop and
regularly update their own codes of ethics or ethical guidelines, to be consistent with the IFSW/ IASSW
statement. It is also the responsibility of national organisations to inform social workers and schools of
social work about these codes or guidelines. Social workers should act in accordance with the ethical code
or guidelines current in their country. These will generally include more detailed guidance in ethical practice
specific to the national context. The following general guidelines on professional conduct apply:
1. Social workers are expected to develop and maintain the required skills and competence to do their job. 2. Social
workers should not allow their skills to be used for inhumane purposes, such as torture or terrorism. 3. Social
workers should act with integrity. This includes not abusing the relationship of trust with the people using their
services, recognising the boundaries between personal and professional life, and not abusing their position for
personal benefit or gain.
4. Social workers should act in relation to the people using their services with compassion, empathy and care.
5. Social workers should not subordinate the needs or interests of people who use their services to their own needs
or interests.
6. Social workers have a duty to take necessary steps to care for themselves professionally and personally in the
workplace and in society, in order to ensure that they are able to provide appropriate services.
7. Social workers should maintain confidentiality regarding information about people who use their services.
Exceptions to this may only be justified on the basis of a greater ethical requirement (such as the preservation of
life).
8. Social workers need to acknowledge that they are accountable for their actions to the users of their services,
the people they work with, their colleagues, their employers, the professional association and to the law, and that
these accountabilities may conflict.
9. Social workers should be willing to collaborate with the schools of social work in order to support social work
students to get practical training of good quality and up to date practical knowledge
10. Social workers should foster and engage in ethical debate with their colleagues and employers and take
responsibility for making ethically informed decisions.
11. Social workers should be prepared to state the reasons for their decisions based on ethical considerations, and
be accountable for their choices and actions.
12. Social workers should work to create conditions in employing agencies and in their countries where the
principles of this statement and those of their own national code (if applicable) are discussed, evaluated and
upheld. The document “Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles” was approved at the General Meetings of
the International Federation of Social Workers and the International Association of Schools of Social Work in
Adelaide, Australia, October 2004.
Republic Act 4373 promulgated in 1965, gave social work formal recognition as a profession. What, then,
constitutes a profession? Ernest Greenwood was able to distill the following five elements as constituting
the distinguishing attributes of a profession.
1. Systematic Body of Theory. The skills that characterize a profession flow from and are supported by
a fund of knowledge that has been organized into an internally consistent system called of a body
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of theory. Theory serves as a base in terms of which the professional rationalizes his operations in
concrete situations. The reliance on a systematic body of theory or knowledge is a very crucial
characteristic of a profession that is why preparation for a profession, unlike preparation for non-
professional occupations, requires formal education in an academic setting.
Social Work, like all other professions, derives knowledge from any different sources, and in
addition, builds its own body of knowledge from practice. There are three types of knowledge which
social work uses: tested knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive knowledge. Tested
Knowledge is knowledge that has been established through scientific study (research). In social
work, tested knowledge comes in the form of borrowed knowledge from different professions and
disciplines, as well as from that which has been developed through social work research. Thus, in
practice, social workers apply learning from economics, public administration, psychology,
sociology, anthropology, political science, law, medicine, etc. which are generally obtained in the
course of their formal education. As for social work practice theory, social workers in the country
still greatly depend on the research studies and practice literature from other countries, particularly
in the United States. Hypothetical knowledge still has to undergo transformation into tested
knowledge, even if tentatively such knowledge may be accepted to explain certain facts (e.g., the
hypothesis that the nature and extent of people’s participation is crucial to effective community
problem solving, or that ignorance more than religion is the reason for the lo acceptance of family
planning among Filipino couples). We do use a great deal of such “unproved theory” in the field of
social work, and many analytic and evaluative studies which have been undertaken require further
investigation as to come close to being established theory. Assumptive knowledge or practice
wisdom, of course abound in social work, we can perhaps say that the more experience one has had
in practice, the more assumptions or suppositions he tends to make to his work (e.g., “Client value
service more when it is not given entirely free”, or “a slightly authoritarian social worker is a more
effective helping person in the context of Philippine culture “, or the “ Western concept of
professionalism where a social worker is expected to be business-like and impersonal cannot work
in our setting”)
2. Professional Authority. Extensive education in the systematic theory of her discipline provides the
professional with a type of knowledge which the layman does not have. This authority ascribed to
the professional by reason of her educational background gives the client a sense of security that the
professional has the capacity to help him with his problem. The exercise of professional authority is
not without limits, however.
3. Community Sanction. Recognition of professional authority is expected not only in the client-
professional relationship but also in the professional-community relationship. The community
sanctions a profession’s authority by way of giving it certain powers and privileges. Among these
powers and privileges are the profession’s control over its (a) training centers, (b) admission into
the profession and (c) standards for professional performance.
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4. Regular Code of Ethics. Every profession has a built-in regulative code, partly formal or partly
informal, which compels ethical behavior on the parts of its members. This code serves to check
possible abuses which arise out of a profession’s exercise of authority, and its accompanying powers
and privileges.
5. Professional Culture. Formal and informal groupings characterize all occupations, including the
professions. For social work, the network of formal and informal groups within which it operates
includes the organizations that benefit from a profession’s services (schools, courts, social agency,
hospital, etc.); the educational institutions which produce and replenish manpower; and the
professional association which promotes professional interests and aims. The “interactions of social
rules required by the formal and informal groups generate a social configuration unique to the
profession, vi., a professional culture.” The culture of a profession consists of its value, norms and
symbols.
Social Value refers to the basic and fundamental beliefs of a professional group, practically the
reason for its existence.
In social work, we believe that the individual is the primary concern of society, and the society has
a responsibility to help the individual realize his potentials by removing the obstacles which prevent
his self-fulfillment, among other things.
Professional norms are the accepted standards of behavior of doing things, which guide the
professional in various situations such as how to handle consultations, how to relate to superiors,
colleagues and subordinates, how to treat clients, how to challenge an outmoded theory, how to
present a new idea, and so.
The philosophy of social work is derived from the society of which it is a part. Social work based on the
belief that man has worth and dignity. This belief is generally associated with democratic theory which
views a man as having worth because he is capable of reason, of rational analysis, and choice. Howard
Mumford Jones, an outstanding humanist, writes- “Humanism implies an assumption about man. It implies
that every human being by the mere fact of his existence has dignity, that this dignity begins at birth, that
the possession of this dignity, even if dimly realized by the possessor, is, or ought to be, the continuum of
his life, and that to strip him of this dignity, is to degrade him in so outrageous a way that we call the
degradation inhumane”…
In our society, being predominantly Christian, many would further explain human worth and dignity in
terms of man’s having been created in the image of God (and having a soul, some would even add). At any
rate, whether we accept only the first explanation for man’s worth and dignity, or both, this basic philosophy
gives us the explanation for the values held by social work.
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THE VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK AND ITS IMPLIED CONCEPTS
1. The concept of human potentials and capacities. The man can fulfil himself is premised on the belief
that he is inherently endowed with potentials and capacities.
2. The concept of social responsibility. That the individual has the obligation to contribute to the
common good, and society, on its part, has the responsibility to facilitate the development of its
member, gives a dual meaning to this concept.
3. The concept of equal opportunities. This concept is premised on the ideal of social justice, two
elements of which are fairness and equality.
4. The concept of social provision. This concept is based on the premise that there will always be
people everywhere, at all times, with unmet needs or problems which are beyond their own capacity
to solve. Thus, social provision refers to the desirability of providing social resources for the
satisfaction of human needs for the goal of human welfare.
1. Natural VS. Transcendental View. In the naturalistic view, man is part of nature. He can be studied
and understood scientifically as we do the rest of nature, so that if we know all that science could
teach us we could finally account man and his behavior. The transcendental view, on the other hand,
holds that science can never fully explain man, partly due to our ignorance, and partly because man
has a potential to transcend the natural order of things, to choose, to create, and to be rational.
2. Man as Social, Asocial, or Anti-Social. Being social, men aspire to live on good terms with others,
to be part of and to contribute to group life, making personal goals subservient to group goals. As
asocial beings, they are discreet individuals who come together to from groups for their mutual
protection and safety. As anti-social beings, men are viewed as inherently self-seeking, egotistical,
out to extend personal gain at the expense of others.
3. Democracy’s view of man. Man as viewed as capable of reason, of rational analysis and choice. It
believes that social, biological, cultural and psychological influences are powerful in determining
behavior, but that man can overcome these influences and exercise choice.
Endowed with a fundamental philosophy and professional values, the practice of social work is guided by
certain basic principles or rules of action for the practitioner (emanating from such values, as different from
“principles” of action built on tested knowledge or generated truths).
1. Acceptance of people as they are. The social worker brings into the relationship with the client her
professional education and experience, and the agency’s support of helping role in keeping with its
societal prescribed goals. These form the basis for respecting the client (individual, group or
community) under any circumstances, an approach which is “an expression of a compound of
attitudes that are based on scientific assumptions based about human behavior”. This leads the
worker not only to an understanding of meaning and causes of the client’s behavior, but also to a
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mode of meeting and causes of the client’s behavior, but also to a mode of meeting and interacting
with the client, i.e., non-judgmentally.
The principles of acceptance, does not mean approval of deviant attitudes or behavior. “The object
of acceptance is not the good but the real”, which means dealing with the client as he is in reality.
Acceptance also means that we recognize that people have strengths and weaknesses, and capacities
and limitations.
2. Participation of the client in problem-solving. One can almost say that the principle of participation
is already given, for indeed, how can there be a “helping relationship” without the client’s
participation? Just the same, there is need to stress the point that the worker does not take over in a
helping relationship. The client is there, and has a pa rt in the entire problem-solving process.
3. Self-determination as a right of the client. The main idea in this principle is that the individual (or
group or community) who is in economic, personal, or social need, has the right to determine what
his needs are and how they should be met. The worker does not do everything for the client is capable
of “self-help”. She will not manipulate his affairs, but will guide him so that he is able to look at his
problem objectively, understand what choices or alternatives are open to him, their implications and
consequences, and then make his own decisions. A client develops or regains her self-respect and
self-confidence when he realizes that he is able to solve his own problems.
4. Individualization of clients. The principle of individualization involves the “the recognition and
understanding of each client’s unique qualities and the differential use of principles and methods in
assisting each toward a better adjustment,,.. based upon the right of human beings to be individuals
and to be treated not just a human being but as thin this human being with his personal differences”.
This principle means that the worker recognizes that while human beings have many things in
common, there are also important individual differences which must be accepted.
This principle tells us to appreciate the fact that no two persons (not even identical twins) are exactly
alike. Thus, social workers should relate to each client as an individual in a situation, which involves
the interaction of different factors – physical, social, psychological, etc. The impact of the interplay
of these factors on one individual and his consequent reactions would not be the same in the case of
another individual.
5. Confidentiality. The idea behind this principle is to provide the client protection, within the limits
of the law, from harm that might result from his divulging information of the worker. Trust is an
important element in client-worker relationship. If a client is to participate fully in the process of
solving his problem, if he is to freely express his feelings about himself and about others in his
situation, and if he is to put down his “defenses” and just be himself with the worker, then there
must be assurance that what he tells the worker will be kept in confidence.
6. Worker sel-awareness. In its broad sense, this principle means that the social worker is always
conscious that her role is to make use of her professional relationship with her client in a way that
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will enhance primarily the client’s development rather than her own. Self-discipline is crucial to the
principle of worker self-awareness. Her very position provides her countless opportunities to
manipulate people and their affairs, and to use her relationship with them to meet personal ends.
7. Client-worker relationship. The relationship between the worker and the client, is the means for
carrying out the social worker’s function. The phrase the “social work problem – solving takes place
within a meaningful worker-client relationship” puts the emphasis on “relationship”. The purpose
of client-worker relationship is to help the client in some area of his social functioning on which in
the present time he is experiencing some difficulty, and where, the worker. Usually presenting a
social agency, is in some position to offer help. A purposive client-worker relationship allows for
some degree of subjective feelings which cannot be entirely removed in any relationship.
Ambivalence, introduced into psychiatry by the noted psychiatrist, Bleuler, is based on the
proposition that the human mind functions in a dualistic way and that conflict between its
opposing tendencies, often results.
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Ethics is the science that treats of morals and right conduct. Professional ethics is the system
of ethical principles and rules of conduct generally accepted by the members of a
professional group, based on the philosophy, values and guiding principles of that
profession. It has two aspects: the profession’s Code of Ethics which is the written
expression of some of these principles and rules of conduct fort the guidance of the
professional group (drawn and adopted by its own members), and the unwritten principles
and rules of conduct which usually have the same force as the Code. Together, they serve as
a compass which helps guide the practitioner in her professional relationship – with her
client, with her colleagues and her profession, and with her agency, and with the public. The
following is the Philippine Association of Social Worker’s Code of Ethics as revised in 1998;
the original/first code was adopted in 1964, then revised in 1972.
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CODE OF ETHICS
We, the members of the Philippine Association of Social Workers, Inc. believing:
- In the inherent worth and dignity of all persons emanating from Supreme Being who directs our
actions of love for one another;
- That every human being has natural and social rights, capacities and responsibilities to develop his
full potential as a human being;
- In the human being’s capacity to change and recognize the value of unity in diversity, individual
differences and pluralism in society;
- In free men and women living freely in a free society where poverty, in all its forms, is neither a fate
nor a punishment but is a condition that can and must be changed;
- In the family as the basic unit of the society and its vital role in the growth and development of the
individual, the family system, and the community;
- That the government, the private sector and the public have a joint responsibility to promote social
justice and to ensure the political, economic and social well-being of all people’
- In the role of social workers as agents of change and in the promotion of professionalism,
responsibility and accountability; and,
- That our professional practice is deeply rooted in our cultural values.
B. Relative to Client
1. To uphold the basic human rights of clients and serve them without discrimination;
2. To accept primary responsibility and accountability to clients, respecting their right to self-
determination, and observe confidentiality in all my dealing with them;
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3. To seek out the marginalized and ensure equal access to the resources, services and opportunities
required to meet basic needs; and
4. To expand choice and opportunity to all persons, with special regard for disadvantaged or
oppressed groups or persons.
C. Relative to Colleagues
1. To acknowledge and respect the professional expertise of other disciplines, extending all
necessary cooperation that will enhance effective services;
2. To bring any violation of professional ethics and standards to the attention of the appropriate
bodies inside and outside the profession and ensure that relevant clients are properly involved;
and
3. To advocate with legislative and policy bodies for the welfare of all colleagues.
In addition of the foregoing Code of Oath there are unwritten duties and obligations that are expected of a
professional social worker. The following are some of these:
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A professional does not just oppose agency policies with first discussing the matter with the
appropriate persons
A professional observes established agency rules, channels, and procedures and advocates for their
change or modification if these are not satisfactory
The preceding obligations are given, understood as being practice by professionals and therefore do not
have to be stated explicitly in the code.
Why is there a need for a system of professional ethics, particularly a formal, written code? The following
are among the purposes served by a profession’s Code of Ethics:
1. It helps check abuses which can which can result from the powers and privileges accompanying the
monopoly enjoyed by a profession (for example, social workers enjoyed a monopoly in the
preparation of client case histories in agencies dealing with child adoption, as well as in family
courts which decide action on youth offenders);
2. It provides the community some protection against abuses by members of the profession (e.g., the
community is made aware of professional standards in light of which the conduct of members may
be evaluated and, if need be, censured);
3. It sets forth basic principles which serves as guidelines to members of the profession, and which are
helpful in the socialization of future professionals;
4. It sets guidelines for relationships, if not specific duties of members of each other, to their clients,
and to other groups;
5. It is a useful resource for the enrichment or improvement of the professional curriculum
The observance of a profession’s system of ethics is not free of problems. At the present time, for
example, social workers face many ethical dilemmas, a few of which are in the following areas:
1. Manipulation. In our setting, manipulation comes in many forms, such as in the matter of influencing
clients to act in the way a worker wants them to act in response to a given situation, or manipulating
agency reports to justify budgetary requests.
2. Advocacy. We realize the need for social workers to engage in advocacy that will bring about social
reforms which will benefit large segments of our population. However, we must with ethical
problems that often go with advocacy. For example, in the cause of advocacy, some promote
unnecessary conflict situations, resorting to various machinations, including the use of insult,
embarrassment, distortion of the truth, disruption and violence.
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3. Conflicting loyalties. We listed loyalty to one’s agency as among the professional’s duties to her
agency or organization.
4. Cultural and the realities. Our culture presents certain ethical dilemmas to the social worker. For
example, the social worker is expected to follow the established rules and procedures of an agency.
However, our workers know that our personalistic culture often calls for the use of personal
“connections” to facilitate action on a client’s request.
1. Restorative. This function aims at rehabilitating client whose functioning has been impaired by
physical, mental, or social difficulties. It implies a temporary breakdown of normal functioning. It
has two aspects:
a.) Curative – identifies, control or eliminate the factors in the interactional process that have caused
the breakdown or impairment of social function.
b.) Rehabilitative – to reconstruct or organized the pattern of interaction that has been broken down,
been changed or build new ones.
2. Preventive. It goes through the early discovery, control or elimination of those condition which may
impair psychosocial functioning. Examples of preventive program are recreational character
building activities for children and youth, supplementary feeding, nurseries and pre-school for very
young, counselling and other services.
3. Developmental. This refers to the assistance of services which will lead to the optimum development
and fulfillment of the client’s potential. It is concerned with building of strengths and self-
realization, self-fulfillment and self-actualization. It is applied to client’s whose social functioning
is more or less normal or impairment has been restored.
1. Person Person
2. Problem Problem
3. Agency Place
4. Helping Process Process
Person/client
It refers to an individual (man, woman, or child), a family, small group or community who finds
himself or themselves is found to be in need of help in some aspects of his economic, social and emotional
living. It also refers to “one for whom professional services are rendered” or the “one dependent on the
patronage(protection) of other. “Case” is another term refers not only to the person or persons involved but
includes the state of affairs or the situation in which they are the principal characters.
Types of clients:
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Walk-in. This refers to an individual, a couple, or representatives of an organization or community
who, on their own, seek the help of an agency/social worker about a concern or problem. The client initiates
the contact.
Referred. The client is referred to the worker or agency by some interested or concerned party- a
relative, neighbour, teacher, etc. Examples are the mentally disturbed and severely handicapped persons.
This term is also applicable to those who are referred by others merely forced to secure help- involuntary
clients. Examples are drug users and juvenile delinquents.
Reach-out. These are the subjects for the “outreach” efforts of the agencies. They are aware of the
existing community agencies and the services they offer yet are too shy or are not adequately motivated to
seek help, especially on a personal or family problem.
Problem
It is a question or situation that presents uncertainty, perplexity or difficulty. The following are the
problems that are most often presented to social workers in the Philippines.
Economic problem:
Emotional problem:
Psychosocial problems:
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Agency
It is a human service instrumentally which has been set up to help human beings who are
experiencing some difficulty in the management of their own affairs either as individuals, families, groups
and communities. In simpler terms, it is known as the “provider of resources”.
Social welfare agency is the structured framework within which the administrative tasks are carried
out. It is the operational translation of social policy which has been set up by the founders and/or organizers,
or by the government itself.
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) is the government’s primary welfare
agency.
Helping Process
The last and most important component of social work practice it is the helping process, it is means
through which an agency purpose is achieved.
It is the phase through which treatment is applied to attain a change in behavior or in the
environment, or a problem is alleviated or resolved.
The goals are: (1) to help individuals, families, groups and communities cope with problems they
find difficulty in solving or in meeting their basic needs in such a way that they will make use of their
conscious, efforts, choices, and competencies; and (2) engage the client in ways of coping that may be of
use to him in dealing with new or other problems that he may encounter now and then as long as he lives,
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It has basically three major phases (Hepworth and Larsen, 1986):
The following are the two presentation of the simplified steps in the helping process:
Intake is the process by which a potential client achieves the status of a client. It is first contact of the
client with a social agency through its representative, the social worker. Intake interview is the specific step
upon which the worker records on the intake sheet the identifying data about the clients. Initial engagement
occurs when the client commits a client status and the worker commits the agency to provide services.
Purpose:
1.) Record identifying data about the client such as name, age, civil status, address, family
composition, etc., and the nature of his request. Every agency has an intake sheet or a prescribed
form of its purpose.
2.) Identify the presenting problem – that which is causing the most difficulty, so much so that the
client was impelled to ask for help or has been referred.
Process:
Intake – on the client’s part, this involves the presentation of the self and the problem or need as he or she
is experiencing it.
- On the part of the social worker, this involves some assessment of the client and the problem
and whether or not the agency is in a position to help.
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- A good intake interviewer should provide the client with adequate understanding of the agency
and its policy and program in relation to the need or problem, as well as the responsibilities or
obligation for both the client and worker.
- The intake process may end either with the worker or client deciding not to proceed or the client
committing to have client status.
- Initial engagement said to have taken place
= There must be an agreement before the client and the worker as to the problem to be worked in, or simply,
the problem for work.
- Is elicited (to get, draw out) at the very start because this is where data gathering begins.
- The worker use the problem as the starting point of his search for vital information to guide the
subsequent steps he will take.
- Sometimes the presenting problem may just be an immediate or precipitating causing the present
difficulty and a deeper or underlying problem may engage later (precipitating – to cause to
happen, result or outcome of source process or action, aftermath, consequence, effect)
3. Determine the client’s presumptive eligibility and motivation to use a service. If his need cannot be met
then he’s referred or redirected to another agency which can help him.
B. Data-Gathering
This entails the gathering of comprehensive information about all the dimension of a problem so
that the interaction of its components can be understood. Its purpose is to understand and determine the
nature of the problem and what resources will be required for it.
Secondary Source. This is the “significant others” in the life of the client which refers to those with
whom he has personal relationships like parents, siblings, relatives and friends. This can extend to whom
he relates, like people in his school, employment, church, and organization.
Existing Data. These are information previously collected by others such as records and reports
from other professionals (physicians, teachers, etc.) and social workers of other agencies, studies (e.g.
census data) and evaluations.
Worker’s own observations. These are the information which the worker obtains from observing
the individual client alone or in interaction with others.
Principles in data-gathering.
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1. The client should be the main source of information although, when appropriate and available, other
sources should be used.
2. Data to be gathered should directly relate to the identified problems.
3. The client should be informed about the source being used for data collection. In certain cases, his
permission should be sought before certain kinds of information are obtained.
4. Data collection is a continuous process but it is the collection, organization and synthesis of such
data that is especially critical to the definition of the problem and setting goals.
5. The kind of client and the general nature of the problem can guide the worker on the type of data
that should be collected and how much.
C. Diagnostic Assessment
Diagnosis is the worker’s professional opinion to the nature of the need or problem which the client
presents. The purpose of assessment is to evaluate the individual’s capacity and motivation to use help and
his relationship to his family and its environment or to understand a family or other small group in its social
context.
It takes into account the nature of problem, factors that precipitated it, client’s capacities, extent of
his motivation and his strength to work on the problem.
Underlying Problem – the overall situation which tends to perpetuate the immediate problem.
Perpetuate – occurring repeatedly over a long time, to cause something that should be stopped.
Working Problem – composed of those contributory factors that stand in the way of both remedy and
prevention which must be dealt with if change is to take place.
Planning is the link between the assessment (identification of the presenting problem, data-gathering
and diagnostic assessment) and Intervention (it is also considered part of the assessment process). It involves
goal and objective setting and the determination of strategies to be used.
Goal Setting is the first step in the planning of the problem solution. Goals are ends. They are the
desired or expected outcomes of an endeavor. Goals must be problem-related, stated clearly and precisely.
Specific objectives or intermediate goals are the sub-goals which facilitate the achievement of the long term
or overall goals. These objectives must be accomplished in order to achieve or reach the goal.
Characteristics of goals:
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1. Specific, concrete and measurable. Goals that are stated in too broad or general terms are
difficult to measure. This makes it difficult for the worker to know if they have been
accomplished, thus making it difficult also to hold her accountable for her professional activities.
2. Feasible. Goals should be realistic and attainable.
Strategy is defined as “an overall approach to change a situation”. It implies orchestrated action that
involves different entities, each having a role to play in order to achieve the define goals. In social work,
we now find a variety of approaches to practice called theories of practice or models of practice. These
conceptualizations (e.g. Crisis Intervention Approach, Mediating Model, and Locality Development)
provide an overall approach to practice and therefore may be considered as strategies.
1. Maximum Feasibility. The strategy or approach possesses the greatest chance of producing the
desired result.
2. Availability or resources. The external resources needed are available and accessible; the family is
willing to try this out.
3. Workability. The plan will work.
Feasibility – possible to do; capable of being done, achievable, attainable.
- To provide with the means or opportunity like training that enables people to earn a living.
Advocate – a person who argues for the cause of another person in a court of law.
Intervention is also termed as action or treatment. This phase is concerned with the action that would
solve the client’s problem. This is the translation into action of the plans that has been agreed upon in the
first phase of the helping relationship. This refers to the actual undertaking of the tasks and activities that
the client and worker have planned, working together for the realization of the specific objectives and thus
working towards the attainment of the end goal.
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Interventive roles refer to the composite activities or tasks that she is expected to undertake in order
to accomplish the goals agreed upon with the client.
Resource Provider. This role engages the worker in the direct provision of material aid and other
concrete resources that will be useful in eliminating or reducing situational deficiencies. Concrete resources
are mobilized, created and directly provided to the client who is assisted in making optimal use of them.
Social Broker. This involves the process of negotiating the “the service jungle” for clients, whether
singly or in groups. The worker links or connects the client to needed services in the community. She often
has to perform a variety of activities-helper, interpreter, facilitator, expediter, negotiator- to ensure paid
service delivery. Referral is considered a basic activity in this interventive role. A related term is networking
which refers to the worker’s efforts at establishing and maintaining relationship with the other community
entities which have resources that can support and implement her own agency’s resources.
Advocate. The term advocacy comes from the legal profession. The advocate will argue, debate,
bargain, negotiate, and manipulate the environment on behalf of the client.
Enabler. This role involve the social worker in inetrventive activities that will help clients find the
coping strengths and resources within themselves to solve problems they are experiencing. The client serves
as the primary resource, and change comes about mainly through the client’s efforts. The worker’s
responsibility is to perform a supporting and empowering function so as to enable the client’s
accomplishment of a defined change.
Counselor/Therapist. The goal of this role is the restoration, maintenance, or enhancement of the
client’s capacity to adapt or adjust to his current reality. Specific techniques used by the worker include
purposive listening, reassurance, persuasion, direct advice, teaching, guidance, suggestion, logical
suggestion, and exercise of professional and/or legal authority. Interventive roles beyond direct practice.
Mobilizer of community Elite. This intervention involves the worker in activities aimed at
performing and interpreting to certain sectors of the community, welfare programs and services, as well as
needs and problems, with the objective of enlisting their support and/or involvement in them. This sector
of the community called “elite” is comprised of individuals and groups, who are usually in a position to
provide, in one way or another, the resources the worker needs in her work with clients. They include the
professionals, politicians, and policy-makers, leaders of communities, the rich and the volunteers.
Documenter/Social Critique. In this interventive role, the worker documents the need for more
adequate social welfare policies and programs based on her knowledge (gained from actual experience)
about the inadequacies or deficiencies in these existing welfare policies and programs, as well as on her
beliefs as to how they ought to be, in the light of professional values and goals.
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Policy/Program change Advocate. The worker in this role, different with in the direct practice, is
involved in efforts to change policies and programs on behalf of particular sectors of the population based
on the values and profession.
Time. The worker may not give the client unlimited time; however. She has a commitment to do
certain activities within a span of time, she should keep that commitment. When facing constraints in work
like “emergencies”, heavy case loads, etc. which prevent the worker from honoring the commitments to
clients, she should inform her clients ahead of time and not make promises she is not sure she can fulfill.
She should also have the ability to use her time economically. More often than not, the problem is not lack
of time but management of time.
Skill. The worker should watch out for the activities that are within her competence. This requires
her to be aware not only her strengths but more importantly, her limitations. Resource persons and
consultants should be utilized when appropriate or necessary. Part of the worker’s professionalism is the
ability to recognize her limitations and to acknowledge the need for the expertise of others.
Ethics. The worker should watch out for activities that might commit her to unethical behavior.
Some examples of these in our setting are arrangements with clients to receive “commissions” upon
approval of a client’s request for material assistance or benefits, doing business out of material and intended
for needy clients, and allowing her position to be used for political purposes.
Agency Function. The worker must be sure that she understands and interprets agency function
properly. Some agency functions are stated broadly enough as to allow her much leeway in serving clients.
However, it does happen that the agency function will place limitations on the agreements between her and
the client, and both of them have to accept this. A worker who is convinced about the need to modify or
change agency function to make it more responsive to the needs of the clients should advocate within the
agency for such desired change, but the worker should have realistic expectations and observe ethical
behavior in relation to this.
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Knowledge of the available resources
Skill in utilizing these resources (in modification or establishing new ones)
Systematic use of support system needed to render a high quality of service.
The Helping Relationship
The Helping Relationship is an integral part of the helping process. It is the bridge, the channel
through which help is extended to the client. It is the anchor which holds the helping process in place.
Perlman defines relationship as a condition in which two persons with some common interest
between them, long term or temporary, interact with feeling.
It is said to exist when there is an emotional charged interaction between two people.
The professional purpose of the helping relationship in social work is to help person using one’s
professional knowledge, values and skills.
When does such a relationship start or when can it be said that it exists? Hamilton once wrote that
it only exists when a rapport is created for a professional purpose that it may be said that the person asking
for help is a client. In social work, rapport is said to exist when there is a comfortable, warm, close
relationship between the helpee and the helper ensuring their working together to solve or alleviate the
latter’s difficulty. In a helping relationship, when does rapport exist in a social work helping process?
Honest, Realistic and Responsible. This means that the worker must have honor, integrity and
probity. He is realistic because he knows himself for what he really is with his own unique combination of
personality characteristics and is guided by this knowledge in his professional actuations. He must be
responsible i.e. legally and ethically accountable for his actions.
Exercising Judgment. Any professional judgment that the worker makes should be based on reality.
There are two sides of reality: (a) reality as it is; and (b) reality as the client sees it to be. The two other
perspective of reality are narrow side and broad side.
General roles:
Catalyst or Catalyzer. He was expected to enhance the client’s psychosocial functioning by inducing or
facilitating some changes in his environment or both.
Enabler. He supplies, provides, or links the client with the means, the knowledge or opportunity to be or
to do something.
Change Agent. The worker becomes the instrument of some transformation has been planned at a higher
or national level.
Specific roles (those that touch the client directly or those which require the performance of specific tasks):
Direct Provider of Resources. The worker provides the tangible aid that may be needed by the client to
eliminate or reduce situational deficiencies.
Case Manager. The worker is responsible for overseeing the delivery of social services such as linking the
client with the provider of the resources that he need.
Mediator/Broker/Intercessor. The worker acts in behalf of the client scouting for the resources that he
needs, procuring this for him, and interceding for him if need be.
Facilitator. The worker helps removing the obstacles to exercise of rational thinking or learning by the use
of non-formal adult teaching and methodologies.
Therapist. The worker is concerned with the treatment of client illness, disability, or some disorders,
usually a pathological conditional.
Clinician. The worker is the worker who seeks to restore, maintain, or enhance the clients’ adaptive capacity
and facilitates his optional adjustment to current social reality.
Mobilizer. The worker assembles and energizes existing groups, organizations and resources or create new
ones as to bring them to bear on a current or incipient problem.
Advocate. The worker seeks some change in policy or program for the benefits of his clients.
Role Model. The worker is often overlooked, perhaps not recognized or taken for granted
PLANNED CHANGE
Planned Change is defined as a change originating from a decision to make a deliberate effort to
improve the system and to obtain the help of an outside agent in making this improvement.
The Decision is to make a change may be made by the system itself, after experiencing pain
(malfunctioning), or discovering the possibly of improvement, or by an outside change agent who observes
the need for change in a particular system and takes the initiative in establishing relationship with that
system.
The specific system that is being helped is called “Client System” which can mean any of the following:
1. The personality system which consists of related sub-parts; the conscious, unconscious, the mind
and the body.
2. The group, families, committee, staffs, clubs and other smaller social units.
3. The organization, any of the larger system which comprise the community; business organization,
welfare agencies, educational institutions, political parties, religious associations.
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4. The community made up of variety of interacting sub-parts, e.g. individual citizens, informal interest
groups, organized occupational or political sub-groups, economic and social strata geographical
units, etc.
Hence; there is the psychiatrist who usually works with personality systems, marriage counselors and
leadership trainers who work with the organizations, and adult educators who work with communities.
The process or the development of the relationship is defined as consisting of the following:
Phase 1: The client system discovers the need for help, sometimes with stimulations by the change
agent.
Phase 2: The helping relationship is established and defined.
Phase 3: The change problem is identified and clarified.
Phase 4: Alternative possibilities for change are examined; change goals or intentions are
established.
Phase 5: Change efforts in the reality situation” are attempted.
Phase 6: Change is generalized and stabilized.
Phase 7: The helping relationship ends or a different type of continuing relationship is defined.
First of all, social work is planned change since all social work activities in relation to given problem or
situation are part of a conscious and deliberate effort to effect change whatever this change is deemed
necessary or appropriate.
The Social work method of intervention refers to the application helping repertoire of the methods
and processes of differential, influential, planned action taken by a Social Worker to sustain selected helping
purposes. These are change-inducing and resource-providing actions.
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Primary or Direct Method. In this method, the worker is engaged in direct work with individuals and groups
which is popularly known as “direct practice” or “micro social work practice”.
Social Casework is an individualization form of helping people cope with personal problems,
usually involving an impairment or breakdown of social functioning. Richmond’s concept of casework
treatment involved the use of resources to facilitate the individual’s adjustment to social living, to assist
clients to understand their needs and possibilities, and to help them work out their own programs.
Social Group Work is a method through which individuals and groups are helped by a social worker
to relate themselves to people and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and
capacities.
Therapeutic Group Work is used mainly in medical and psychiatric settings, guidance clinics and
correctional work, and with disabled person such as substance abusers.
Local Social Group Workis concerned with preventive and developent goals, work with street children, out
of school youth and etc.
Community Organizing/work. Arthur Dunham defined this method as the process of bringing about and
maintaining adjustment between social welfare resources and social welfare needs within the
geographic area or specific field of service.
Secondary or Indirect Method. Are those applied in “direct practice” or “macro practice” they do not deal
directly with clients.
Administration is accepted as one of the important methods of social work practice because what it does,
the policies it enunciates, the plans it develops, the project it undertakes ultimately affect the client’s
welfare. Management, from the administrator’s point of view is overseeing the use of agency
resources. It includes responsibility for social attainment of organizational maintenance activities in
social welfare.
Research. refers to a systematic investigation inquiry and the study of a problem for the purpose of adding
more knowledge of verifiable matters. The main strategy of social work research is the study of
phenomena by naturalistic methods, that is, without experimental manipulation.
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3 Functions of Research in Social Work
1. The perspectives and methods of science can provide a framework for practice activities.
PRACTICE APPROACHES
Generalist Approach. This requires the social worker to study the client or the client system and the
environment so that he can determine the appropriate methods of intervention to be used.
Specialization. It is social work practice in a certain area or field which requires expert knowledge and
skills.
Clinical Social Work. In this approach, the worker uses a variety of techniques in order to diagnose the
cause of the disorder so as to be able to plan treatment.
Total Family Approach. This refers to the discovery and utilization of the strengths within the family, that
is, among its individual members to solve individual and family problems.
Baranganic Approach. This refers to the application of the community organizing method using the
barangay council or a similar structure as a point entry to gain access to or come closer to the
community
Community Outreach. This refers to the efforts of an agency, organization, or situation to make available
social services to a target population in the community who it believes can use some assistance
instead of waiting for the people to come to the agency to ask for help.
Integrated Approach. In social work, it incorporates what is common or generic in all three primary
methods of social work intervention towards creating a better environment and maximizing
opportunities for developing individual material.
Tool is defined as “anything regarded as necessary in the carrying out of one’s occupation or
professions”. Is a social work direct intervention, the tools used are interviewing, discussion and referral.
The tools used in all types of client systems are the interview, social work records, communication,
community resources and program and activities.
INTERVIEWING is the main tool used in social work practice. It is a face-to-face meeting between
two or more persons, directed towards a purpose, such as to obtain information, to give instructions and to
help. It is both an art and technique which requires knowledge and skill. It is an art because while
interviewers may follow the same principles, it allows for the expression of one’s personality.
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The following are the skills needed for an effective interview:
REFERRAL is the process by which a client is helped to move on to another resource for service.
It is a necessary tool because no single institution or agency can serve all the needs of man in a complex
society. In order to make a good referral, i.e. to enable the client to go directly to the resource he needs
instead of being bounced from one agency to another, the worker must possess a good working knowledge
of the resources available.
SOCIAL WORK RECORDS/CASE RECORDING is an account in writing of the progress of a
client in a case as it moves from the beginning of the problem-solving phase towards its eventual solution
and finally to its ending or termination. It is an account of how the worker handled a case from the beginning
to the end; whether the client is an individual, a family, a group, or even a small community. The casework
pioneers who conceptualized social work practice divided it into three points: study, diagnosis and
treatment.
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It would be more accurate to say that the first part of the case recording is the case study. Case
recording can be considered as an indirect tool of social work intervention because it enables the worker to
see for himself how a case is progressing so that he can make such modification or changes as may be
necessary to reach the goal or purpose of the helping process.
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survival; and psychosocial/psychogenetic history which is generally used with clients
presenting an impairment of the psychosocial functioning.
Periodic summaries. These are made to cover a certain period of time during which the case
is under the care of or is being handled by the worker. This is applicable to long-term case
work, group work which formed groups, and with community work. In the Philippines, the
latter may take years to realize the goal of building self-reliant communities.
Transfer summary. It refers to the summary made when the case is to be transferred to
another worker or is being referred to another agency. it may contain a brief statement of the
problem, the treatment plan and what has been accomplished so far.
Closing entry or summary. This focuses on the causes and results of the treatment or
intervention. It covers the situation at intake and the reasons involved the problem that
emerged, the treatment given, services extended, or intervention, made the progress
movement or chance achieved, and the results or status of the case.
3. Interpretative, Diagnostic and Evaluate. This type of recording is directed to pointing out the
meaning of facts. Its significance lies in the social interpretation of the case by the worker. It carries
in fact, his own opinion.
a) Intake forms – also called Face sheet, Admission Form, Application Form.
b) Survey report – contains findings about the community situation, indicating date, place and
source of data.
c) Summary Process Recording – the summaries of the process taking place in relation to problem
solving, whether with an individual, group, community, with the worker exercising judgment in
recording those which she thinks important.
d) Periodic Evaluate Summaries – including a statement about the major developments that have
occurred.
e) Final Evaluate Statement – focusing on the extent to which/objectives spelled out in the Case
Study have been accomplished/ not accomplished and why; recommendations for termination
or continuation of service.
Communication is a term derived from the Latin word communis which means to make common,
and the word communi-care, which means to share or to impart. It is the sharing or the exchange of thoughts
between two or more persons. It is a two way process (which start with the source initiating the
communication and the receiver responding) and method (a way of helping people learn, through varied
forms) by which a source purposively shares messages with a receiver directly or via a channel and both
learn from each other. it is the basic ingredient in helping people.
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Elements of the Communication Process
Message. The message of a communication could be a knowledge, an attitude, and/or behavior which the
source wishes to convey to the receiver. This message can be conveyed in various ways: verbally,
non-verbally and through symbols. The verbal communication involves the use of words, whether
spoken or written. Morales and Sheafer point out three fundamental task in interviewing:
a) Listening which is the worker’s being sincerely interested in, and concentrating on what is being
said;
b) Interpretation which refers to the worker’s ability to interpret constantly the meanings (conscious
and unconscious) of the client’s words and behavior; and
c) Questioning which needs good timing, appropriateness and a good relationship with the client.
The non-verbal communication is a communication without words and only conveyed through
the person’s physical appearance dress, facial expression, behavior, gestures, sounds, silence,
ouch, eye contact and so on. Symbols are essentially a non-verbal form of communication with
unique characteristics of their own. They come in the form of pictures, diagrams, posters, logos
etc. and can stand by themselves, or with words. Symbols are chosen for different reasons – to
appeal to the intellect and/or to create dissatisfaction and to foster unity.
Channel. This refers to the proper course or “channel” of transmission of communication, that is either
interpersonal communication which involves face-to-face with people, or mass media which comes
in two forms – printed materials such as leaflets, pamphlets, posters, flip charts, comics, magazines,
newspaper etc. and electronics like radio, television and films; or both.
Receiver. The person, group, population segment/total population that is the intended audience of a
communication is called “receiver”
Communication resources. Refer to the programs and services offered by a variety of agencies and
organizations. These come in the form of funds, supplies and equipment, training, consultancy services,
material assistance and counseling. Their scopes also differ, so that we find agencies providing skills
training only for youth, or only educational loans for ethnic minorities, or emergency material assistance,
resettlement, as well as rehabilitation services for urban squatters. Community resources may be offered
under public, semi public, or private sponsorship. They may be available on a local, national or international
level.
Program/Program Activities are used to “denote a general class of activities, each of which
consists of an interconnected series of social behaviors that usually is infused with meanings and guided by
performance standards from the larger culture.
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Purpose of program activities:
1) Small talk. This refers to inconsequential conversation. It is used in almost all contacts between the
worker and the client. It is used by the social worker at the beginning of a contact, that is, the first
interview of the first home visit to put worker and the client especially the latter, at ease.
2) Support. To support another person is to encourage, to uphold to sustain some aspect of the client’s
functioning – his strength, his attitude, his eagerness to do something about his problem. It means
to sustain or keep steady, to give courage, to express faith and confidence and to give realistic
approval to an individual or group.
3) Ventilation. It involves bringing to the surface the feelings and attitudes that need to be brought out
because these are affecting the psychological functioning of the person harboring them – the client.
It is to clear any emotional underbrush that may be obstructing a positive movement.
4) Reassurance. It is an indirect support to client. It involves assuring the client that the situation with
which he is struggling has an attainable solution and that he has the capacity to deal with his own
problem.
5) Installation of hope. It is given when the worker demonstrates interest in client’s efforts and
progress, encouraging his efforts, offering realistic assurance and expressing hope that things will
be better.
6) Exploration. It is used to elicit necessary information; to bring out details about experiences and
relationships as the client perceives them; and to examine the feelings connected to the relationships
and experiences.
7) Clarification. It is to make understandable a point or two. As a technique, it is often used in
connection with exploration.
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8) Education and Advice. It was formerly known as advice-giving and counseling. In social work, it
refers to the provision of ideas, opinions and suggestions based or drawn from the worker’s
professional knowledge. According to Schwartz, one of the major tasks of the social worker is to
contribute data, ideas, facts and value concepts which are not available to the client and which may
prove useful to him in attempting to cope with that part of social reality which is involved in the
problem with which he is working.
9) Universalization. It is the utilization of human experiences and the strengths of other to cope with
situations similar to thos which are troubling the client. To pick up or choose a certain trait or pattern
of behavior characteristics of all members of a particular culture or of all human beings.
10) Reward and Punishment. One gets rewards for good behavior or is punished for misbehavior. It
is used when there is better understanding of the causes and greater ability to anticipate and control
the consequences.
11) Role rehearsal and Demonstration. This may be used extensively when learning new ways of
behavior is required. It is done by discussion or actual setting up of role play situations or by
demonstration.
12) Confrontation. It is come to face to face with the hard facts of the situation with reality, to bring a
person face to face with something.
13) Conflict. Is a type of stress produced when a person is motivated by two or more needs in such a
manner that the situation of one need my mean the dissatisfaction of another one.
14) Manipulation. It means skillful management of events. The workers as a manipulator must bear in
mind three things: (1) the client’s right and need to be involved both in deciding and doing, (2) the
client’s ability to participate; (3) the distinction between those activities that are appropriate for the
workers and those that are appropriate for the client.
15) Andragogy. According to Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of helping adults to
learn.
16) Consciousness – raising. It means the arousing of man’s positive self-concept in relation to the
environment and society through a liberating education which treats learners as active agents rather
than passive recipient of learning.
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II. SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY AND PROGRAM
1. Helping the needy and the distressed is an old civilization itself although not necessarily on a formal
organized basis.
2. In ancient China refuge was provided for the sick and the poor; also, provisions for distributing
clothing and feeding the unfortunate.
3. In Greece and Rome there were “Xenodochia” or quest houses for the custody and care of the various
classes for the unfortunate.
4. Almsgiving was recognized by the religious duly or means of obtaining grace for the giver.
It was only slightly more than 100 years ago that the magnitude of social problems made it
necessary to organize under private and public initiative service for the needy
Problems of distribution, maladjustment, physical and mental illness were dealt with by
1. Religious motivation became the most powerful incentive for benevolence and charity, particularly
as the Jewish and Christian teachings.
Charity was motivated primarily by the desire of merits of good deeds for eternal life.
According to Christian primarily by the charity gave the recipient of aims dignity whereas
almsgiving ennobled the generous giver.
1.1 The early Christians helped one another when facing poverty.
1.2 Medieval church entrusted the administration charity to the bishops, local priests and the
deacons.
1.3 With acceptance of Christianity as state religion, institutions for the poor were establish in
monasteries, serving as orphanages, as homes for the old, the stick, and the handicapped, and as
refuges for the homeless.
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Missionaries devoted their time to missionary teaching, collecting aims and distributing
relief for the destitute. They established charitable institutions.
Later on, institutions were replaced by “hospitals” for old and sick persons, orphans, abandoned
children, pregnant woman.
The prototype of the modern day community chest Martin Luther conceived that there should
be a “common chest” for the receipt of food, money, and clothing to assist the needy.
The responsibility for the collection of funds and the distribution of the relief to the destitute,
the stick and orphans was assumed by local authorities, but the church wardens played the
leading role in relief administration.
2.2 Individualization
During the 16th century the Spanish philosopher, Juan Luis de Vives advanced the idea that
the fate of individual poor deserved attention there should be investigation of the social
conditions of every pauper family. He recommended that aid be provided through vocational
training, employment, and rehabilitation instead of the customary distribution of alms.
Professor Busch, commissioner for public relief introduced a district system of investigation
and distribution of relief to individual paupers through volunteer committees. The poor were
interviewed and the individual needs of each family were determined. Children and youth were
trained in elementary courses and an industrial school was attached to the central orphan asylum.
Both the Hamburg and the Munich relief systems were financed by taxation and by
collections of voluntary gifts.
The city of Elberfeld introduced the idea of financing relief exclusive by public taxation.
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2.6 Daughters of Charity (1933)
Were the forerunners of social work. The organization was founded by St. Vincent de Paul
who recruited young women of the peasant class for charitable work. They were trained in nursing
the poor.
Father Vincent de Paul was most important reformer of the charities of the Catholic Church
during the 17th century.
1. Philosophical base
1.1Religious foundation
In medieval England care of the poor was an activity of the church. The main motive for almsgiving
as the salvation of the soul of the donor. Consequently, the almsgiver had little concern for the human being
who receive charity. The church devoted from ¼ to 1/3 of the lilhes and offering collected from parishioners
for charity.
1.2.1. Relief to the destitute was fist distributed by the priest of the parish, with the help of the church
wardens and deacons.
1.2.2 In the 13th and 14th centuries, religious orders and church institutions relieved the parish churches from
most of the duties of caring for the poor.
1.2.3 From the 12tn and 15th century the work of the church was supplemented by the relief activities of the
guilds. Craft and merchant guilds, rural fraternities, and social or church guilds were organized primarily
for the purpose of mutual self-help, brotherhood and fellowship.
2. Political foundation
The English (Elizabethan) poor law of 1601 remained for a long time the basis of English social
welfare.it was a codification of preceding poor relief regulations starting with the statute of laborers in 13 th.
1) Primarily responsibility for the care of the poor belonged to the individual’s family and relatives.
2) Those who would not supported by relatives had to be cared for by the parish or the local community.
3) Only the poor who were bona fide residents of the parish were eligible for assistance.
4) The parish must maintain the impotent poor from voluntary contributions of the parishioners through
collections.
5) A general tax was levied to provide “poor tax “ and was the main source for the financing of poor
relief.
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In England up to the early part of the 20th century personal failure was considered tha main cause of
poverty.
The poor law distinguished three (3) classes of poor :a)the able bodied poor ;b) the impotent poor ,
and c)dependent children.
Fifty years after chalmer’s pioneer work, the London charity organization society. Organized
a program of relief based of his idea, and laid the foundation of the individual approach in the social work
now known as “casework”.
3.3Social Reform
Edwin chadwick, the first pioneer in public hygiene, supervised investigations into the
causes of poverty and the means of an effective social reform. He recommended a system of government
providing under central direction decent aid to the poor, a sound public health protection, adequate housing,
recreation , and public schools for the entire population. He was ahead of his time. It was many decades
before his vision became an accepted concept of society.
The C.O.S encouraged the growth of private charities, the giving of donations and bequest in their
behalf, and the initiative among the volunteers for bringing individual aid to families in economic distress.
The C.O.S believes that the individual was responsible for his poverty and that the acceptance of
public relief destroyed the self-respect of pauper and leads him to subsist on aims. The pauper should
therefore be asked to exert all his abilities to maintaining himself.
The C.O.S use will-to-do Volunteers to give aid to the poor but their main emphasis was to exert
moral influence that would the way of life of the poor.
The example of the London C.O.S of 1869 was followed in other cities in England and the United
States. It developed cooperation between poor relief and private charities, succeeding in eliminating some
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fraudulent set ups, prevented duplication of support, and strengthened the concept of rehabilitation of the
poor. It formed the groundwork for casework in individual aid, and community organization.
It was introduced in London during the latter half of the 19 th century and the first one was called
Toynbee Hall. Its basic purpose was to establish contact between the educated men and women and the
poor for their mutual benefit, so that by common work and studies they could exercise a cultural influence
beyond the teaching of special subjects.it reached out to children and adults.
Social research was a third important factor that influenced the social philosophy and the practice
of poor relief in England. The most important among the surveys was that made by Charles Booth started
in 1886. The study showed that one third of the London population was living on or below the” poverty
line”. These findings disproved the previous theory that poverty was always the fault of individual.
The studies should that the deterrent features of the poor laws were no solution, and that human
suffering from destitution was often created by insufficient wages, environment, and inadequate, housing
and unhealthy sanitary equipment.
The finding of social research showed the necessary of introducing more effective measures of social
reform.
The Beveridge Report, named after the man who headed the committee which prepared the report,
is the basis of the present social security program of England.
Its underlying philosophy is that the British people should secured against want and other social
evils, and that security could be rendered while preserving the personal freedom, enterprises , and
responsibility of the individual of his family.
It declared that the goal of social security was to guarantee a basic level of income for every citizen
with his own efforts, so that his initiative to secure for himself and his family more than a mere subsistence
minimum should not be settled.
The present structure of the British social accuracy programs follows the recommending of
the Beveridge report. It consists of;
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4.2.1 Social insurance:
Health insurance, unemployment insurance, old age and invalidity insurance, workman’s
compensation, and special grants for marriage, child birth, and funeral expenses.
Upon application these are paid to every family with two or more children under 16 years of age
without regard to financial condition of the family. It represents government support to parents in the
bringing out of the children.
Consist of:
American social welfare was founded on the concept of the English poor law which remained the
Basis for public. Welfare in the U.S up to the end of 19th century. Paupers, beggars and vagrants were
regarded as a criminals. Whatever the cause of his distress, the pauper was regarded as a morally deficient
person.
Today the principle continues to be upheld that the individuals is primarily responsible for his
welfare but the community should establish a basic measure of security in areas beyond the individuals
control.
The cost of poor relief was met by the poor tax and later by public taxes.
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These programs were designed to remove some groups of inmates from the undifferentiated
misery of incarceration in the local almshouses and indicated recognition of a special claim these persons
had on the sympathies of the community. Institutions were set up for:
The purpose was state supervision of administrative of institutional care. The first state board
was organized in Massachusetts in 1863.it emphasized the family system by placing children and adults in
the community whenever it was not absolutely necessary to keep them in almshouses, hospitals or asylums.
The welfare pattern throughout nation on the eve of the great depression was a patchwork
consisting of local, country, state, and private activities, three fourths of all the aid to indigents was provided
under public measures. However, the service were far from adequate, they were in real sense simply a
preferential form of poor relief.
The great depression of the 1930s hit the U.S with a jarring impact. Millions of unemployed
had no place to go and there was a mass destitution. Now the federal government had to step in with a series
of emergency relief measures. Previous to this the states were mainly responsible for social welfare.
1) Emergency belief and reconstructions Act (1932) - to assist the industry and agriculture,
to provide funds to states for relief work.
2) Civilian conservation corps-1933, to provide works opportunities for young men in the
conservation of natural resources.
3) Federal Emergency Relief Act-1933, provided for grants to states for relief of
unemployment.
4) Work Progress Administration -1935, a large scale program of relief through
employment in publicly sponsored projects.
All these measures were considered temporary. It was planned for the federal government
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To withdraw for social welfare as soon as the crisis was over. What happened however was that in the end
the federal government assumed the major responsibility for social welfare, culminating in the passage of
the social security Act in 1935.
In 1935 the Social Security Act was passed at the instance of President Franklin Roosevell.
It changed the emphasis from limited aid to a few needy persons to a comprehensive system for the entire
population. It brought much broader resources to bear upon the problems of social welfare. It was a new
approach to the problem of income maintenance in times of crisis. It consists of 3 parts:
In 1964 the Economic Opportunity Act “Was passed the war on poverty” became the rallying
point. The Act was specifically geared to deal with the problems of poverty, education, manpower training,
mental health, vocational rehabilitation, public health and medical care, housing and urban development.
However many of the programs started during this period have been phase out or cut back for lack of federal
support.
1) A “friendly visitor” was installed in order to determine the need of every applicant and the necessary
measures for each case. (Pioneering in casework)
2) Training school for applied philanthropy was set up in New York in 1898. The plan was formulated by
Mary Richmond in 1897. (Pioneering in social work education)
First Phase
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The cost of poor relief was met by the poor tax and later by public taxes.
These programs were designed to remove some groups of inmates from the undifferentiated
misery of incarceration in the local almshouses and indicated recognition of a special claim these
persons had on the sympathies of the community,institution were set up for:
The purpose was state supervision of the administration of institutional care. The first state
board was organized in Massachusetts in 1863. It emphasized the family system by placing children
and adults in the community whenever it was not absolutely necessary to keep them in almshouses,
hospitals, or asylums.
Special measure were enacted by state legislators to meet the needs of special groups without
placing them in institutions.
In 1909 President Theodore Roosevelt – called the First White House conference on
Dependent Children. It inspired the creation of the U.S. Children’s Bereau. This was the first tacit
assumption of federal responsibility for social welfare.
The welfare pattern throughout the nation on the eve of the Great Depression was a
patchwork consisting of local, country, state, and private activities. Three fourths of all the aid to indigents
was provided under public measures. However th
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PHILIPPINE SOCIAL WELFARE
He was the moving spirit behind the introduction of vocational rehabilitation as a field of
social welfare. A veteran of World War II, Mr. Baltazar was the chief architect of the growth of
rehabilitation program which now includes all types of the physically as well as the socially handicapped.
His contribution to social work was the introduction of the multi-disciplinary or team approach to the
rehabilitation of client. He also introduced the vocational training center, a facility of which there now four
– one national, located in Barranca, Quezon City and the three regional center in Dagupan City, Cebu City
and Zamboanga. Mr. Baltazar received an AB degree from Ateneo de Manila University and was fellow in
Special Educational in Rehabilitation and Guidance at Columbia University, 1952-53.
In 1949 she became the chief of the Division of Public Assistance of the Social Welfare
Commission. In 1954 she was invited to join the University of the Philippines to teach social work courses
in the college of Arts and Sciences. She was appointed as first head of the Department of Social Work when
it was created in 1956. She became the project director of UNICEF-Assisted Social Services Project of the
Social Welfare Administration (formerly SWC). Ms. De Joya lobbied with others for the passage of the
Social Work Board Examiners where she served for a term of three years. Before she retired she was the
Deputy Director of the UN Social Welfare and Development Center for Asia and the Pacific (SWDCAP)
then located in Metro Manila. She held undergraduate and graduate degrees in education of Philippines
Women’s University. In 1948 she obtained a master’s degree in Social Work from the Catholic University
of America in Washington DC.
The “Father of Philippine Social Welfare, he was the commissioner of Public Welfare. A
doctor of medicine, he also devoted much of his time to public welfare concerns. He supervised and directed
the planning and development of Welfareville institution. He was the moving spirit in the establishment of
the “Settlement House” which has through the years provided temporary shelter to needy children and
women. He lent his support to Associated Charities of Manila. Through his effort this agency was later
absorbed by the Bureau of Public Welfare to form the nucleus of its Division of Public Assistance; the
forerunner of what is now known as the Bureau of Family and Community Welfare.
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KATIGBAK, MARIA KALAW
As a senator (1961-67) Dr. Katigbak authored and sponsored RA 4373 entitled “An act top
regulate the practice of Social Work and Operations of Social Work Agencies in the Philippines and for
other Purposes” better known as the Social Work Law. She was the first head of the Department of Catholic
Social Work, a graduate school department of the University of Santo Thomas which she herself initiated
and organized. A holder of an MA in Literature from university of Michigan, Senator Katigbak obtained an
MA Social Work from the University of the Philippines and a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of
Santo Thomas.
Educator, pioneer, social and civic action worker Dr. Laudico introduced social work
education in the Philippines. She was instrumental in opening a social work courses at the Centro Escolar
University in 1948- first of its kind in the country. She finished Social Service of the Catholic University
of America in Washington DC. In 1953, she was conferred as honorary doctor’s degree by the Baguio
University. She was now Vice-President for Academic Affairs of Centro Escolar University.
She was the first Filipina to obtained formal education in Social Work having earned a
diploma from the New York School of Social Work in 1921. She organized the first graduate school of
social work now known as the Philippine School of Social Work an affiliate of the Philippine Women’s
University. She was the first Filipina executive secretary of the Associated Charities of Manila. In 1934,
she became the secretary of the Young Women’s Christian Association (YCWA). After the World War II
she assisted on the conceptualization and establishment of the Community Chest of Greater Manila, the
Council of Welfare Agencies and the Association of Red Feather Agencies.
She was the very first administrator of Social Welfare. She also became the executive
secretary of the Associated Charities of Manila for many years. She served as the director of the Bureau of
Public Welfare during the war and was appointed commissioner when the bureau was converted into the
Social Welfare Commission in 1947 and ultimately the head of the Social Welfare Administration. From
1948 to 1950 she was the chairman of the President’s Action Committee on Social Amelioration (PACSA),
a creation of President Quirino. She retired from government service in 1954 and served as president of the
Wesleyan University in Cabanatuan City in 1967.
She was best known for her apostolate work, having served for more than fifty years in
various capacities in connection with the mission of the Catholic Church. In 1928, she was appointed
secretary of Federation Catholica de Mujeres de Filipinas now known as the Catholic Women’s League
(CWL) of the Philippines. She pioneered in putting up of social work services and social action activities
46
under Catholic auspices. She introduced casework and counselling services for women or girls in distress
and provided assistance to those with family and marital problems, juvenile delinquency and
unemployment. Before the war she organized and supervised four night school sponsored by the CWL to
enable your women and girls to study. She successfully fought against the reopening of the Red Light
District in Manila and was active in social action groups exposing the motels which were exploiting young
women and girls. As a catholic action worker, she was a pioneer of “pro-life” advocate opposing birth
control almost single-handed by writing a series of article and speeches against it. She received her Master
of Arts degree with a professional certificate in Social Work from the National Catholic University of
America in Washington DC in 1925.
He is a doctor of medicine who became a pioneer in the field of youth welfare and built a
successful career in the public services. Three innovations in this area are attributed to him. The very first
was the establishment of the Child Guidance Clinic as a special service for juvenile offenders. The second
was the introduction of psychiatric concepts in the treatment of juvenile offenders. This took place when he
was a designated as acting chef of the national Psychopathic (now Mental) Hospital where he served for a
year and half. His third important work was the establishment of community health and social centers in
the depressed areas. Dr. Vergara finished Medicine at the University of the Philippines in 1921. In 1925-
26, he trained in Psychiatry under a Rockfeller Foundation Fellowship in the US.
2.1 Basic Philosophy: Religion was the motivating force for charity.
2.2 Forms of charity: almsgiving, charitable institutions, and hospitals for the poor.
2.3 Sources of funding: Religious orders contributions and donations of rich individuals,
subsidy from the Spanish government (in the Philippines and in Spain).
1) San Lazaro Hospital (1578) – took care of indigent beggars and sick “natives”.
2) San Juan de Dios Hospita (1596) – took care of indigent and sick Spaniards
3) Hospicio de San Jose (1810) – for the care of orphans and the aged
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4) Asilo de San Vicente de Paul (1885) – for the care and protection of indigent and
orphaned girls
For the indigent outside of the institutions almsgiving was regularly practiced by
the churches and convents and the affluent individuals and families.
Tandang Sora (Mechora Aquino) took care of the sick and wounded and feed soldiers.
Hilaria Aguinaldo, wife of the First Republic introduced the concept of the Red Cross.
4.1 Philosophy
4.1.2 Public Welfare – beginning assumption by the government of its responsibility for
social welfare
4.1.3 “Parens palriae” – child welfare concept that it is the duty of the government to
place children in better circumstances, whenever the parents could not provide
adequate care themselves.
Pre – war trends, growth and development of child care programs and services.
It was spurred by the passage in the U.S. of the Jones Law in 1916. It
enunciated the principle of church and state. Henceforth the government
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could no longer support the private institutions. It was constrained to put
up its own child-caring institutions.
During this period Dr. Jose Fabella, Director and later Secretaryof
Health was the pioneer in public welfare, later acknowledged as the Father of
Philippine Social Welfare.”
Functions:
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5. Japanese Occupation
Private individuals groups and organizations undertook relief for prisoners of war, displaced
persons, etc.
Josefa Llanes Escoda, president of the National Federation of Women’s Clubs who
undertook and organized relief work was incarcerated in Fort Santiago for underground activities.
6.1 Trends
1) First assumption by the government of the major responsibility for social welfare
a) World War II
b) Social unrest (dissident movement)
6.2.1 PCAU (1945) – Philippines Civilian Affairs Unit of the U.S. army distributed
relief supplies during the period of liberation
6.2.3 WRO (1945 – 1956) War Relief Office – for the relief and rehabilitation of
indigent victims of war, specially unrecognized guerillas, their widows and
orphans. Created by Congress, the law was the first public assistance program
in fact and not only in name.
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6.3 Social Amelioration
6.3.1 PACSA (1948 – 1950) – Presidents Action Committee on Social
Amelioration was established by President Elpidio Quirino to counteract
social unrest (dessidency). It had a six – point program: a) health, b)
education, c) social welfare, d) agriculture, e) public works, and f) financing.
6.5.3 PASW (1948) – Philippine Association of Social Workers was organized. Its
charter members were: (1) Josefa Jara Martines (2) Carmen Montinola Luz,
(3) Agapita Murillo, (4) Minerva G. Laudico, (5) Olympia Pia Lozano, (6)
Flora Ruis Palomer, (7) Felicidad A. Silva. Its main objective was to upgrade
and maintain the standards of the social work profession.
7.1 SWA – Social Welfare Administration was created by President Elpidio Quirino on Jan. 3,
1951 as the government agency for social welfare. It absorbed PACSA and SWC
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7.1.1 Its program consisted of:
1) Child Welfare
a) residual care
b) child aid and placement
c) probation and parole
2) Public Assistance
8.1.1 UNICEF assisted Social Service Project was set up in 1961 to improve social service
to children and families as part of the country’s total development program. In 1967
it was integratedd into SWA.
Significance:
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3) Nayon ng Kabataan for orphans
On June 15, 1968 President Marcos signed RA 5416 creating the DSW.
On Sept. 8, 1976 the DSW’s name was changed to Department of Social Services
and Development.
RA. 4373 signedon June 19, 1965 regulates the practice of social work
agencies.
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It accomplished 3 things:
9.1 The seventies are focused on the developmental thrust for social welfare
through programs and services that:
9.1.1 Enhance the social functioning of the individual as a human being participating in,
contributing to and benefiting from the country's development.
9.2 Social welfare provides supportive and complementary services to the following
strategies for social development:
I. Conceptual Framework
A social policy is a guide for a settled course of action composed or consisting of collective
decisions directly concerned with promoting the well-being of all part of the population.
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Policies are translated into programs and services, thus becoming the instruments by which goals
are achieved.
4.1 Accurate data and documentation are essential to social policy formulation
4.2 Massive problems and limited resources require the setting of priorities and the
determination of short and long term goals
4.3 Institutions and power groups must be restructured for better participation
5.2 Government has the major responsibility for social welfare - seeing to it that
the citizen is protected against the hazards common to man such as illness,
accident, death, loss of income, disasters, etc.
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5.3 Social justice at the very minimum is the equitable distribution of benefits and
obligations in society, and compensation for losses and injuries for which the individual
cannot be held personally responsible. It further requires that differential treatment be
justified on the basis of individual needs and capacities.
5.4 Social welfare requires provisions for social defense and control
5.5 Social policies, programs and services must be geared to national development
goals.
5.6 The goal of social and economic developmet is the humane development of all
people.
5.7 Social welfare should be broadened from the well - being of the individual to
the general welfare of the community
5.8 Social welfare strategies should move from the remedial, restorative and
rehabilitative functions for individuals to preventive and developmental approaches for the
large segments of population.
5.9 There should be balanced urban and rural development. They should
complement/support and parallel each other.
5.12 Social policy, programs and services must be adapted to local conditions and
take into consideration the culture of the people and differences in social and economic
sub-culture groups.
5.12 Social policies and goals should have as their bases of the social philosophy and
values of the given society.
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2. Family welfare service
- are programs and services designed to develop / improve the problem -
solving and coping capacities of families and individual members so as to improve and
strengthen the quality of family life.
This service is intended to enable family heads and other adult members of
families to earn while learning, acquiring skills in preparation for open or self-
employment. Workshops are organized for this purpose.
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2.6 Community Organization and resource Development
This includes all activities undertaken to identify and develop viable channels
for volunteer service for family and child welfare programs; to develop and
strengthen volunteer service; to enable volunteers to derive full satisfaction from
their work and are willing to sustain their chosen volunteer service.
3. Child welfare
- Services secure the protection and well - being of all children in their physical, intellectual,
social and emotional development.
The effects of being born and growing up in poverty include a greater chance of
mental retardation, less good physical health, less adequate socialization and preparation for
entering school which impair chances for success in school and in later life. The objective
of the program for the social development of the pre-school children is to provide
opportunities to have a proper start in life through an integrated program of social
development and nutritional feeding in the Day Care Services Centers.
Refers to the arrangement whereby children below 6 years old are provided part-time
substitute parental care in Day Care Centers while their working mothers are outside of the
home. They are also provided supplemental feeding and opportunities for physical
development, creative group experiences whereby skills in communication, human relations,
and activities in daily life are learned and developed.
These are arrangements whereby minors who are neglected, abandoned, abused,
orphaned, or destitute are provided substitute home placement and parental care.
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4.2.2 Drug Information Program
4.2.3 Leadership Training Activities
4.2.4 Community Volunteer Service
4.2.5 Social & Cultural Activities, Sports & Recreation
4.2.6 Nutrition Education
4) the care, training, and rehabilitation of the youth with behavior and emotional
problems
2) Multi-purpose centers
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5. Rehabilitation of the Disabled & Special Groups
5.1 Definition
5.1.1 Disabled
5.2 Programs
Sometimes an agency may provide the opportunity for its clients to undergo
extensive and intensive training along all or certain aspects of agriculture. Training
allowance is also provided.
Services:
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1) Demonstration of rehabilitation projects to clients specially those belonging
to the special groups.
Employment outlets:
Finance Assistance
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2) Self-Employment Assitance Program (SEAP)
A specified amount is given to lient/s as initial capital to assist him /
them to engage in income producing projects.
3) Revolving Fund
4) Grants-in-aid
2) Community outreach
3) International Relation
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1) National Vocational Rehabilitation Center (DSSD) for intensive vocation
rehabilitation.
Central Reception and Study Centers for Adults with special needs.
Also diagnostic center and temporary residence for men and women age 21
and above who present varied roblems
6.2.1 Food Program/ Food for Work, Food for Growth, Food incentive
6.2.2 Limited housing assistance for totally and patiently damaged houses
6.2.3 Work orientation/ crop/ craft development
6.2.4 House & Community Enrichment Services
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1) Resettlement Services
2) Barangay workshops; collaborative orientation for enablers
3) Skills Training Sessions
4) Leadership Training
8. Correctional Services
8.1 Probation and after care for juvenile and criminal offenders
8.2 Social services in penal institution and detention centers
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III. Some Social Welfare Agencies
1. International
1.1 Foster Parent’s Plan – extends financial aid principally for a child’s
education
1.2 World Velon – assists needy children through orphanages, school and
family aid program
2. National
3. Local
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SOCIAL WELFARE IN DEVELOPMENT
I. Conceptual framework
1. Definiton
1.1 Development
-refers to the rise of levels of living a more equitable distribution of income and
wealth, a better system of socio- economic stratification and a greater social
mobility.
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-Professional directed effort through programs and services to meet emergency
needs of ‘needy’ individuals, groups, and communities when they’re incapable of
providing for themselves through basic institutions to the recognition that all
citizens may require social services to develop their capacities to perform
productive roles and achieve and maintain a desirable standard of well- being.
-Development of man, his liberation form, forces inside and outside him which
impeded his development for his community and of society as a whole.
3. Development Concepts
3.2.1 the search for the ideal state has led the 20th century man to the formulation of
ideology is a reasonably coherent body ideas concerning to practical means of how
to change and to reform society, based upon a more or less elaborate criticism of
what is wrong with the existing or antecedent society.
3.2.2 Governments may be classified according to ideology based on the degree to which
the government controls and regulates property and economic systems.
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4) According to president Marcos ours is a free enterprise society with an
egalitarian base. (A Society of Equals).
-The Ten Commandments and the commitment to respect for one’s own and others’,
mutual love of position is and reputation of others, mutual love is members of social
unit and as human beings.
-Muslims claims that the philosophy of the cooperative movement first originated in
Islam. “Cooperate for good and not for evil” is the essence of one of the verses in the
Koran.
-“God will never change any people unless they intend to change themselves” – the
Koran. This verse contains the basic philosophy of community development. It urges
the people to foster a determination on collective endeavors to redress the existing
social evils and inequalities.
- GNP is the sum of all earnings – wages, salaries, rents, dividends, profits, etc
-Trickledown theory wherein economic growth would eventually redound to social benefits.
-The objective of development is a cluster of social goals which must be realized. These
goals have an umbilical relationship.
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-Development is directed and nurtured to the maximum improvement of the conditions. In
which people live.
- Dynamic change in social structure and institutions i.e. changes in stratification of classes
as in the land reform program, widening participation in the national community through
barangay and other citizens councils.
- Removal of social obstacles to economic barriers to social change i.e. value reorientation
and attitudinal change towards big size families, work responsibility, profit-sharing.
- It is only when society is liberated from the satellization that dominates it from both outside
and within, that development in the more normal sense is possible.
- Denotes freedom from dependency, from both outside and within, that development in the
more normal sense is possible.
- Denotes freedom from dependency, from internal and external obstacle to freedom, and
from exploitative structures and institution in order that a man may realize his potential.
- Condition that are less than human brought on by a number of causes such as poverty , ignorance,
ill health, etc
- Unjust and oppressive structures and institutions which serve further to dehuman exploitation.
- Liberation of marginal man and marginal groups. Marginal men are those who do not enter in to
the decision making processes of their communities, have a precarious economic existence and
do not relate to other groups.
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- Participation in national and local decision-making (internal political and economic freedom.
- Relationship between developed and less developed countries, (external political and economic
freedom
Is the process of holding the material and the spiritual in balance and tension.
- An in view of Development is to make people more human. To lift them out of inhuman and
dehumanizing conditions of poverty and unemployment, ill health disease and ignorance.
- Kind of society we would like to bring about is one in which all men will grow freely in
developing their potentials.
- “A humanism which will enable modern man to find himself anew by embracing the higher
values of love and friendship, prayer and contemplation.”
- Passage from misery towards the possession of necessities, victory over social scourges, the
growth of knowledge, the acquisition of culture.
- increased esteem for dignity of others, the turning toward the spirit of poverty, cooperation
for the common goal, the will and the desire for peace.
- acknowledgement of a man od supreme values, especially of God, the source and finality
of man.
II. Development Strategies, Plans and Programs, Guiding Principles
1. At the UN level (broad): Declaration of human rights serves as a "common standard of achievement of
all people and nations."
1.1 Preamble - recognition is given to the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family, as a foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
(Preamble, UN Declaration of Human Rights)
1.1.1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and should act in the spirit of
brotherhood toward one another. (Art. 1)
1.1.2 Despite any distinction i.e., race, color, sex, language, religion, etc., everyone is entitled to all
rights.
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1.1.3 Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security as a person
1.1.4 Everyone has a right in full equality, to a fair and public hearing by an independent tribunal in
determining any criminal charges against him. He is innocent till proven guilty.
1.1.5 Everyone has right to privacy, and residence
1.1.6 Every one of full age is free to many, despite race, color, nationality or religion and have a
family.
- Family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by the
society and the State. (Art. 16, sec. 3)
1.1.7 "Everyone has the right to a standard living adequate for the health and well-being of himself
and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care, and necessary social services
and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control." (Art. 25, sec. 1)
1.1.8 "Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible." (Art. 29 sec. 1)
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2.2.6 There should be special measures in favor of the landlocked so that they will be able
to transport their goods for trade to and from the sea.
2.2.7 There should be adequate efforts to extend substantially research capacity in
technology so as to promote and accelerate industrialization.
2.2.8 There should be human development
2.2.9 Developing countries should take specific steps to augment productions and improve
productivity in order to produce goods and services necessary for raising the levels of living and
improving economic viability.
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4.2.2 Unemployment (70% of the total labor force in 1972, and underemployment by at least
16.2%)
4.2.3 Income inequality
4.2.4 Low standards of living
4.2.5 Inadequate infrastructure
4.2.6 Rising prices
4.2.7 Management of the dollar position
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III. Social Welfare in Development
Review of the functions of social welfare within the context of development
- in advanced countries social welfare functions are mainly related to changing individual
circumstances and expresses society's concern for providing care and maintenance to its disadvantaged and
more vulnerable numbers.
- in the developing countries the functions are related to the broader problems of the people who are
involved or affected by the process of development.
1.1 Remedial - reducing the stresses of change
1.2 Preventive - forestalling the adverse social consequences of development
1.3 Developmental - creating conditions conducive to the improved well-being of people.
More specifically:
1.1 Remedial social welfare - social welfare aims at supplementing and substituting the inadequate
care provided by the family, group or community. It can be:
1.1.1 Supplemental
1.1.2 Substantive
1.1.3 Rehabilitative
1.2 Preventive social welfare - it aimed primarily at strengthening tye family and other existing
groups and communities, which attentions is also given to preventing abnormal individual behavior. It helps
create new patterns of social relations and new social institutions.
1.3 Development social welfare - is oriented towards and makes direct contribution to the process
of development. Social welfare intervention promote:
1.3.1 human resources development
1.3.2 social change
1.3.3 people's participation in decision making and nation building
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2.1.2 Social welfare could help in the more equitable distribution of goods and services by
making these available to people who otherwise would not be earning to purchase these.
2.1.3 Social welfare could insure the availability of services required for improving levels of
living, and filing the gaps in the existing network of social services if needed.
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Social welfare intervention may start with the stimulation of self-help projects particularly those involving
women and out of school youth to broad social action aimed at modifying the society's attitudes, traditions
and concepts to correspond to development.
3.3 Child welfare (activities which secure and protect the well-being of all children in their physical,
intellectual and emotional development) could be attained by providing:
3.3.1 economic and personal aid to children living in their own homes
3.3.2 substitute families or adaptive homes for children who have no homes or cannot remain
with their families
3.3.3 institutional care in children’s homes and orphanage when children, for particular
reasons, cannot be left in their own homes or in foster families.
Other service may consist of
- improvement of family and personal relationship of child and help in economic and social difficulties
- day care centers, nursery schools, group work agencies, community centers and recreation places for
children and adolescents.
3.4 Youth welfare services
Youth programs can be a vital resource in:
3.4.1 engaging the energies and enthusiasm of young people in self-help projects and
neighborhood improvements
3.4.2 in instilling in youth a sense of individual dignity and social values
3.4.3 in training youth leaders
3.4.4 in or sparring young people for responsible adulthood and parenthood
Social welfare services may significantly assist in
- meeting the needs of youth for counseling and vocational guidance
- providing opportunities for constructuve leisure time activities
- prevocational training helps to determine the aptitudes and abilities of the youth and his work situations
- making the transition from childhood relations and patterns of behavior to adult roles and responsibilities
3.5 Welfare of individuals with special needs/problems
These may refer to released prisoners, recovered mental patients, drug addicts and alcoholics, the physical
handicapped and the disabled and the socially disadvantaged.
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Social welfare intervention could help the clients develop emotionally healthy ways of handling stigma
where it exists, modify their attitudes, and facilitate their successful reintegration into normal family and
community living the aims is to make them self sufficient and economically productive so that they will not
be a burden to society.
- social services helps the client cope with his problem, fill a need, facilitate and/or promote his interpersonal
relationships and adjustments to his environment.
- occupational therapy facilitated the restoration of the clients capacities to the maximum in all aspects of
life-physical, psychological, social, emotional vocational.
- vocational training enabled him to acquire skills in a certain occupation.
- job placement helps him find gainful occupation, one suited to clients age, experience, qualifications and
physical and mental capacities.
3.6 Development of marginal men
Marginal groups are those sectors if the population who do not enter the decision making process of their
communities, have a precarious economic existence, and do not relate to other groups. They are the most
underprivileged, the most exploited, the least educated of their society.
Social welfare activities:
- help local people to identify and articulate their needs
- stimulate the participation of individual and families in community affairs
- encourage self-help action and relate grassroots efforts to large development objectives
- identify and develop indigenous leaders
4. Strategies for social development; role and contribution of social welfare programs and services
4.1 Health and Nutrition
- improvement of the nutrition of the expectant and nursing mothers and young child through food
supplement
- it is in the establishment of feeding outlets, specifically for pre-schoolers in the low income areas
where social work can help
4.2 Population Planning
- introduction/interpretation of population/family planning concepts
- motivation for practice of family planning
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4.3 Education
- non-formal education or those out-of-school
- education aid (grants) for children of school age
- opportunities for out-of-school youth to reenter the education mainstream
4.4 Housing, Slum Clearance Relocation
- preparation of families for relocation
- advocacy in behalf of the distressed families when needed
- helping families resettle and grow roots in the new communities
4.5 Manpower Development
- vocational training
- assistance for self-employment
4.6 Community Development
- community planning
- social action
- food for work
- decision-making
4.7 Social Welfare
4.7.1 Family and Child Welfare
- financial grants to unemployed family heads to be used as initial operating capital for unformed
earning cottage industries
- cash aid to families in economic distress
- operation of foster homes, day care centers, institutions for children
4.7.2 Youth Welfare
- financial grants to enable the youngsters to involve themselves in mini-agri-business and small
scale home industries
- provision of pre-vocational and vocational training activities
- development or social concern and community responsibility through group activities
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4.7.3 Welfare of Individuals/Groups with Special Needs
- financial assistance for self-employment
- workshops for skills training
- preventive and rehabilitative services for drug addicts, released prisoners and the mentally and
physically handicapped and others
- provision of relief and rehabilitative services to victims of calamities and disasters
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III.HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Human behavior and social environment are interrelated and independent. They interact in a dynamic way.
Throughout his life, man, in his continuous desire and attempt to live a life that is acceptable, satisfying,
productive and evolutionary, must establish a condition of equilibrium between his needs and the demands
imposed upon him by his social environment. In other words, if an individual is not able to satisfy his needs
because of (1) his personal adequate, (2) a harsh and difficult social environment share opportunities for his
growth and development are not adequate to enable him to cope with the problems of living, then as a result
of the inability to establish equilibrium, his social functioning is impaired. In considering whether the
individuals response or behavior is within or outside the range of the normal, we need to take into account
his capacity for personal and social adaptations.
The presence of neurological conditions also impairs social functioning. For these conditions also impairs
social functioning. For those who were physically endowed at birth with malformations - these
imperfections have a devaluating effect. Amputees feel a physical loss of a part of the self. Sudden and
drastic deterioration of the body will also change conceptions processes such as weakened heart and
hardened arteriosclerotic arteries, a failure of sight and hearing, muscular and joint pains, and in the case of
the males, a diminution of sexyal virility, is a factor delimiting social functioning.
Social Variables
There are factors that deal with the location of people in social space. Each social has reference to power
and authority, wealth. Access to education, travel opportunities and other resources, which afford those
positions the benefits which can largely determine their degree of social functioning. The familiar roles
determine the social class to which one belongs.
The child becomes a member of the social class and socio economic status which his parents belong. If he
belongs to the low socio economic class with very limited means to obtain an education and other resources
for self improvement, his attitudes and values regarding college education will be very restricted because
of his roles expectations - of himself and others expectations of him. It has been frequently observe that
after high school, the economic status of the young persons family determines, more than his academic
qualifications, whether or not he will secure a college education, owing not only to and the expectations of
teachers and others in the wider community.
People also have occupational roles which determine the socio economic class to which they belong. The
occupation of the male head of the family is one of the most important determinants of the family socio
economic status; What their income is; Who their friends are; To what clubs they belong; Where and
whether or not their children will progress in the educational ladder.
The man who does not go to work or one who is not successful in his work, is not performing his role as
the family's head thus is expexted of him by those with whom he is related even as he expect this of himself.
His social functioning with regard to his role performance within the family and in the community is
seriously impaired thereby.
Cultural Variables
Culture is the lifestyle of the individual. It is manmade and is generated because it is functional for survival.
The family is the matrix of highly significant and complex relationships between parents and children. It is
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the bearer and transmitter of culture in the development of the young. Religious belief and family traditions
influence role performance of the members of the family.
Values
Values are shared by number of individuals and regarded as matters of collective welfare by an effective
consensus of the group. Although they are not concrete goals of action but rather the criteria by which goals
are chosen, they are actual and potential forces for mobilization since they are emotionally charged and
deeply valued.
Ego Psychology
Certain psychological theories, namely ego psychology, the psychology of learning and perceptions must
be considered in order to understand the individual. The individual does not react to his environment and
exists but rather as he sees or perceives it. A number of internal factors influence his perceptions which are
mainly embodied in the concept of the ego.
The concept of the ego embodies those interpersonal forces which constantly are in the process of tying to
balance a persons inherent capacity, his varied conflicting motivation with one another which has two
surfaces. One is directly inward towards distinctive impulses and needs, the other towards external reality
through sense perception. This ego also functions to confront internal perception with sense perception and
tries to harmonies subjective demands with external circumstance, so that maximum satisfaction as achieved
through its control behavior. This adoptive behavior thus enables the individual to maintains psychic
equilibrium or homeostasis. The three function of the ego external and internal perception, integration and
executive action make it the component of personality in relation to these dynamic forces, the id (instinctive
forces/ and the super ego (code of society). The conscious ego thus is the most plastic part of the mind since
it can adjust behavior to a given situation at any moment.
The ego needs to be viewed in relation to other psychoanalytical concepts and psychogenetic development.
Ego formation, when psychoanalytically viewed, is considered in relation to the courses of the psychosexual
development of the human being, how it is interaction of the superego and the id, together with the
theoretical theory of the functional structure but the mind, i.e., the unconscious of mental dynamism or
mechanism of defense.
The individual as a "biopsychosocial" being. This phrase means that there are inseparable, interacting forces
biological, psychological and social that influence human behavior and personality.
The biological components would include the individuals state of health and nutrition, genetics and natural
physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and developments as well as any deviation from
normal functioning including illnesses and physical disabilities.
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The psychological component is concerned with the individuals personality comprising what is commonly
termed inner states which has three aspects:
A. Cognitive (perceptual or intellectual)
B. Emotional (feelings) and
C. Cognitive (striving, tendency to do actively or purposely)
The social components includes the following elements:
1. Societal. Aggregate data and social pattern which help create the social climate in which we live,
regardless of whether or not people aware or accept them, such as poverty and unemployment.
2. Institutional. Organizational arrangements in society such as family, government, education and social
services.
3. Status. Characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way persons are described
e.g. by age, sex, race and religion
4. Normative. The forms in which social behavior are expressed and the social rules that shape these forms.
These forms and rules reflect the values of society which are in turn influence by the existing culture.
5. Interactive. The type of interaction and perception of interactions made of self and others that are basis
of behavior.
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D. Defense mechanism. Thoughts and behaviour which while not on the level of the individual
consciousness, serve to ward off anxiety and guilt, e.g.:
1. Fantasy - fantasies or daydreams are temporarily escaped from the frustrations of realities. In fantasies
and daydreams, the individuals thwarted desires can be very easily satisfied. Adolescents are particularly
prone to daydreams and fantasies. The girls usually dream of beauty, glamour and love. Boys frequently
dream of physical strength, courage and adventures.
2. Nomadism - is a continual wandering from place to place. The moving from place to place usually brings
to tangible gain. It is an attempt to get away from frustrating situation. In everyday life this may take firm
if frequent changes of residence, frequent changes of job or even changes of marital partners.
3. Regression - regression means "going back" a frustrated individual may seek unconsciously to return to
an earlier, more secure period of life. He glens from the painful realities and responsibilities of the present
to the protected existence of his childhood. A person who is regressing may start to act in a childish way;
may pout or frown or gave temper tantrums when he does not get what he wants.
4. Repression - repression is the process of excluding from conscious awareness and undesirable thought,
feeling or memory that causes pain, shame or guilt. Repression serves to protect the self from the pain of
certain thoughts and memories. For instance, unpleasant incidents or thoughts could easily be forgotten
through the process of repression.
5. Reaction formation - a person may unconsciously repress his social unacceptable desires and develop a
conscious attitudes and overt behaviour patterns which are the opposite of his real unconscious wishes. For
instance, a mother rejects her child may behave toward his over solicitude. At times the conscious attitudes
which develop are highly exaggerated, extreme and intolerable.
6. Displacement - this defense mechanisms a feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute. A
feeling originally directed toward a certain person, object, or situation which is transferred to another
person, object, or situations which becomes invested with the emotional significance originally associated
with the former. For instance, aggression maybe displaced in three ways:
A. Scapegoating - this means blaming another person for ones failures or mistakes or expressing
anger against a person or object which was not the original source of frustration. For example, if a man gets
angry with his boss in the office, he may take it out on his wife by criticizing his cook when he gets home.
Or if a student fails in his subject, he may express his anger toward his companion at home.
B. Free-floating anger - this is the chronic reaction pattern in which hostility becomes generalized
so that even neutral situations are reacted to the hostility. For example, a person with prolonged anger which
he cannot express towards the person concerned may go around boiling with rage. In this condition, he
could easily get quarrels and fight. Some juvenile delinquents have a lot of this bottle up aggression. So
they may beat up or mould some innocent people whom they happen to meet in the streets without apparent
reason. A mocks and berserks will indiscriminately kill even people unknown to them.
C. Suicide - this is hostility to one’s self. When an aggression cannot be directed towards the
frustrating person because society will not approve the expression of such feelings the individuals feelings
of hostility may be replaced by feelings of guilt and self-accusation which may eventually lead to attempted
suicide. For example, a person who has been frustrated in love may be unable to hurt the one who has
frustrated him and may turn his anger toward himself and attempt to hurt himself.
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7. Projection - this is a defense mechanism in which the individual is unconsciously convinced himself that
others have the undesirable thoughts and motives that he actually has himself when a person finds his
thoughts and feelings and then attributed those thoughts and feelings to others around him. For example, if
a person harbor feelings of hate towards a person he is supposed to love, he may be unable to admit these
emotions to himself. So he may convince himself that it is the other person who hates him.
8. Sublimation - it is the indirect express saying of a need which cannot be satisfied directly, through
acceptance from an alternative goals which provides a socially acceptable outlet of expression of the sexual
urge. For example, the sexual drive could be sublimated through competitive sports.
9. Substitution - it is the expression of frustrated impulses indirectly with no change in the conscious quality
of desires. It often involves socially unacceptable activities and guilt feelings. For example frustrated sexual
impulses maybe substituted by masturbation or undesirable language behavior, such as telling obscene
stories, writing obscene poetry and singing dirty songs.
10. Compensation - it is an attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable traits by emphasizing
a desirable one. Compensation involves behavior that is socially desirable or acceptable. For example, a
person who is physically unattractive may attempt to gain popularity by developing a charming manner and
learning to be an interesting conversationalist.
11. Overcompensation - this is an extreme or socially unacceptable attempt to counterbalance actual or
imagined inferiority. When the attempt to counterbalance failure of feelings of inferiority becomes
irrational, extreme or antisocial behavior. For example an unattractive person may try desperately to gain
recognition by asserting himself in ways that irritate people around him, such as by talking too loudly or by
showing off.
12. Rationalization - this is a defense mechanism by which seemingly logical explanations are devised to
explain and justify behavior which might result in loss of social approval and self-esteem.
Rationalization may take many forms, among which are:
A. Sour grape mechanism - this is illustrated by an old fable about the fox who tried without success
to reach a bunch of grapes hanging over his need. When he did not get them he told himself that they were
too sour anyway.
B. Sweet lemon attitude - this is illustrated by a philosophy which says not in doing what you like
but in liking what you do is the secret of happiness. For example, a person who is not satisfied with his job
may pretend to himself that he is enjoying but when he actually not.
13. Isolation - this defense mechanism consist of avoidance of conflict between two opposed desires or
attitudes by keeping them part in logical tight compartment in consciousness. Certain ideas are sealed off
in mental compartments and allowed to function isolation from conflicting ones. The individual can
maintain contrary ideas and attitudes without acknowledging their logical incompatibility. People with logic
tight compartments think and act inconsistently.
14. Undoing - in this mechanism, the individual divest himself painful feelings by making use of cleansing
rituals after doing something which causes him to feel guilty. For example, a person who has done
something he feels guilty about may wash his hands to cleanse own his guilt. ( A primitive mechanism
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operating unconsciously in which something unacceptable and already done is symbolically acted out in
reverse, usually repetitiously, in the good of undoing it and thus relieving anxiety.)
15. Dissociation - a psychological separation or splitting off and intra psychic defense process which
operates automatically and unconsciously. Through its operation, emotional significance and affect are
separated and detached from an idea, situation or object. Dissociation may unconsciously defer or postpone
experiencing the emotional impact as for example in selective amnesia.
In dissociation, certain aspects or activities of the personality escape from control of the individual;
become separated from normal consciousness and function as a segregated unitary whole. Dissociation is
the separation of the mind or consciousness by a splitting off of one (sometimes more) over a split-off
portion. This phenomenon of dissociation may be witnessed by the automatic writing of hysteria, a
somnambulism, in double personality and in the man delusions of patients.
16. Fixation - the arrest of psychosexual development. Development maybe halted at on incomplete stage
with persistence or certain incompletely matured elements. Such personality will show lack of harmonious
integration, emotional organization remains an immature level.
17. Resistance - opposition to bringing or repressed data into awareness. This helps the person avoid
memories and insights. It is manifested during psychotherapy as blocking, embarrassment, silence, and
anxieties.
18. Restitution - mechanism of relieving the mind of a lead of guilt by substitutive acts (making up for or
separation). It may become the main motive of life.
19. Denial - a defense mechanism operating unconsciously, use to resolve emotional conflict and anxiety
by denying a thought, feeling, wish, need or external reality factor which is consciously intolerable.
20. Symbolism - an unconscious mental process where by one object or idea comes to stand for another
through some part, quality or aspect which the two have in common it operated by association and is based
in similarity and abstract representation. The symbol carries on more or less disguised from the emotional
feeling vested on the initial object or die.
21. Conversation - a mental mechanism operating unconsciously by which intrapsychic conflict (which
would otherwise give rise to convert into a variety of somatic symptoms. Example, a psychological paralysis
of a limb which prevents its use for an aggressive purposes.)
22. Condensation - a psychological process often present in dreams in which two or more concepts are fuse
so that a single symbol represents a multiple components.
23. Identification - mechanism by which the child takes over the attitudes and behaviour patterns of his
parents and other significant to him. The child admires or aspires to the strength and qualities of his elders
and other associated and acquiring their modes of behaviour.
Identification may also take the following forms:
A. Incorporation - refers to the taking in or early qualities though the infantile nursing experiences
with the mother and is considered to begin during the oral stage of development.
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B. Introjection - a form of identification. A portion of another personality is take in, yet this introject
of the other often becomes the focus of hostility directed towards oneself and is thus the nucleus of
depressive states of suicidal acts... It is the observe of projection. Introjection is also described as a
mechanism whereby live and hated external objects are taken within oneself symbolically. It serves as a
defense against conscious recognition of intolerable hostile impulses. For example in severe depression the
individual may unconsciously direct unacceptable hatred or aggression toward himself. Related to the more
primitive mechanism of incorporation.
C. Hostile identification - taking on of socially undesirable characteristics of a parent if these appear
to provide some special strength or merit.
D. Identification with the aggression - means by which the frustrated individual incorporates into
his own personality means imitating or acquiring the characteristics of a person whose one fears.
E. Transference - the image of one person is unconsciously identified with that of another. The more
recent acquaintances before the surrogate of the person previously known and is invested with the same
emotions with which the individuals had come to surround the image of the original party.
F. Empathy - a healthy form of identification which is limited and temporary but which enables one
person to feel for and with another to understand his experiences and feeling and is known as sympathy. By
means of quality, the individual possess a warm capacity to projecting himself into the situations and
feelings of others.
24. Conscious control - refers to the individuals attempt to expose his motives to full consciousness, face
all facts in order to be able to guide his behaviour in desirable and constructive channels. It enables him to
replace automatic adaptations and repressions by conscious and flexible adjustments.
2. Systems Theory. A system is defined as a whole consisting of interdependent and interacting parts or as
a "set of units with relationships among them."
System theory provide social work with a toll for analysing and organizing data about clients and offers
many options for intervention. The use of a system model as a conceptual model for practice allows social
workers to focus their attention on the person-situation-environment, interrelatedness, thereby avoiding the
tendency to think of the individual on society as the cause of problems and therefore the primary target of
change.
Concepts in systems theory that is useful in social work;
A. Open and closed system. An open system is one that is engaged in interchanges with its environment
and therefore continues to grow and change. Closed system does not interact with other systems neither
accepting inputs from them, nor producing outputs to them. They are quality called entropy.
B. Boundaries. A boundary is a closed circle around selected variables where there is less interchange or
energy or communication across the circle open system have semi-permeable boundaries and gave ways of
maintaining these boundaries.
C. Tension. System theory conceives of tension as characteristics of, and necessary to complex, adaptive
system. Though there is recognition that tension may manifest itself in either destructive or constructive
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ways. Tension or conflict per se, are not seen as positive or negative, but rather as attributes of all systems
simply because they are alive and open to transactions across their boundaries.
D. Feedback. This refers to "a communications network which produces action in response to an input of
information and includes the results or its own action. In the new information by which it modifies its
subsequent behaviour. Negative feedback conveys information that the systems behaviour is making it
difficult to achieve its goal, and therefore correction is needed in line with its goal, positive feedback means
that the system is behaving incorrectly in relation to it's goals and so more behaviour of the same quality is
called for.
E. Change and stability. Open system are constantly in the process of change, which represent their attempt
to take purposive goal directed action. However, a system must also maintain a dynamic equilibrium a
steady state, i.e., a certain amount of order and stability is necessary.
F. Role. This refers to the expected behaviour of a person occupying a particular social status or position in
a social system. Besides being useful in understanding the interaction within a system the concept of role
serves as a bridging concept between the individual and the larger social system.
Systems theory views the client, the worker and the agency as social system that compromise the social
system network. Allen Pincus and Anne Minahan developed a related concept about six types of social
system with whom the social worker interacts with the course of practice:
1. The agent system: the agency or organization that employs the social workers who will plan and
work with the six systems towards change.
2. The client system: those who have asked for the workers services, who are expected to benefit
from these services, and those who have entered into an implicit or explicit contract with the worker.
3. The target system: the people that the change agents need to change or influence in order to
accomplished the goals (this may overlap with the client system when it is the client that needs to be change)
4. The action system: those with whom the social worker interacts in a cooperative way in order to
bring about change helpful to the client;
5. The professional system: the professional association of social workers, the educational system
by which workers are prepared and the values and sanctions of professional practice; and
6. The problem identification system: the system that acts bring a potential client to the attention of
the worker.
A system model is a holistic approach which is particularly relevant to social work practice in the country.
The system theory is complex and social workers are not expected to understand and use all its concepts
including its elaborate jargons. Social workers, however can apply concepts and jargons that relate to human
systems which are now widely used in social sciences.
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3. Role Theory
Role refers to the socially expected behaviour prescribed for a person occupying a particular social status
or position in a social system. Social norms for a particular position provide guide for the attitudes, feelings,
and behaviour that are permitted, expected or prohibited for the individual in a given role.
Status refer to ones rank or standing in a group based on the kind of job he holds.
Norms refers to the rules and standard of behaviour that come from a group or society and may apply to
individuals or to groups.
Role set or Role clustered an array of roles that any one person maybe occupying at any particular time.
Role Complementary or reciprocity role position are usually paired. E.g. parent-child
Role conflict this occurs when there are conflicting expectations because the person occupies two or more
positions simultaneously.
Role incongruity a situation in which one’s own perception of one’s role is define differently from the
expectations of a significant other in the system or the environment.
Role and its relatedness concepts are part of the knowledge based useful to social workers in assessments
and intervention planning.
4. Communication Theory. Interactions between and among human systems involve communication. Thus
to a profession like social work which deals with human beings, the communication theory is an important
area of concern.
Communication is the process of transferring and sharing messages and meaning though the use of symbols.
5. Small Group Theory. It recognizes explicitly that groups can be managed in order to bring about desired
changes on the part of its members.
2 Major Group Phenomena
A. Group Structure. Refers to patterns that develop and maintain themselves over time in interpersonal
relations.
Major Properties of Groups:
1. Size. The number of persons in the group.
2. Communication Structure. Who interacts with whom, about what, and the channels and
flow of communication.
3. Affection Structure. Interpersonal relations that are produced from the liking and disliking
that develop among the members.
4. Power Structure. Power or influence that facilitates the groups organizations, its control
and goal attainment.
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5. Leadership. The ability to influence other people in some way, which can be positive or
negative.
6. Role Strict. The interrelated patterns of behaviour of the group members based on their
mutual learned expectations from each other.
7. Group Norms. Rules and standards of behaviour which emerge in a group in the process
of interaction.
8. Status. Rank or standing in a group based on a certain characteristics possessed by a
person.
B. Group Process. The change in the conditions of the group as whole. Other social scientists view it as a
movement of a group from one level of social organization to another. The forces generated by the
relationships between people and their interactions in the group have important implications for the
individual members and the group as a whole. These are the forces:
1. Group Bond. The feeling of belongingness that exist in the group
2. Conformity. The yielding to the majority.
3. Conflict. A sharp disagreement or clash arising out of the interpersonal conflicts between and
among individuals.
4. Group Cohesiveness. The degree to which the members of group desire to remain with the rest of
the group.
5. Decision-making. The process by which the group, using certain procedures, arrives at decisions.
E.g., voting, consensus, postponing decisions and etc.
6. Culture Theory. This recognizes the considerable influence that culture exerts on people’s
behaviour.
Culture is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of his society. It refers to the entire way of life
of a people or society which they create, acquire from other societies and will be ready to transmit to
subsequent generations. It is important for social worker to know that culture is 1.) Learned 2.) Shared 3.)
Cumulative 4.) Dynamic 5.) Diverse and 6.) Whole, i.e., it is a system with many interdependent parts.
These are the aspects of culture:
a. Belief. The concepts about how the world operates and where individuals fit in it; maybe rooted in
blind faith, experiences, traditions and scientific observation.
b. Values. The general and shared concepts of what is goof, right, appropriate, worthwhile and
important, either reflected behaviour or expressed verbally
c. Norms. The written and unwritten rules that guide behaviour and conduct appropriate to given
situation. Included in these are folkway or customs (the behaviour patterns of everyday life) and mores
(folkways which involve moral and ethical values.)
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7. Learning Theory. The basic assumption is that behaviours can be acquired or learned in the course of
individual's development. This also means that undesirable behaviour can be unlearned and more acceptable
new patterns of behaviour can be learned.
Concepts of Learning Theory
a. Reinforcement. Refers to specific rewards or supports that affect the strength of the response. A
reinforce is a stimulus which determines the probability of occurrences of the response to which it follows.
2 Kinds of Reinforcement
1. Positive reinforces. Which tend to increase the frequency of the response. i.e. rewarded
behaviour is repeated.
2. Negative reinforcers. Increase the desired response through introduction of negative or
aversive stimuli. i.e if behaviour is followed by a painful consequence; that behaviour will not be repeated.
Reinforcers can be social responses (personal response of other people to a behaviour such as
praise, approval, reward to deprivation, scolding, and other forms of punishment) and artificial responses
(gifts, token, food, money).
b. Shaping. A process used in establishing more complex behaviour patterns by breaking a behaviour
into smaller units and reinforcing each unit in turn until the desired pattern is established.
c. Modelling. A process in which a person initiates a model who is displaying the desired behavioural
pattern.
8. Organizational Theory. Understanding of the bureautic organization is necessary if a social worker wants
to succeed in his/her work.
Distinguishing characteristics of a bureaucracy:
a. Specialization and hierarchy. An organization of appreciable size and complexity cannot avoid
the standard pyramid of the "line" organization which means that it is a comprised of people with different
but interrelated skills.
b. An emphasis on rules and manifested on the routinization of activity and formalization of
relationships.
c. Assignment of roles on the basis of technical qualifications.
d. Clear and official areas of jurisdictions.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Occasionally, students choose a course that helps them answer specific questions about their day-
today behaviour or that of their of friend or even a family member or a stranger.
As a student, whatever your reasons for taking this course, at one time or another, you have been
probably curious about one or more aspects of human development. Thus, this chapter introduces you to
the concepts of development and developmental psychology. It will help you to know and understand the
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factors and rate of development and its implications on how far you have developed as a human being.
Factors influencing attitudes towards developmental change will further give you flashes of insights why
and how other people think, feel, and behave the way they do. You will also be made of aware of the
different patterns or characteristics of development as revealed in significant facts experienced by people
regardless of their race, culture, or religion.
Finally, the developmental task serve three useful purposes: they are guidelines that enable
individuals to know what society expects of them; they motivate individuals to do what society expects of
them; and they show individuals what lies ahead and what will be expected of them later.
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Maturation is the development or unfolding of traits potentially presenting the individual
considering his hereditary endowment.
According to Gesell (1977), it is the net sum of the gene effects operating in a self-limited life style.
Further, maturation does not only refer to changes in physical characteristics but also in function, in
the capacity to perform or behave, by which are possible through changes in any part of the organism.
Learning on the other hand, is the result of activities or day-to-day experiences on the child himself.
Maturation and learning complement one another in the development of the individual.
Rate of Development
The rate of development of any human being may either be rapid or slow.
A rapid development is observed during the prenatal period and continues throughout babyhood
(except for the first two week which is known as the “plateau” stage when no physical development takes
place) up to first six years.
Slow development start from six years to adolescence. In adolescence, the rate of development is
once more accelerated.
Implication of the Rate of Development
There are several implications of the rate of development
Since development is dependent on maturation and learning; it is therefore makes variation possible.
Maturation, which depends upon the hereditary endowment of the individual, sets a limit beyond
which development cannot go on even when learning is encouraged.
Developmental readiness is the individual’s state of preparedness with respect to one or more areas
of his functioning.
The effectiveness of learning depends upon maturation. A child cannot learn until he is ready. The
necessary physical and mental development must be present before new skills or abilities can be built upon
the foundations.
Premature forcing of the child results negativistic, resistant behavior which militates against
successful learning and which often regards learning.
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2. Changes of behavior-those that are disconcerting, especially during puberty and senescence,
affect attitude toward the changes unfavourably. The reverse is true when the changes are
favourable, s when the helplessness of babyhood gradually gives way to the independence of
childhood.
3. Cultural Stereotypes- people learn cultural stereotypes associated with different ages from mass
media and the use them to judge people of these ages.
4. Cultural values- every culture has values associated with different ages. Maximum productivity
is associated with young adulthood through early middle adulthood in the Filipino culture of
today; thus, attitudes toward this age group are more favourable than attitudes toward any other.
5. Role Changes- attitudes toward people of different ages are greatly influenced by the roles of
their play. When people change their roles to less favourable ones, as in the case of retirement
or widowhood, social attitude toward them become less sympathetic.
6. Personal experiences- this have a profound effect on the individual’s attitude toward
developmental changes. Since the authority and prestige of middle-age executives decrease as
they approach retirement, their attitudes towards aging are, likewise unfavourably affected.
These attitudes are intensified by unfavourable social attitudes.
White (1976) contends that the foundations laid during the first two years of life are the most
critical. According to him, the origins of human competence are to be found in a critical period of time
between eight and eighteen months.
Early patterns do tend to persist, but they are not unchangeable. There are three conditions under
which change is likely occur.
a. Change may come out when the individual receives help and guidance in making the change.
b. Change is likely to occur when significant people treat the individual in new and different
ways.
c. Change exist where there is a strong motivation on the part of the individual himself to make
the change.
2. The role of maturation and learning development. Maturation and learning play important roles
in development.
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3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern. There are orderly patterns of physical,
motor, speech, and intellectual development. For example, the pattern of physical and motor
development illustrates the laws of development direction – the cephalocaudal law, which
maintains the development spreads over the body from head to foot, and the proximodistal law,
which maintains the development spreads outward from the central axis of the body to the
extremities.
4. All individuals are different. All people are biologically and genetically different from one
another, even identical twins.
Since all individuals are different, no two people can be expected to react in the same manner
to the same environmental stimuli.
Because no two individuals can have identical hereditary endowments or the same
environmental experiences, one can never predict with accuracy hoe people will react to a situation even
when there is ample information about their inherited abilities and even when it is known how the average
person behaves in similar situations.
5. Each phase of development has characteristics “pattern of behavior”. The patterns are marked by
periods of equilibrium, which individuals adapt easily to environmental demands and as a result, make good
personal and social adjustments and by periods of disequilibrium when they experience difficulties in
adaptation and, as a result, make a poor personal and social adjustments.
6. Each phase development has hazards. Evidences show that each period in a life span has
associated with it certain developmental hazards whether physical, psychological or environment in origin
and these inevitably involve adjustments problems.
7. Development is added by situation. While most development will occur as a result of maturation
and environmental experience, mush can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full potential.
This can be done by stimulating development through directly encouraging the individual to use an ability
which is the process of developing.
8. Development id affected by cultural changes. Development is molded to conform to cultural
standards and ideas, thus, changes in these standards affect the developmental pattern. For example, In the
past standards from those considered appropriate girls. Take specifically, the occupational sex roles female
and female workers.
9. There is social expectation of every stage of development. Each cultural group expects its
members to master certain essential skills and acquire approved patterns of behavior at various ages during
the life span. Havighurst labeled them developmental tasks. He defined developmental tasks as “tasks which
arise at or about a certain period in the life of the individual, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and to success with later tasks while the failure to leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later
tasks.”
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10. There are the traditional beliefs about people of all ages. These beliefs about physical and
psychosocial characteristics affect judgment of others as well as their self-evaluation. In the western culture,
stereotyping and practices relating to old age can lead to unfavorable treatment of the people in the later
years of their lives. In the Philippines, however because of our close knit culture.” Old people are still being
taken care of by their children no matter how busy the latter are. They are still respected and cared for.
Acceptance of these stereotypes by those who are growing old is responsible for unhappiness/happiness
during old age and is an important factor physical and mental decline.
Life Span Development
You may not realize it but you are a statistic. In this study of life span development. Unknown to
you, psychologists, sociologists and demographers, among others, have placed you and those similar to you.
Can you guess why?
Psychologists now realize that development, once thought to end at childhood, or possibly
adolescence is a process that continues from conception to death. Today, we realize that the changes of
adulthood - maturity and aging - are as developmental as any other period. By analyzing the various
developmental periods, researches are as any other discover features of each period and to uncover the
mechanism by which we move from one stage to the next.
What do you mean by life span psychology (often referred to as developmental psychology)? Perhaps
the best way to capture its meaning is to state that development, as a lifelong process beginning conception
and ending in death, is in itself a discipline worthy to study.
The life span foods arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments, with
each segment being part of a whole. It is divided into:
3. Babyhood - from the end of the second week to end of second year
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9. Middle Adulthood - from thirty five to sixty five years
10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) - from sixty five years to death
Babyhood
Late Childhood
Adolescence
o Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates and both sexes
o Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
o Accepting one's physique and using one's body effectively
o Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior
o Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
o Preparing for marriage and family life
o Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior - developing an ideology
Early Adulthood
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o Taking a civic responsibility
o Finding a congenial group
Middle Age
Old Age
Theories of Personality
A theory is a set of concept and proposition that helps to describe and explain observation that one has
made. Theories are particularly useful if they are concise and yet applicable to a wide range of phenomena.
Good theories are also precise, that is capable of making explicit predictions that can be evaluated in late
research. There are several theoretical perspectives on human development: psychoanalytic theory,
psychosocial theory, learning or behavioral theory, moral theory, ethological theory and sociobiological
theory.
Behavioral theory
John B. Watson points that the larger community of scientist would never take psychology seriously
until psychologist began to study what they could see - over behavior responses.
A basic premise of Watson's "behaviorism" is that the mind if infant is a tabula rasa and that learned
associations between stimuli and responses are the building block of human development. According to
Watson, development does bit proceed through a series of stages; it is a continuous process marked by the
gradual acquisition of new and more sophisticated behavioral patterns r habits. Watson believed that only
the simplest of human reflexes (for example, the sucking reflex) are inborn and that all important tendencies,
including traits, talent, values and aspirations are learned
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The behaviorists of the 1980's are more moderate in their views. They recognize that the heredity and
maturation play meaningful roles in human development and that no amount of prompting or environment
enrichment could transform a severely retarded person into a lawyer or a brain surgeon. However, these
contemporary learning theorists believed the biological factor merely place limits on what children are
capable if learning. And to this day, theorist who favor the learning approach feel that the most significant
aspects of human behavior - those habits and qualities that make us human are learned.
What is learning?
Simply stated, learning is a process that produces relatively permanent changes in behaviour or behaviour
potential. These behavioural changes are the results of one's experience or practice, as opposed to natural
cause as maturation, fatigue, injury or illness.
1. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a person comes to associate a neutral stimulus
with a second, non-neutral stimulus that always elicits as a particular response after this association has
been made, the formerly neutral stimulus will have acquired the capacity to evoke the response in question
2. Operant (or instrumental) conditioning id a second type if learning in which a child first emits a
response and then comes to associate it with a particular outcome or consequence. Two kinds of
consequences are significant in operant conditioning - reinforced and punishments. Reinforcers are
consequences that promote operant learning by increasing the probability that a response will occur in the
future. Punishments are consequences that suppress a response and may decrease the likelihood that it will
in the future. In summary, operant conditioning is s very common form of learning in which various acts
become wither more or less probable. Depending on the consequences they produce.
3. Observational learning is a third process by which we acquire new feelings attitudes and behaviours. If a
child watches someone do something or listen attentively to that person’s reasoning then the child may learn
to do, think, or feel as the person did in the language if observation learning the individual who is observe
and imitated is called social model.
Although Watson argued that learned associations between stimuli and responses are the "bricks" in
the "edifice of human development" he really did not have a developmental theory to work with. Three
major theories have been proposed to explain social learning and the process of development. The drive
theory of Clark Hull, the operant learning of B.F Skinner and the cognitive social learning theory of Albert
Bandura
1. Neo-Hulian theory
This theory differed from the psychoanalytic approach un four important respects. First, the instincts
played virtually no role in this Neo Hullian Theory. Second, the personality was no longer described as a
system composed of an id, ego, super - ego. Instead, the Neo Hullian used the term habit for the well learned
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associations between various stimuli and responses that represents the stable aspects of one's character.
Presumably, our interaction with other people will lead to the development of many habits which
collectively make up our personality. Third, that development occurs continuously and is not at all stage
like. Neo Hullian John Dolard and Neil Millers describes that the personality as a system of transition;
people will interact with one another until the day they die and these new social encounters are continually
modifying their existing habit. Finally, each individual was said to develop a unique habit structure (or
personality), because no two persons are ever expose to precisely the same set of social learning experiences
In sum, Dollard and Miller view development as the changes that occur in a child's behaviour as a
result of his or her experiences. The idea outcome of these learning experience is a collection if habits
(personality) that is structured so that the socially desirable ad effective at reducing a primary or secondary
drive.
According to skinner, the majority of habits that children acquire freely emitted responses (operant)
that are either more or less probable as a function of their consequences. In other words, Skinner purposes
that behaviour is motivated by external stimuli reinforces or primitive events- rather than of internal forces,
or drives. Skinner theory is considered as radical behaviourism because it focuses exclusively on the
external stimuli (reward and punishment) that influence our behaviour and ignores all cognitive
determinants of social learning.
Bandura believes that children can learn new responses by merely observing the behaviour of a
model’s behaviour at some future time. This, therefore, is a form of cognitive learning, wherein children
need not to be reinforced or even respond in order to learn by observing others. All that is required for
observational learning is for the observer to pay close attention to the model’s behaviour and then store this
information in memory so that it can be retrieved for use a later date.
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Level Two – Conventional Morality. This is typical of nine to twenty years old. It is called conventional
since most nine to twenty-years olds conform to the convention of society because they are rules of a society.
Stage Tree – Good Boy-Nice Orientation. The right action is one that would be carried out by
someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others.
Stage Four – Law and order Orientation. To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established
and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority.
Level Three – Postconventional Morality. This is usually reached only after the age of twenty and by only
a small proportion of adults, it is called postconventional because moral principles that underlie the
conventions of a society are understood.
Stage Five – Social Contract Orientation. Rues are needed to maintain the social agreement. At the
same time, the rights of the individual should be protected.
Stage Six – Universal Ethical Principle Orientation. Moral decisions should be made in terms of
self-chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen they should be applied in a consistent way.
Some psychologist have reported evidence that substantiates the hypothesis proposed by
kohlberge that the stages he has describes are fixed, sequential, and universal. Other investigators
(Kurtimer and Greef, 1970) however, have reported evidence that does not support these hypotheses
and have questions about Kohlberg’s basic approach and some of his conclusion.
Among Filipinos, while there may be varied reactions/ observations on Kohlber’s stages of
moral development, one thing is sure, that Kohlberg’s work can serve as a basis for techniques of
moral education.
SOCIOBIOLOGICAL THEORY
Sociobiology, closely related to ethology (Bell and Bell, 1989), is a new and controversial discipline
that focuses on the biological foundations of social behaviour in species ranging from amoeba colonies to
human societies. The novelist Samuel Butler once remarked that “the chick is only an egg’s way of making
another egg.” So with sociobiology which views organisms as only the gene’s way of making more genes.
It depicts organisms primarily as survival machines for genes. Individual organisms may die, but their genes
live on in future generations. The key to the entire process is survival life’s first order of business. To survive
and thus pass on their genes to offspring – organisms must be able to function in their habitat. And if they
are to fit better in their environment, organisms must adapt to changes across time.
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2. Preoperational Thought Period
A. Preoperational phase- about 2 to 4 years old.
Characteristics:
o The child is ego-centric
o Unable to take viewpoint of other people
o He classifies by salient features. If A is like B in one respect
1) Id – consist of everything psychological that is inherited and is present at birth, including the
instincts. It is the reservoir of psychic energy and furnishes all the power for operation of two
systems.
o Called the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective
experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.
o Follows pleasurable principle
o It is the raw, savage, undisciplined, pleasure seeking staff that energizes man
throughout life.
o Use two processes.
a. Reflex action – are inborn and automatic reactions like sneezing and blinking;
they usually reduce tensions immediately.
b. Primary sources – it attempts to discharge tension by forming an image of an
object that will satisfy the instinct.
o Biological component of personality
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2) Ego – Id knows the subjective world reality whereas the ego distinguishes between things and
mind and things in the external world
o Obey the reality principle and to operate by means of the secondary process.
o The aim of the reality principle is to prevent the discharge of tension until an object
that is appropriate for the satisfaction of the need has been discovered.
o The secondary process is thinking.
o Equip with all cognitive capabilities such as thinking, planning, deciding and etc.
o Executive of the personality because it controls the gateways of to action, selects
features of the environment to which it will respond and decide what instincts will
be satisfied and in what manner.
o Psychological component of personality.
o Uses the defense mechanisms once the action taken gives embarrassment to relieve
the pressure.
3) Superego
o It is the internal representative of the traditional values and ideals of society as interpreted
to the child by its parents, and enforced by means of a system of rewards and punishments
imposed upon the child.
o Moral arm of the personality.
Libido – is that part of the Id structure which seeks its gratification from surely sexual activities.
Freud considered early childhood stages as having to do with deriving pleasure from different zones
of the body at different ages, leading up to the gratifications of adults’ sexuality.
1. Oral – during the first two years of life, the mouth is the center of gratification through
stimulation of lips and mouth region as in nursing and thumb sucking.
2. Anal – from age 2-3, the membranes of the anal region presumably provide the major source of
pleasurable stimulation.
o Gratification through holding and expelling of feces
3. Phallic – from age 3-5 or 6, self-manipulation of genitals is assumed to provide the major source
of pleasurable stimulation.
4. Latency – from ages 6-12, sexual motivation presumably recede in importance as the child
becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities.
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o Sexual interests are no longer active, so that the child of elementary school age turns his
interest to his environment.
5. Genital – after puberty the deepest feelings of pleasure presumably comes from heterosexual
relations.
1. Oral Sensory – Basic trust: result for gratification of needs, mutual recognition. Child needs
food, love, rest, recreations, security, stimuations met by caregivers.
o Outcome: develops trust in others, feels valued, and a sense that life is good.
o Virtue: hope – is the enduring belief in the obtainability of fervent wishes.
o Mistrust: result of consistent abuse, neglect, deprivation of love, too early or harsh
weaning, and autistic isolation.
o Child does not get needs, feels hungry, cold, abandoned and pain.
o Outcome: develops mistrust – a sense that he is not important – he cannot depend on
others.
2. Mascular Anal
Autonomy: Child views self as person in his own right apart from parents but still dependent.
o Child discovers control over himself through bladder and bowels, saying “no”, choosing
certain foods.
o Outcome: develops autonomy or sense that he exists as an individual discovers “I” and
“me”.
o Virtue: Will – is the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as self-
restraint.
3. Locomotor Genital
Initiative: lively imagination, vigorous reality testing, imitates adults, anticipates roles.
o Child discovers that he can “do things” – climbs, draws, puts puzzles together, goes to
school, develops friendships, makes things through crafts.
o Outcome: develops initiative, develops a sense that he can create and be successful.
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o Virtue: Purpose – is the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals uninhibited by the
defeat of infantile fantasies, by guilt and by foiling fear or punishment.
Guilt: Child is rarely praise, inly put down and/or punished or ignored – abused. Normal curiosity
is discouraged, mistakes are punished.
o Lacks spontaneity, infantile jealousy, castration complex, suspicious, evasive role
inhibition.
o Outcome: develops guilt, a sense he causes anger or pain in others because he has done
something wrong.
4. Latency
Industry: Child never belongs to anyone – is not wanted – does not allow opportunities to develop
friendships, and abilities are criticized.
o Outcome: Poor work habits, avoid strong competition, feels doomed to mediocrity;
sense of futility.
o Develops inferiority, a sense that others are better than him. He avoids positive
interaction.
Identity: Child discovers his unique values, personality – even within a group of peers and adults,
and chooses his career.
o Outcome: temporal perspective, self-certain, role experimenter, apprenticeship, sexual
polarization, leader-fellowship, and ideological commitment.
o Develops Identity, a sense of relating to others as he is accepting and caring for others
as they are.
o Virtue: Fidelity – is the ability to sustain loyalties.
Role Confusion
o Child misunderstood – abused, cannot develop values or goals, spending energies
rebelling against society, doesn’t learn.
o Outcome: Time confusion, self-conscious role fixation, work paralysis, bisexual
confusion, and value confusion.
o Develops role confusion, doesn’t fit in, isn’t able to find direction or meaningful work.
Has no positive sense of identity.
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6. Early Adulthood
Intimacy – Adult discovers his life becomes better when he can share love. Chooses a partner,
has children.
o Outcome: capacity to commit self to others.
o Develops intimacy, a sense of interpersonal relatedness.
o Virtue: love – is mutually of devotion forever.
7. Adulthood
Generativity:
o Adult discovers that his life creates life in others – has grandchildren, enjoys and reaps
benefits of parenting and working.
o Outcome: productive and creative of self and others, parental pride and pleasure, mature,
enriches life, establishes and guides the next generation.
o Develops generativity, a sense that he has made a positive contribution to the life process.
o Virtue: care- is the widening concern for what has been generated by love.
Integrity:
1. Physiological Needs – these are the needs of air, food, water, physical comfort which we
must met before the next needs can be approached.
2. Safety Needs – using children for example; Maslows finds that they have a desire for
freedom from fears and insecurity. One wants to avoid harmful or painful incidents
3. Belongingness – Belongingness needs begin the higher order needs. The human personality
wants security. The human being wants to be somebody even though it is a small group.
Because he is brought up by his fellow men, he wants to belong to the group that helped rear
him.
4. Love needs – Man has had, now has, and will always have the desire to love somebody
else and be loved in return.
5. Self-esteem needs – In this need, man wants to know that he is worthwhile, that he can
master something of his own environment, that bhe has the competence and independence
and a freedom and a feeling of being recognized for some type of endeavor.
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6. Self-actualization needs – this is the highest needs; for cognition and aesthetic reality. Man
has a strong desire to know and understand not only himself but the world about him. In
addition, he does not want to live in a stark, unbeautiful world but needs to have beauty and
art, to appreciate and to create things of an aesthetic nature.
Towle identified four categories of human needs that go with the individuals different stages of
development. These needs vary with age and circumstance of the individual. The following are the needs
identified by Towle:
Psychoanalytic Theorists:
1. Sigmund Freud - founder of psychoanalysts, emphasized the role of unconscious processes and
psychosexual stages in the determination of behavior.
2. Carl Jung – felt that Freud placed undue emphasis on sex, and hefocused instead on the collective
unconscious and inner self-experience.
3. Alfred Adler –
4. Karen Horney – both are known for expanding the focus of psychoanalytic thought to include
social-environmental factors in the development of personality.
5. Karl Menninger – has in essence remained a proponent of Freud’s original principles and has
gathered data in support of them.
6. Anna Freud – elaborated the ego-defense mechanisms and pioneered the psychoanalytic
treatment of children.
7. Erik Erickson – broadened Freud’s psychosexual stages of development by describing eight (8)
psychosocial stages, each offering the child an opportunity to work out a conflict in a healthy or
unhealthy way.
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1. Ivan Pavlov – a pioneer in showing the part of conditioning plays in behavior (conditioning-
response factor).
2. E L. Thorndike – formulated the law of affect – a seemingly simple observation that rewarded
responses are strengthened and unrewarded responses weakened – but one which laid the
foundations of of understanding learning and suggested means for the control of human
behavior.
3. John B. Watson – change the focus of psychology from the study of outer behavior, an approach
he called “behaviorism”.
4. Burrhus F. Skinner – formulated concept of operant conditioning as a kind of conditioning in
which reinforcers could be used to make a response more or less probable and frequent.
5. Albert Bandura – pioneered the study of modeling. He clarified and integrated learning
principles in the causation and treatment of maladaptive behavior.
6. Donald Melchenbaum – has made important recent contributions to the cognitive-behavioral
approach to changing maladaptive behavior through the modification of people’s statements.
Humanistic Perspective
1. Abraham Maslow – devoted more than two (2) decades to showing the potentialities of human
being for higher self-development and functioning (heirarchy of needs).
2. Carl Rogers – has contributed significantly to the humanistic perspective with his theoretical
formulations and his systematic studies on therapeutic process and its outcome.
3. Thomas Szasz – a psychiatrist, has argued that illness is an inappropriate term for most
maladaptive behavior, which he sees as resulting from problems in living rather than from
organic issues.
4. Fritz Perls – was influential in the development of therapeutic procedures for enhancing human
experiencing and functioning, particularly in the context of confrontation groups.
Classification of Conflict
1. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – involve strong tendencies both to approach and to avoid the
same goal. Sometimes called mixed-blessing dilemmas. Example, a former smoker may want to
smoke during the party and realized that doing so may jeopardize his or her desire to quit.
2. Double-Approach Conflict – Involve choosing between two or more desirable goals. To a large
extent, such simple “plus-plus” conflicts results from the inevitable limitations in one’s time,
space, energy, and personal, and financial resources.
3. Double-Avoidance Conflict – are those in which the choice is between more or less equally
undesirable alternatives. Neither course of action will be least disagreeable.
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Stage of Consciousness
1. Conscious – in that part of man’s mental life of which he is fully aware. The state of being
conscious enables us to know where we are, what are happening around us, who we are, how
are we to go about doing, and what we are present doing.
2. Preconscious – exist between the mental state of being conscious and the mental state of being
unconscious. It is the shadowy land where our memories for example, seek blindly for a bit of
knowledge readily known in the past but now not immediately in our possession to use.
3. Unconscious – there has to be a state of being which accounts for things that are not available to
the mind at any given moment but that have occurred to the mind in the past.
4. Subconscious – mental processes which accompany man at birth and are largely automatic in
mature but do require some mental effort.
Schizophrenia
Are group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of reality, withdrawal from a
social interaction, disorganization, and fragmentation of perception through an emotion. Schizophrenic are
suspicious and frightened, the victim fears he can trust neither his own sense, nor motives of other people.
Paranoia
Characteristics:
1. Suspiciousness – the individual mistrust the motives of others, fears he/she will be taken
advantage of, and is constantly on alert.
2. Protective thinking – selectively deceives the actions of others to confirm suspicion, comma,
now blames other for own failures.
3. Hostility – response to alleged injustices and mistreatment with anger and hostility, becomes
increasingly suspicious.
4. Paranoid Illumination – the moment in everything “fall into place”, the individual finally
understand the strange feeling and events being experienced.
5. Delusions – of influence and persecution that may be based on “some grain of truth”, presented
in a very logical and convincing way; often later development of grandeur.
1. Personality Development
I. Nature of Man – Man is a rational animal.This nature is manifested in his various,
1. Characteristics
1.1. He is alive – seen in his ability to perform various acts
1.2. He is a body – seen in his ability to perform various acts.
1.3. He has feelings – able to sense his surroundings and his reactions are expressed in his
emotions and bodily movement.
1.4. He is thinking and willing being – he is endowed with intellect and will. Decision on
choice making is the culmination of his thought processes.
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His innate dignity is rooted in his rationality, i.e., a person endowed with reason and
volition. It is his characteristics that enables man to muster his environment. And this
he does as an individual and in collaboration with the larger society.
2. These characteristics are manifested in his different activities
2.1. He nourishes himself. The result is physical growth and development. This physical
Maturation enables him to reproduce.
2.2. He becomes aware of his material environment through his senses. Thus, his emotions
are perceived through his senses. Thus, his emotions are perceived as pleasant or
unpleasant. He then moves towards or away from the environment that serves as stimuli
to him.
2.3. With his intellect he thinks – he abstracts, forms ideas, judges and reasons. Based upon
his evaluations, he decides and determines how to live his life.
II. Needs and Need Disposition
1. Needs
1.1. Survival needs – biological and material needs to sustain life:
a. Air
b. Water
c. Food
d. Shelter
e. Clothing
f. Exercise, sleep, rest
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1.2. Daily living needs – those related to man’s functions as social and intelligent
beings:
1.2.1. Social Needs
1) The Safety Needs, The need for freedom from threat or danger, the
need to ally oneself with the familiar and the secure.
2) The belongingness and the love needs, the need for affiliation, for
belongingness, for acceptance.
1.3. Psychological needs
1.3.1. The esteem needs, the need for achievement, for strength, for
acceptance, for reputation, for status or prestige.
1.3.2. The need for self-actualization, the need for self-fulfillment, to
realize potentialities, to become what one is capable of becoming.
1.3.3. Cognitive needs, the need for symmetry, order, system, and
structure.
1.3.4. Esthetic needs, the needs to worship a higher being.
2. Need disposition
As needs are felt, man desires the satisfaction of these needs. Needs then
serve as motivations to action. As man meets the lower needs, he focuses his
attention on the higher ones. There is a continuous demand and striving to reach
another need until he becomes self-actualized.
There are three (3) distinct steps in the motivation cycle: (1) awareness of a
need, desire, or urge that serves as a motive, (2) (action) instrumental behavior for
an acquisition of need and (3) goal toward which action is directed to lead to the
satisfaction of the need.
Emotions are a motivating force too, for under the state of emotion, one
can be initiated to action.
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Common Medical Disorders
Effects on Human Behavior
There are specific diseases that produce social and psychological effects on human
behavior. Among these maybe mentioned:
1 Cardio-vascular diseases such as heart conditions and high blood pressure which may
cause inability to find employment because of restricted activities, or sudden death. Patients
become over dependent on others.
2 Gastro-Intestinal and other metabolic disease like diabetes are closely related to
emotional tensions, insecurity and feelings of inadequacy, self-centeredness and display of
exaggerated symptoms.
3 Patients with respiratory diseases like asthma maybe closely related to poor social
environmental conditions as well as personality traits.
4 Skin conditions and bone deformities produce self-consciousness, loneliness and feeling
of shame and rejection by others because of their contagious nature loneliness and depression
result in social isolation.
5 Venereal diseases affect the relationships between people because of its sexual nature of
transmission and the social stigma and feeling of guilt associated with them. It may cause broken
families and severe emotional problems not only within the family, but also, in the community
when social problems of delinquency prostitution and drug addiction become widespread.
6 Cancer and other diseases like tuberculosis, traumatic injuries produce characteristic
behavior patterns because of their restricted mobility. Rehabilitation and occupational therapy are
needed to keep them busy and spiritual counselling to help them accept their condition.
Psychiatric Disorder
Psychoneurotics are persons who show personality disorganizations when confronted with
trying situations and difficulties of life. They exhibit behavior patterns of anxiety, inner tensions,
restlessness, inadequacy, lack of concentrations, abnormal fears. Physical symptoms may be
present such as headache, upset digestion and over fatigue.
Psychoses are severe mental diseases resulting from disintegration of the personality.
Those afflicted are insane and have lost touch with reality. They have no inhibitions and are not
legally responsible for their acts. They cannot take care of themselves and must be supervised or
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institutionalized when they become violent and a threat to others. The most common forms are
schizophrenia, manic-depression psychosis and paranoia.
The sociopathic or anti-social personalities are the law violators, criminals who may have
adequate intelligence and they know from wrong. Their abnormality lies in their lack of inhibitions
and unwillingness to conform to the ethical and moral standards of society. They are impulsive,
emotionally unstable, devoid or moral and social samples. Their moral principles are perverted
and depraved and they are incapable of conducting themselves with decency and propriety in life.
Although they may be smart and shrewd. They are more imbeciles and a threat to society.
Some forms of antisocial personalities are the homosexuals, rapists, swindlers, drug
addicts.
Pathological sexually such as masochism, sadism, peeping toms, and exhibitionism are
classified as psychiatric disorders.
Psychosomatic Medicine
It deals with the affects of sustained emotional states upon the physical condition of man.
Somato-psychology is concerned with the social and mental effects of physical illness.
Psychosomatic medicine is based on four (4) postulates:
The mind and the body are interrelated and what affects one affects the other.
Worries and anxieties affect the digestion, sleep, respiration and other bodily functions
When the mental disturbances disappears, the other body functions return to normal after
the stimuli disappear. When the mental condition remains untreated, it may develop permanent
organic or anatomical changes which remain as a result of the irreversible process.
Change of the environment to lessen the pressures of life may help to resolve conflicts
within the personality which are manifested in disturbed body functions.
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Physical Disabilities
Social Workers need to understand the conditions and mechanisms that account for the
psycho-social effects of physical disabilities. The individual with physical disabilities show
different behaviour patterns such as compensation for inferiority feelings, blame on parents,
dependence, demanding attitudes, and unrelated anxieties related to the bodily handicap. There is
a disturbance of the self-image especially if he is unable to perform his different roles in life.
Social Workers should view the handicapped as a normal part of today’s society. He should
be regarded as a whole person rather than within the narrow confines of handicapped, on the basis
of his abilities, not his disabilities and employers, and the community must contribute to his
medical, therapeutic, educational and vocational rehabilitation. Compensation is the individual’s
attempt to make up for undesirable trait and the consequences discomfort by exaggerating a
desirable trait. It is a compensatory mechanism. The adjustment changes must involve both the
individual and the environment if he must maintain a sound balance I his growth and development.
SOCIAL WORK – the profession which helps individuals, groups and communities to develop, enhance
or restore their capability for coping with the demands of their environment through the use of social work
methods (Social Work Dictionary).
-primarily concerned with the organized social services activity aimed to facilitate and strengthen
basic relationship in the mutual adjustment between individuals and their social environment for the good
of the individual and society, and by the use of the social work methods.
-is the profession which is concerned with man’s adjustment to his environment; a person (or
groups) in relation to a persons (or their) social situation. This refers to a person’s “social functioning”
which results from the performance of his various social roles in society. (T.L. Mendoza)
To enhance human being and help meet the basic human needs of all people with particular
attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed and living in
poverty.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONING – the expression of the interaction between man and his environment; the
individual’s manner of coping with the demands of his environment.
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-it refers to the activities or behavior essential to the different roles he has to perform in his involvement
with others.
Physical variables
Social variables
Cultural variables
Psychological variables
SOCIAL ROLES- a specific pattern of behavior and attitudes which one assumes in a specific situation in
her relationship with others.
- each individual occupies a position in the group o different positions in several groups,
and for each position he has a specific role to play. i.e. father, husband, supervisor ,
teacher etc. Every role has a reciprocal role. To be a brother you need have siblings ,
teacher should have students and the like.
SOCIAL WELFARE - covers practically everything than men do for the good of society.
- organized system of social services and institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to attain
satisfying standards of life and health.
- It includes laws, programs, benefits and services which assure or strengthen provisions for meeting
social needs.
Individual and Group Effort – refer to systematic and voluntary efforts undertaken by
individuals and/or by groups in response to the unmeet needs of people in a community.
Major societal institutions which have designated roles and responsibilities fro meeting
human needs.
Social agency (public or private) is a major provision for helping people with their problem.
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1.) Residual – conceives of the social welfare structure as temporary, offered during emergency
situation and withdrawn when the regular system (the family) and other systems) is again working
properly.
- Social welfare activities of this kind often carry the stigma of “dole” or “charity”.
2.) Institutional – sees social welfare as a proper, legitimate function of modern society.
- The institutional formulation, in
SOCIAL SERVICES – refer to the programs, services and other activities provided under various auspices,
to concretely answer the needs and problems of the members of the society.
Human Behavior and Social Environment is one of the core topics in social work. It is concerned
with the materials necessary for understanding the client in his problem situation, the dynamics of
individual and group behavior and of group and community processes which affect or influence the
individual, the group and the community. It is also concerned with content about normal and deviant
behaviors.
Human Behavior and Social Environment focus on knowledge about individual as a bio- psycho-
social being, the interaction between him/her and the physical, social, cultural, political and economic
forces in the environment which affects of influence behavior. They interact in a dynamic way.
Throughout his life, man, in his continuous desire and attempt to live a life that is acceptable, satisfying,
productive and evolutionary, must establish a condition of equilibrium between his needs and the
demands imposed upon him by his social environment. In other words, if an individual is not able to
satisfy his needs because of personal inadequacies, a harsh and difficult social environment where
opportunities for his growth and development are not adequate to enable him to cope with the problems of
living, then as a result of inability to establish equilibrium, his social functioning is impaired.
The phrase “the individual is a biopsychosocial being” means that there are inseparable,
interacting forces- biological, psychological and social that influence human behavior and personality.
Biological Component – would include the individual’s state of health and nutrition, genetics and
natural physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and development as well as
deviation from normal functioning including illnesses and physical disabilities,
The psychological component is concerned with individual’s personality, comprising what is
commonly termed “inner states” which include perceptual or intellectual, emotional and striving
tendency to do actively or purposely.
The social component includes hereunder elements
o Societal- aggregate data and social climate in which we live, regardless of whether or not
people are aware or accept them, such as poverty and unemployment.
o Institutional- organizational arrangements in society, such as family, government,
education and social services.
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o Status- characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way persons
are described, i.e age, sex, race and religion.
o normative – the forms in which social behavior are expressed and the social rules that
shape these forms.
o interactive – the type of interaction and perception of interaction made of self and others
that are a basis of behavior.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Personality
- dynamic organization within an individual of psychological system that determines his or her
characteristics, behavior and thoughts, (Allport’s definition)
- is sometimes defined as person’s public self, what he or she selects to display to the world. (Jung’s
concept of persona)
- is generally defined as the individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts
and emotion. (Burger, 1990).
- most personality theories agree that personality can be described in terms of consistent behavior
patterns. The tendency to respond consistently to various situations is what gives a person identity.
1.) First Impression – it gives some people a clue to the pattern of the observed individual. They then
brand that person as a certain “personality type” and ascribe to him or her supposed characteristics
of that type.
- A first impression may be used on physical appearance, facial features or expressions, mannerisms,
style of dressing, name, nationality, race, what a person says and how it is said, what one does and
how it is done, or some other physical or physiological characteristic which is identified in the mind
of the observer with a certain kind of personality type or stereotype.
- the underlying assumption is that physical features are closely related with personality traits.
- The physiognomist uses physical features, such as the distance between the eyes, the size and shape
of the chin and the color of the hair, as clues to assess personality characteristics.
b.) Phrenology - in this method, personality is judged by the size and shape of the skull.
c.) Graphology - this method uses a person’s handwriting to know his or her personality.
General penmanship and the way a letter is formed have a corresponding personality characteristic.
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SELECTED THEORIES ON PERSONALITY
SIGMUND FREUD
(Psychoanalytic Theory)
Structure of Personality
a.) Reflex Action – inborn and automatic reactions like sneezing and blinking thus usually
reduce tension immediately.
b.) Primary Process – attempts to discharge tension by forming an image of an object that will
remove the tension.
2.) Ego – operates on a reality principle
- comes into existence because the needs of the organism require appropriate transactions with the
objective world of reality. The hungry person has to seek, find and eat food before the tension of
hunger can be eliminated.
- This means that the person has to learn to differentiate between a memory image of food and actual
perception of food as it exists in the outer world which is accomplished by locating food in the
environment.
3.) Super ego – moral arm of the personality
- the human organism is not born with a super ego, rather children must acquire it through interaction
with parents, teachers and other formative agents.
- 2 subsystems
Conscience
Ego – ideal
ORAL – PASSIVE CHARACTER – describes as dependent to others. They often retain even to excessive
eating, drinking and smoking. They are seeking the pleasure they missed in infancy.
ORAL- AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY – when we begin teething, one satisfying thing to do when you
are teething is to bite on something like mommy’s nipple.
- If this precipitates an early weaning, one may develop this verbally aggressive, argumentative,
sarcastic personality.
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ANAL- EXPULSIVE PERSONALITY – some parents put themselves at the child’s mercy in the process
of toilet training. They beg, they cajole, they show great joy when one does it right, they act as though their
hearts wee broken when the child does it right. The child is the king of the house. These people maybe
cruel, destructive and given to vandalism.
ANAL RETENTIVE PERSONALITY – when parents are strict. They maybe competing with their
neighbors and relatives as to whom can potty train their child first (early potty training being associated
with great minds).
- These people are turned out to be clean, perfectionist, dictatorial and stubborn.
Alfred Adler
(INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY)
- One of the two most prominent figures who broke with Freud and went on to establish their own
original system of thought is Alfred Adler.
- The cornerstone of Adler’s system is the view that the person cannot be separated from the social
community.
- Adler described his childhood as a difficult and unhappy time. He enjoyed a warm relationship
with his mother during his first 2 years of life, but he lost that pampered position when his younger
brother was born.
Wilma Rudolph (physically handicapped as a child, went on to win 3 Olympic gold medals in track.
Theodore Roosevelt (a weak and sickly child, became a specimen of physical fitness as an adult
as well as President of the United States.
- Thus, organ inferiority that is congenitally weak or poor functioning organs can lead to striking
accomplishment in a person’s life. But it can also lead to excessive feelings of inferiority, if the
person’s attempts at compensation are unsuccessful.
- Feeling of inferiority begins in infancy and this early inferiority feelings mark the beginning of a
lifelong struggle to achieve superiority over the environment as well as perfection and completion.
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The abovementioned circumstances give rise to inferiority feelings; however one may react by
overcompensating and thus develop what Adler called SUPERIORITY COMPLEX. This involves a
tendency to exaggerate one’s physical, intellectual or social skills.
Adler held that inferiority feelings are the source of all striving toward self-expansion, growth and
competence.
He concluded that the striving for superiority is the fundamental law of human life. Adler believed
that the striving for superiority is innate and that we are never free of it because it is life itself
Additional Ideas about the Nature and Operation for Striving for Superiority:
He saw it as one fundamental motive with its roots in the infant’s awareness that it is impotent and
inferior to those in the surroundings.
This upward drive is universal in nature; it is common to all.
Superiority can take either a negative (destructive) or a positive (constructive direction.
Negative direction – is evident in the case of poorly adjusted people who strive for superiority through
selfishness and concern for personal glory at the expense of others.
Positive Direction – the efforts for a superior way of life are intimately bound up with the concern
for the welfare of others.
- The concept of social interest reflects Adler’s strong belief that we humans are social creatures-
that we must consider our relationship to others.
- He theorized that people are driven by an insatiable lust for personal power and need to dominate.
In particular, he held that people are pushed by the need to overcome their deep-seated feelings of
inferiority and pushed by their desire to be superior.
- Later on as his system matured, he theorized that persons are strongly motivated by positive social
urges. Specifically, he saw human beings as motivated by an innate social instinct which causes
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them to relinquish selfish gains for community gain. The essence of this view, captured in the social
interest concept, is that people subordinate their own needs in favor of the greater social good.
- He added that the parental care and guidance also affect the child’s development of social interest.
The father, for instance, must avoid dual errors of emotional detachment and paternal
authoritarianism towards his children. Children who experience paternal detachment tend to pursue
a goal of personal superiority rather than based on social interest. Similarly, paternal
authoritarianism leads to a faulty style of life. Children whose father is tyrannical learn to strive for
power and personal, rather than social, superiority.
- The degree of social interest represents a useful yardstick for measuring the person’s psychological
health.
- In Adler’s view, our own lives have value only to the extent that we add value to the lives of others.
Our own lives have no ultimate value unless we contribute to the lives of our fellow human beings
and even to the lives of those yet unborn.
- Maladjusted people, by contrast, are those who lack social interest. They are self-centered and strive
for superiority over others, they lack social goals.
The creative power is responsible for the person’s life goal. It determines the method of striving for
good and contributes to the development of social interest. It makes a person a FREE SELF-
DETERMINED INDIVIDUAL.
- the first born child trains himself for isolation and masters the strategy of surviving alone and
independently of the need for anyone’s affection or approval.
- He further suggested that the oldest child is likely to be conservative, power oriented and pre-disposed
toward leadership. Therefore, he or she often becomes the upholder of family attitudes and moral standards.
b.) The Only Born Child – this is a unique position of not having other siblings with whom to compete.
This fact, coupled with a vulnerability to being pampered by the parents.
- considered as “tied to the mother’s apron string” and expects pampering and protection from all
others too.
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- dependency and self-centeredness are the leading qualities of this life-style. Such child continues
to be the focus of family attention throughout childhood.
- The only child, in Adler’s view, has difficulty interacting with peers.
- Characterized as highly competitive and highly ambitious. Her style of life of constantly trying to
prove that she is better than her older siblings.
- Characterized also by being achievement –oriented, using both direct and devious means to
surpass the older sibling.
- this position never experiences the shock of dethronement by other siblings and is the “baby” or
“pet” of the family, maybe pampered not only by the parents but particularly in large families, by older
siblings as well.
-with older role models that set pace, all of whom are bigger and more privileged than he is, he is
likely to experience strong feelings of inferiority along with a lack of independence.
- Nevertheless, the last-born possesses one advantage; a high motivation to surpass older siblings.
As a result, this child often becomes the fastest swimmer, the best musician, the most talented artist, or the
most ambitious student in the family.
- the idea that human behavior is directed toward a future goal of its own making.
- People are more affected by their expectations of the future than by their actual past experiences.
He further argued that many people proceed through life acting “as if” certain ideas were
objectively true.
- Adler theorized that our ultimate goals (those goals which give our lives direction and purpose) are
fictional goals they can neither be tested nor confirmed against reality.
- Some persons may, for instance, conduct their lives in the belief that with hard work and little luck,
they can accomplish almost anything. To Adler, this belief constitutes fiction simply because there
are many people who work hard and yet never accomplish anything of real merit.
- Another example of fiction that exerts a powerful influence on the lives of countless people is the
belief that God will reward them in heaven for living a virtuous life on earth. This belief could be
considered fictional in nature because there is no empirical or logical way of proving their
existence.
- This goal does not exist in the future but in our present perception of the future. Personality is
influenced more by the subjective expectation about what might happen in the future than by
experiences of the past.
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BURHUSS SKINNER
- Burhuss Frederick Skinner was reared in a warm and stable home where learning was esteemed,
discipline was apparent and rewards were given when deserved.
- Skinner believed that abstract theories were unnecessary and should be abandoned in favor of an
approach based solely on how the environment affects the individual behavior.
Functional Analysis – the relationship between the organism’s overt behavior (responses) and the
environmental conditions (stimulus) that control it.
- It is the cause and effect relationship, emerging from functional analyses that become the universal
laws of behavioral science.
2 Kinds of Behavior
1.) RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR – refers to a specific response that is elicited by a known stimulus, the
latter always preceding the former in time.
Conditioned Stimulus – a previously neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit responses through
repeated pairing with another stimulus capable of eliciting such responses.
- is determined by the events that follow the response. That is a behavior is followed by a
consequence, and the nature of the consequences modifies the organisms tendency to repeat
behavior in the future.
- He called it R CONDITIONING to emphasize the affect of the response on the future behavior.
- If the consequences of the responses are favorable to the organism, then the likelihood of the
operant being emitted again in the future is thereby increased.
- On the other hand, if the response/outcomes are unfavorable or non-reinforcing, then the likelihood
of the operant is decreased.
TOKEN ECONOMY – is simply a stimulus which represents something to which certain desired items
or activities maybe exchanged.
Positive Reinforcement – involves the presentation of some kind of reward after some bit of behavior
has been emitted.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
- Is the rule stating the contingency under which reinforcement will be presented.
1. Fixed Ratio- the organism is reinforced following a predetermined or fixed # of appropriate
responses.
2. Fixed Interval – the organism is reinforced after a set or “fixed time interval has elapsed since the
previous reinforcement.
3. Variable Ratio- the organism is reinforces on the basis of some predetermined # of responses.
Extinction of behavior acquired in this type of schedule does not know when the next reinforcement
will be forthcoming.
4. Variable Interval – the organism is reinforced on this schedule after a variable time interval has
elapsed. Variable interval tends to establish steady response rates and is slow to extinguish. After
all the organism cannot precisely anticipate when the next reinforcement is going to be delivered.
ALBERT BANDURA
(Observational Learning)
- Albert Bandura places primary emphasis on the role of Observational Learning in behavioral
acquisition.
- The most distinctive feature of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is the belief that most human
behavior is learned through observation or by example. We simply attend to what others do and
then repeat their actions.
- Skinner for instance, maintained that external reinforcement is necessary for learning to occur.
While Bandura accepts the importance of external reinforcement, he does not regard it as the ONLY
way in which our behavior is acquired, maintained or altered. People can also learn by observing
or reading or hearing about other people’s behavior.
- Bandura states, children learn by watching/observation to be aggressive, altruistic, cooperative or
even obnoxious.
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2.) Retention Process: Remembering the Model
- This concerns the long term mental representation of what was observed at one time or another.
- Simply put, a person cannot be affected much by observation of a model’s behavior if he/she has
no memory of it. Indeed, without the capacity to recall what the model did, the observer is unlikely
to demonstrate any enduring behavioral change.
We rarely pay attention to something or somebody if no incentive impels us to-and when little attention
has been paid, there is virtually nothing to retain!
2 Forms of Reinforcement
- taken from the observed success and failures of others, as well as from their own direct
experiences.
Indeed, as a social being, we repeatedly attend to the action of others and the situation in which
they are rewarded, ignored or punished.
Vicarious Positive Reinforcement – is said to occur when observers increase behavior for which they have
seen others reinforced.
Vicarious Punishment – occurs when observed aversive reduce people’s tendency to behave in similar or
related ways.
Thus, if you see someone else rewarded for doing something, you are likely to conclude that you
will receive the same kind of reinforcement for acting that way. Alternatively, if you see someone else
punished after doing something, you are likely to conclude that the same thing would happen to you if you
acted that way.
2.) Self-reinforcement
This is evident whenever people set reward or punish themselves for attaining, exceeding or falling
out to their own expectation.
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VIOLENCE: on Television
- Violence as portrayed in the mass media, especially on television has long been suspected of having
such a negative impact on those who consume it.
- One of the effects of it is increasing the aggressive styles of conduct.
- Research shows that children who preferred violent television programs of age 8 were among the
most aggressive in school. Ten years later, at age 18, 3 times more likely to have generated a police
record after 10 years.
- Heavy viewers of violence on television are more likely to feel vulnerable to aggression of others
and see the world as dangerous place.
- Given these results, we may safely infer that observing violence on TV does promote, at least
indirectly, aggression as an appropriate way to deal with interpersonal problems.
Parents model non aggressive forms of behavior for their children and reward non violent behavior.
Parents try to curtail their children’s exposure to violence in the media by monitoring the content
of such programs in advance.
Parents can watch television alongside their children and comment on it, thereby explaining to the
children the harm and suffering that violent act can occur.
He does not assume that his recommendations would automatically eliminate the problem. “Like so
many other problems confronting man, there is no single grand design for lowering the level of
destructiveness within a society. It requires both individual’s corrective effort and group action aimed at
changing the practices of social system.”
CULTURE
Culture – as a complex whole which involves knowledge, beliefs , art , morals, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by people as member of society.
- it is transmitted from one generation to another through language. It tells one what to do, what not
to do and how to do things. Form our culture, we learn to determine what behavior is appropriate
and what is in appropriate, what is good and what wrong behavior is, what are allowed and what
are prohibited, and even which smells are pleasant and which are not.
As a real phenomenon
As an abstraction
Aside from humans were created in God’s own image and likeness as Christian’s faith speaks, what
distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the possession of culture, while animals like dogs and
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cats can learn tricks or imitate certain activities, they cannot transmit what they have learned to their young
and so they cannot accumulate things that have learned.
- refers to the systematized usage of speeches and hearing to convey, communicate or express
feelings and ideas.
- Language enables people to transcend time and space. Through the use of language, we can talk
about what happened in the past and what one possibly forthcoming.
Culture and society are used interchangeably. While these 2 concepts are interdependent and
interrelated no society can exist without a culture and no culture can develop without a society, they are not
the same.
Society – is a group of people bound together in a more or less permanent association organized for the
collective activity. It is made up of individuals who are interacting with each other in a shared pattern of
custom, belief and values.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is learned
Culture is shared
Culture is dynamic
Culture is diverse
Culture is a whole
Knowledge – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true
- defined as standard shared by members of a social group in which the members are expected to
conform, and conformity to which is enforced by positive and negative sanctions.
- the rules governing human relations within social group.
Folkways – are commonly known as the custom, tradition and conventions of the society.
- Based on ethical and moral values which are strongly held and emphasized. Observance of mores
is compulsive.
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Laws – are formulated norms, enacted by people who are vested with government power and enforced by
political and legal authorities designated by the government.
Belief – embodies people’s perception of reality and includes the primitive ideas of the universe as well as
the scientist’s empirical view of the world.
Values – are the bases of our judgment of what we consider good, desirable and correct as well as what is
considered bad, undesirable, ugly and wrong.
1.) Smooth interpersonal Relationship (SIR) – the ability to get along with others in such a way
that any signs of conflicts are avoided. SIR is acquired by:
a.) Pakikisama - derived from the
along.
o It refers to the yielding of a person to the will of the leader or majority so as to make the
group’s decision unanimous.
o It is the “we” identification of the group
o It is a positive Filipino value. It encourages mutual assistance in times of need or
sympathy in times of sorrow.
b.) Go-between - the need for a mediator or facilitator. A third party is used to avoid the feeling of
inadequacy in a face-to-face encounter, or to act as an intermediary when asking for a favor.
c.) Euphemism - stating an unpleasant truth, opinion or request with beautiful language and fine
manner.
2.) Hiya – as painful emotion arising from a relationship with an authority figure or with a society
which inhibits self assertion when one is in a situation which is perceived as a dangerous to
one’s ego. This trait is associated with the unpleasant experience of embarrassment that
prevents one form wrongdoing.
3.) Bahala Na – an expression derived from a Filipino word “Bathala”.
- it is the “come what may” or que sera sera” attitude and at time rests on the line of least resistance
that one need not exert any effort because God will take care of everything.
4.) Ningas Kugon – “ningas” literally means to catch fire and “kugon “ is a fast burning kind of
grass.
- It is defined as the enthusiasm that is intense only at the start but gradually fades away.
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5.) Utang na Loob – reciprocity or debt of gratitude.
6.) Hospitality – welcoming others to one’s home and offering the best to visitors while denying
the same to members of the family.
7.) Amoral Familism – the tendency to become individualistic and in ward directed; hence, the
inability to look beyond the family circle.
While many Filipinos are captive of these values there are those who are not, so that the social
worker should be sensitive to this and not automatically presume that all her clients adhere to these.
An awareness of these values will be of great help in understanding and dealing with the behavior
of the people one works with. Many of these values are good and no one will argue against the
value of preserving them . However some of them have negative aspects or are given distorted
interpretation, thereby creating problems.
The Family
Family Structures
1.) Conjugal Family – which considers the spouses and their offspring as of prime
importance and which has a fringe of comparatively unimportant relatives.
o marriage bond is emphasized.
2.) Consanguineal Family – which considers the nucleus of blood relatives as more
important than the spouses.
B. Based on Descent – implies cultural norms, which affiliates a person with a particular
group of kinsfolk for certain social purposes and services such as mutual assistance.
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Patrilineal descent – affiliates a person with a group of relatives through his or her
father. The child has also well-defined relationships with the mother’s kin, but when
the child finds it is necessary to seek aid, the child turns to his or her father’s kin.
Matrilineal Descent – which affiliates a person with a group of relatives related
through his or her mother.
Bilateral descent – which affiliates a person with a group of relatives related through
both his and her parents.
C. Based on Residence
Patrilocal residence – requires that the newly married couple live with or near the
domicile of the parents of the bridegroom.
Matrilocal residence – requires that the newly married couple live with or near the
domicile of the parents of the bride.
Bilocal residence – gives couple a choice of staying with either the groom’s parents
or the bride’s parents, depending on the factors like the relative wealth of the families
or their status, the wishes of the parents or certain personal preferences of the bride
and the groom.
Neolocal residence – permits the newly married couple to reside independently of the
parents of either groom or bride.
Avunculocal residence- prescribes that the newly married couple reside with or near
the maternal uncle of the groom. This type of residence is very rare.
D. Based on Authority
Patriarchal Family – is one in which the authority is vested in the oldest male in the
family, often the father. This type of family is further characterized by family solidarity
and ancestor worship.
Matriarchal Family – is one in which the authority is vested in the mother or the mother’s
kin.
Egalitarian Family – is one in which the husband and the wife exercise a more or less
equal amount of authority.
Matricentric Family – usually found in the suburbs of the United States. It attributes to
the emergence to the fact that in suburban families, the father commutes and is absent for
the greater part of the day. His prolonged absence gives the mother a dominant position
in the family, although the father may also share with the mother in decision-making.
The family regulates sexual behavior and is the unit for reproduction.
The family performs the function of biological maintenance.
The family is the chief agency for socializing the child.
The family gives its members status.
The family is an important mechanism for social control.
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Structural Characteristics of the Filipino Family
The basic units of Philippine society are the nuclear family and the bilaterally extended kinship
group
The Filipino family is considered also as consaguineal for the fact that dominant to its
characteristics it plays important role on blood kinship.
Filipino families usually build alliance as a manifestation to further extended relationship. This is
shown by the “ compadre” or “compadrazgo” which is formed to the rituals of baptism,
confirmation and marriage.
Filipino families mostly practice endogamy.
The Filipino family is frequently said to be patriarchal in authority. And egalitarian as revealed
by many scholars as attributed to the division of labor.
The Filipino family is bilateral in terms of descent.
In terms of residence, the Filipino family maybe said to be bilocal and neolocal.
In marriage, monogamy is the norm, although polygyny is allowed among the Muslims and other
cultural communities.
Forms of Marriage
Forms of Polygamy
Endogamy – refers to the norm that dictates that one should marry within
one’s clan or ethnic group.
Exogamy – prescribes that one marry outside one’s clan or ethnic group.
Levirate – prescribes that a widow marry the brother or nearest kin of the
deceased husband.
Sororate – prescribes that a widower marry the sister or nearest kin of the
deceased wife.
Studies have shown that most marriage conflicts are due to the following factors:
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Relative and in-laws issue
Irrational jealousy
Sexual relations
Mobility
Sudden loss of economic support
Death
Prolonged illness
Separation
Deviant Behavior- behavior that is regarded as wrongdoings that generate negative reactions in persons
who witness or hear about it.
Social Deviance /Deviance – disapproved behavior and traits, characteristics or conditions that generate a
similar condemnatory, rejection reaction in others.
- is an action that is likely to generate, or has generated reactions to the actor by or from certain
audiences.
Cognitive Deviance – holding deviant beliefs, this category includes unacceptable, religious, political and
scientific belief.
But the question is not as simple as it sounds. We ask, What are the accepted standards and social
expectation? You personally know what is accepted and expected within your circle of family and
friends but what about within other social circumstances? Is it possible that some of your behaviors are
unacceptable to someone and that you are deviant?
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Deviance is in the eye of the beholder. In other words, that which is deviant to me may not be
considered deviant by you!
Although, there is a wide agreement that some behaviors are deviant. Many other behaviors are
considered deviant by smaller number of people.
Yet, it is scarcely enlightening simply to say that deviance is RELATIVE and LET THE MATTER
REST.
Since, we will probably found highly subjective conceptions of deviant behavior; we can find also
a generally agreed yardstick against which to measure deviant and non-deviant behavior.
It is simply easier to define behavior as deviant if you have some of commonly-agreed standard
against which to compare of behavior.
Most theorist have sidestepped the issue by assuming that the agreed upon norms of society can be
found in the CRIMINAL LAW. The theorists’ position is that the criminal law concerns the well being
of all and reflects the conscience of the total society regardless of the diverse interests of various
individual or groups.
Criminal - person whose behaviors are formally forbidden by legislation and punishable by the state.
Homosexuals, prostitute/prostituted women, drug addicts, radicals, criminals, liars, atheists, card
players, bearded men, perverts, obesity, etc.
Babies born with deformity were defined as monster and were thought to be predictors of disastrous
epidemics in Early Eras. Babies born with deformities were killed in ancient time. Plato believed that
deformed and infirm children should be hidden away in a secret place. Today in modern contemporary
times, those possess the stigma of being physically disabled or handicap requires the attention of social
agencies.
Characteristics of Deviance
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Humans are evaluative creatures. We continually make judgments about the behavior and the characteristics
of others and ourselves. Societies everywhere have rules governing what we may and may not do, and how
we should look.
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Two Fruitful definitions of Deviance
1.) The Normative Definition- deviance can take place in secret; an act or conditions that
nobody knows about except the violator. This definition presumes that this observers
capable of seeing any and all actions, even if they are secret, and making accurate judgment
about their deviant status in a given society. To the normative sociologist, deviance is a
formal violation of the norms. (i.e. in American society, a woman who weighs 250 pounds
has violated weight norm. Women are expected to weigh 110 lbs to 140 lbs.. It is the norm
of a married couple to have children; it violates the norm and is thought deviance for a
married couple not to have children., In a society where mainstream religion are the norms,
membership in cult is deviance. When physically and mentally abled is the norm, disability
represents a form of deviance. ]
- the normative definition implies relativity. An action or condition that may be in conformity with
the norm in one place or time may violate it in another.
- We know what the norms are, and we can decide in advance whether they are violated by a given
action.
- We know even before it happens that the behavior of a man walking down a street completely
naked will qualify as an instance of deviance. If we know in a certain society that engaging in
sexual activity with a partner of the same sex is regarded as wrong; when this happens, it is
automatically an instance of deviance.
It ignores secret behavior or conditions that would be reacted to as deviance, were they known
to the community.
Ignores secret behavior and conditions that would be reacted to as deviant, even when the actor
or the possessor knows that it would be condemned by the community at large.
Denies the possibility that there is any predictability in the reactive process
Ignores the reality of victimization
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Indirect or Symbolic Deviants – they know that they would be labeled as deviants when their identity or
activities discovered.
The Classical
This theory was patterned from the thought of Beccaria about a plea for reform of the judicial and
penal system of the time, which was characterized by secret accusations, extensive use of tortures, harsh
penalties for trivial offenses.
In the 15th century, the death penalty and serious mutilation were used only in extreme cases to
supplement the complicated and carefully differentiated system of fine, but now, they become the most
common measures. Judges resorted to them whenever they were convinced that the offender was a
danger to society.
The point was, it was no longer the extreme penalty for serious offenses but a means of putting
allegedly dangerous individuals out of the way. In this kind of procedure, little attention was paid to
the guilt or innocence of a suspect.
According to Beccaria, humans are fundamentally rational and hedonistic. They possess free will
and make deliberate decisions to behave based upon a calculation of the pain and pleasure involved.
To avoid continual chaos resulting from total individual freedom, humans eventually enter a contract
in which they submit to a wide authority in exchange for security under laws of a state. Humans are
basically self-serving; however, given the opportunity they will enhance their own position at the
expense of other humans. Thus, the role of the state is to prevent crime.
It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them. This is the ultimate end of every good legislation
, which to use the general terms for assessing the good and evils of life.
To this end, Beccaria argued that the law should be clear and simple and directed against only those
behaviors clearly endangering society and individuals in it. Because of their rationality, all human
where seen as equal before the law. He accepted literally the notion that punishment should fit the
crime.
Recognized as a practical matter that not all persons are equally rational, particularly the young,
the mentally disturbed, and those confronted with other unusual circumstances.
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Despite their considerable influence on Western Legal System, the classical and neo classical schools
failed to produce a variable theory of deviance. Their pre-occupation with the rationality of humans resulted
in overlooking how society can adversely affect behavior.
2 TERMS
POSITIVISM – a philosophical approach, theory, or system based on the view that in the social as well as
in the natural sciences, sense experiences are all the exclusive source of all worthwhile information.
- does not concern itself with the abstract and unprovable but rather with the tangible and
quantifiable. It involves investigating the world by objective data that can be counted or measured. In short,
if you can’t hear it, feel it, see it, or smell it forget it.
DETERMINISM - refers to the principle that all events, including human behavior have sufficient causes.
Positivists do not advise punishment as a remedy because deviant behavior is not a matter of choice.
Obviously, the recommended procedure for halting deviant behavior depends upon the brand of
determinism favored. Thus if the cause is located in the body, the body must be “treated; if it is in social
factors, anything from the family, neighborhood or entire economic system may need renovation.
- Of all the positivist approaches to the explanation of deviance, the investigation of a possible relationship
between anatomical attributes and behavior is not only the oldest but also the most persistent. Today,
scarcely year goes by without some revelations concerns the possible connection between a biological
characteristics and human behavior.
In 1966, Charles Whitman after killing his mother /wife climbed with 6 guns to the top of a tower
in the University of Texas campus. He shot 46 persons, killing 16. His behavior was puzzling. Whitman
requested an autopsy to determine whether he had a mental disorder. The autopsy revealed a brain tumor.
Some medical experts doubted the explanatory value of the tumor. But others thought that his physical
condition could somehow account for his behavior.
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II.Phrenology – The Beginning of the Scientific Study of Deviant
Phrenology – the determination of the mental facilities and character traits from the shape of the skull.
- Franz Gall – an Austrian anatomist who spent 20 years touring insane asylums and prisons to
measure head shapes. Gall believed that the brain was the center of the thought, specific brain areas
controlled different behavioral activities and brain areas of greater importance were greater in size
and area.
- The notion that there maybe a link between protuberance on the head and criminal behavior was
widely circulated throughout Europe and USA.
- A phrenologist in USA made a theory dividing the brain into 34 areas, 3 of which were related to
criminal behavior:
Philoprogenitiveness (love for offspring)- it was noted that a number of guilty females
committed infanticide had defective philoprogenitiveness area.
Destructiveness – this area if properly not balanced will lead to murder
Covetiveness – unless restrained and properly directed will lead to great selfishness and even
theft.
Up to the end of the 19th century, phrenology provided the basis for a moderate amount of
theory and research on the nature of criminal beings, but in the final analysis, it makes no
contributions to the understanding of deviant behavior.
One cannot detect the subtle shape of the brain by examining the exterior of the skull, and
no single sections of the brain one completely responsible for the complex behaviors attributed to
them by the phrenologist.
The notion that biology plays a significant, if not paramount, role in causing deviant behavior is
usually associated with the writings of Cesare Lombroso (founder of the Positivist School of Criminology).
ATAVISM – criminals were seen as distinct types of humans who would be distinguished from
non-criminals by certain physical traits. These traits did not cause criminal behavior but, rather, served to
identify persons who were out of step with evolutionary scheme.
- Such persons were considered to be closer to apes or to early primitive humans than were most
modern individuals; they were throwbacks (atavists) to an earlier stage in human development.
INSANE Criminals – who act from epilepsy, imbecility, paranoia (delusions of being persecutes)
and other forms of mental infirmity.
Born Criminals – whose anti-human conduct is the inevitable effect of an indefinite series of
hereditary influences which accumulate in the course of generations.”
Habitual Criminal – who show in an indistinct way, if at all, the marks of the born criminal and act
through moral weakness as influenced by a corrupt environment.
Criminals of Passion – who act under the impulse of uncontrolled emotion on occasion during
otherwise moral lives.
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Occasional Criminals- who have not received from nature an active tendency towards crime but
have fallen into it, goaded by the temptation incident to their personal condition or physical and
social environment
- Heredity concerns the process of passing characteristics from one generation to another: Mental
deficiencies are specific characteristics that may or may not be seen by the theorists as inherited.
- Theorist believed in this idea that criminality was inherited and also the mental defectiveness which
played an important role in criminal behavior.
- Every feeble minded person is a potential criminal. This is necessarily true since the feeble-minded
lacks one or other of the factors essential to moral life- an understanding of right and wrong, and
the power of control.
EUGENICS – a science concerned with improving the quality of human offspring through the manipulation
of heredity by such means of selection of parents.
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SOMATOLOGY
- refers to the science of classifying human physical characteristics by examining the relationship
between body type or physique and particular patterns of mental and behavioral characteristics or
temperaments.
soft body
underdeveloped muscles
round shaped
over-developed digestive system
love of food
tolerant
evenness of emotions
love of comfort
sociable
good humored
relaxed
need for affection
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Mesomorphic Body Type:
adventurous
desire for power and
dominance
courageous
indifference to what others
think or want
assertive, bold
zest for physical activity
competitive
love of risk and chance
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Ectomorphic Body Type:
thin
flat chest
delicate build
young appearance
tall
lightly muscled
stoop-shouldered
large brain
self-conscious
preference for privacy
introverted
inhibited
socially anxious
artistic
mentally intense
emotionally restrained
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XYY CHROMOSOMES SYNDROME
46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs –human cells each parents having donated one of each pair.
Every normal cell in a woman’s body contains two X chromosomes, and each cell in a male has
one X and one Y.
However exception to this genetic pattern does occur. Of interest in here is the estimated 1 percent
(1 out of 1, 000) of the males who possess an extra Y chromosomes, a condition first reported in
1961. In 1968, this genetic anomaly received much public attention when in France a defense
attorney in a murder trial claimed that his client possessed an extra Y chromosomes and he is not
responsible for his offense. This claim was based on a very limited research indicating that some
chromosomally abnormal men had histories of anti social behavior.
The most publicized case was that of Richard Speck, who murdered eight Chicago student nurses.
In 1968, Specks attorney claims to the press that Speck had XYY chromosomes, a contention that
made front page headlines. As it developed, Speck was simply XY, but findings received very little
publicity.
BRAIN MALFUNCTION
1935 – systematic manipulation of the brain for the purpose of altering behavior was iniated. Antonio Moniz
introduced the prefrontal lobotomy. In this operation, Moniz destroyed large sections of the frontal lobes
of the brain. His subjects were 20 mental patients who had been unaffected by other treatments. Accordingly
15 showed some degree of improvements as the result of the operation. One lobotomied patient was later
to pump five bullets into Dr. Moniz.
Frontal lobes are involved in motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation,
judgment, impulse control and social and sexual behavior. The area is associated with reasoning, planning,
emotions and problem solving. Frontal area is the most common region of injury following mild to moderate
traumatic brain injury. Patients with frontal damage exhibit little spontaneous facial expression or difficulty
in speaking.
Psychosurgery – the surgical removal or destruction of the brain tissue to disconnect one part of the brain
from another with the intent of altering behavior. However there are mentioned few effects for such, some
of these are the loss of ability to fantasize, to think abstractly and to become creative.
- there is still exist considerable controversy over whether the stimulation or destruction of certain
areas of the human brain results in predictable changes in behavior. It is argued that no specific and
consistent human behavior result from psychosurgery.
- The idea of brain surgery as a means of improving mental health got started around 1890 when
Friedrich Golz, a German research, removed portions of his dog’s temporal lobe and found them
to be calmer, less aggressive. It was swiftly followed by a doctor of SWISS Mental institution, who
attempted similar surgeries on 6 of his schizophrenic patients. Some were indeed calmer and two
died.
- Because some of his patients became calmer, some did not. Moniz advised extreme caution in using
lobotomy, and felt it should only be used in cases where everything else has been used.
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- Between 1939 and 1951, over 18,000 lobotomies were performed in the US, and many more in
other countries. It was often used on convicts and in Japan it was recommended for use on “difficult
children”. There are still Western countries that permit the use of the lobotomy, although its use
has decreased dramatically worldwide. Curiously, the old USSR banned it back in the 1940’s on
moral grounds.
- In the 1950’s, people began upset about the prevalence of lobotomies. Protests began and serious
research supported the protesters.
- There have been a few famous cases over the years. For example, Rosemary Kennedy was given a
lobotomy when her father complained to doctors about the mildly retarded girl having interest in
boys. Her father never informed the rest of the family bout what he had done. She lived out her life
in Wisconsin institution and died on January 7, 2005. This operation was one of the famous failures.
Leaving Rosemary Kennedy inert and unable to speak more than a few words. After lobotomy, she
was sent to Winconsin institution where she remained until her death in 2005
The cause is within the deviant; the goal was to discover individual characteristics contributing to
becoming involved in deviant behavior. In short, this first approach concerned explaining the
deviant by means of biological and psychological positivism.
The other approach stressed the importance of social factors as a cause of deviance. The goal was
to explain both the existence of deviant behaviors and its distribution in society. This in short
concerns explaining the varying amounts of deviance between groups by means of social
determinism.
Theorists Guerry and Quetelet labeled as “Moral Statisticians” noted 2 phenomena in relation to deviance.
That the types and amount of deviance vary according to geographical region.
That annual deviance within a specific area varies little from one year to another.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
An economic interpretation of deviance was an aspect of the work of Quetelet when he, for
example, considered the price of grain to be a crucial variable in the operation of society.
- This influence is an attempt to find relationship between crime and a variety of economic factors
such as the prices of various grains, business cycles and income levels of convicted persons.
Karl Marx
- Marx developed an economic interpretation of societies. He claimed that all social phenomena-
legal codes, political institutions, religion, ethics, the arts, the family are products of society’s
economy in the form of its means of production.
- In a capitalistic economy, there is a private ownership of the means of production , distribution and
exchange of wealth; as a consequence, there exist an intense competition resulting in the
exploitation of proletariat (working class) by the bourgeoisie (owners and controllers of means of
production).
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- According to Marx, the continual competition requires that minimal wages be paid for labor; the
bourgeoisie becomes richer and richer and the proletariat becomes poorer and miserable. The
condition of poverty and continued exploitation produce all forms of social problems. Only by
destroying the economic system, ultimately accomplished by the proletariat in a violent revolution,
will a classless society emerge of economic exploitation and its evils.
- Marx never actually spelled out a theory of deviance, but inferences can be made and his writings
have been influential to the explanation of deviance.
1st.) Marx writings provides basis for viewing deviance as a product of social conflict. Accordingly,
deviance cannot be eliminated by adjustments within capitalist society; deviance is inherent in
capitalism and only the total destruction of economic sub structure will provide a remedy.
Marx saw capitalistic society as composed of one sided conflict between groups. From his
perspective, deviance was an expression of a struggle in which the economically powerless attempt
to cope with the exploitation and poverty imposed upon them.
2nd.) with touch of sarcasm, he points out how deviance serves many purposes in support of the
existing society. Without deviance, police, judges and law professions would have no jobs; the
mechanical inventions derived from the innovations in the torture would be undiscovered,
engineering of monetary instruments and chemical methods to detect illegal adulteration of
products would all remain unadvanced.
To this extent, Marx appropriately can be regarded as an economic determinist. In short, the enduring legacy
of Marx lies in his theory that society’s foundation is its economic structure.
ANOMIE
- simply defined , a state where norms (expectations on behavior) are confused , unclear or not
present
- normlessness
- A breakdown in the cultural structure, occurring particularly when there is an acute disjunction
between cultural norms and goals and the societies structural capacities of members of the groups
to act in accord with them.
- The premium placed on financial success in the absence of opportunities creates a disjunction
between the goal and the capacities or means of individuals to attain it.
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- Accordingly, societies evolved from a simple, non-specialized form called mechanical towards a
highly complex specialized form called organic.
- In the former society, people behave and think alike and more or less perform the same work tasks
and have the same group oriented goals. When societies become more complex or organic, work
also becomes complex. In the society, people are no longer tied to one another and social bonds are
impersonal.
- Changing of condition as well as adjustment of life leads to dissatisfaction, conflict and deviance.
He observed that social periods of disruptions (economic depression for example) brought greater
anomie and high rates of crime, suicide and deviance.
Durkheim’s Anomie
Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist wrote his major works during a time when the study of
deviant behavior was dominated by those who viewed deviants as the products of defective biology.
-he argued that a society without deviance is impossible. Thus it is impossible to have a collection
of human so inflexible in their behavior that none will diverge to some degree from the ideal. He further
claims that deviance is not only inevitable but also necessary for the health and progress of society. Without
deviance society would be static. The inevitability and desirability of deviance led him to conduct that
deviance is “normal” in society. This did not mean that he necessarily regarded the individual deviant as
normal. From the standpoint of society, deviance is an expression of individual freedom and one of the
prices to be paid for social change.
-Durkheim first used the concept of anomie in division of labor in society. Here it played a minor
role; it’s purpose was to signify a lack of integration and adjustment that threatens the cohesiveness of
contemporary society, which unlike hunting and agricultural society are characterized by a complex variety
of occupation and interest.
- Durkhein felt that sudden change caused a state of anomie. The system breaks down, either during
a great prosperity or great depression, anomie is the same result.
Anomic suicide – was one of the 4 types and was considered to stem from a state of ‘normlessness”
or “deregulation” in society. Such suicide occurs because society allows its members to have unlimited
aspirations, and there is no discipline imposed on notions of what may be realistically achieved. These
suicides arise particularly during periods of sudden economic prosperity. Thus Durkheim was convinced
that humans are susceptible to limitless ambition. Unless society imposes regulations upon aspirations,
unless there is some check upon the passions aroused by perceived undiminishing prosperity, personal
crises will develop and result to suicide.
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Merton’s Anomie
Culture goals – the aspirations and aims that define success in society.
Institutionalized means – the socially acceptable methods and ways available for achieving goals.
- It is believed that in America before, it was not the mere lack opportunity or the excessive emphasis
on the accumulation of wealth that create anomie; it is when both exist in the situation where all or
most members of a society believed that the opportunities are available to them that anomie results.
Merton’s important contribution is the provision of alternative behaviors that may result from the
disjunction between goals and means.
There are 4 adaptations apart from conformity that can be defined as deviant:
INNOVATION – is the adaptation in which most property crimes would be found. It occurs when
persons accept without qualification the importance of attaining the goals and will use any means
regardless of their prosperity, morality, or legality to achieve those goals.
- In short, their philosophy can be described in the words of Vince Lombardi when he said “Winning
isn’t everything; it is the only thing”.
-
RITUALISM – is a behavioral alternative in which great aspirations are abandoned in favor of
careful adherence to the available means. Early morning classes often considered ritualists.
Attendance is not a means for them to attain success; they are there simply because they should be.
Merton uses the example of persons in factories and other bureaucracies who staunchly perform
their duties, but who have neither the intention nor the inclination to advance themselves. They
carefully avoid rocking the boat and prefer to play it safe.
There maybe some argument whether such behavior is really deviant, but the lack of
ambition certainly is not in keeping with the idealized American way.
RETREATISM – is the category containing the mentally disordered, drug addicts, alcoholics and
any other groups that has apparently withdrawn from the competitive struggle. Thus persons do not
strive for the goals that society encourages, nor do they obey rules of how to act. They seek their
own private rewards and live by rules peculiar to their style of living.
REBELLION – involves not only a rejection of the goals and means, but the intention of replacing
those goals and means by altering the social structure.
Comments /Criticism:
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CONTROL THEORY
- according to this theory , the social environment does not push one toward deviant behavior; rather,
it fails to restrain one from so behaving
- Deviance is not caused by the present values, beliefs or other motivating factors, but by the absence
of values and beliefs that normally forbid delinquency
- While most theorists ask, why do they do it? That is what processes encourage deviant behavior,
Control theory turns the question around and ask Why don’t they do it?
- Most of us do not engage in deviant or criminal acts because of strong bonds with or ties to
conventional, mainstream social institutions. If these bonds are weak or broken, we will be released
from society’s rules and will be free to deviate.
- Society or neighborhood is able to invest its citizens or residents with a stake worth protecting, it
will have lower rates of crime vs. society where strong bond is not present or relatively low.
The explanation of crime lay not in biology but in the social world and that crime is transmitted
through intimate personal groups.
Some groups are organized fro criminal activities and some are organized against these activities.
Crime is learned
Criminal Behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
The principal part of learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Impersonal
communication such as television, magazines and the like play only a secondary role in the learning
of crime.
When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of crime, which are sometimes
complicated, simple, the motives and drives.
It has been frequently stated that the Filipino family of the past patriarchal in form and
characteristics and the absolute authority of the father is still stressed as a representative future of
the Filipino family. The predominating influence of the man over the woman us characteristically
oriental, while the growing acceptance today of equality of man and woman is typically occidental.
Education in the past was designed primarily for men; the woman’s sphere of action was
church, kitchen, and children. Sex separation was very much emphasized. However, these are more
traditional patterns of the past. The Filipino woman has regained a great portion of her traditional
rights and capacities – transact business, dispose of property, and enjoy the same educational
privileges and suffrage rights as her male counterpart.
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While acknowledging the father as the head of the Filipino household, the mother’s
influenced must not be minimized. Philippine society is characterized by a marked development
of generational respect which includes or involves deference to the opinions of all individuals older
than one’s self. Thus authority over younger siblings. The pattern of generational respect in
founded in the address system such as “kayo” instead of “ikaw”.
Generally speaking family life centers on the children. The birth of a child forms the lines
between the families and the child is related equally to the paternal and maternal kin. Family capital
and savings are the inheritance of the children, to be divided equally among them.
The size and range of the bilateral extended family is considerable importance.
Relationship is extended to distant cousins who are given help if needed. Unity of extended
families reinforces power and influences especially in politics. To marry into a large family can
help a young person further his ambitions. He will occasionally mention his marriage in all cases
where he will need to boast himself in the group. While close family ties, foster family stability
and solidarity, they also have certain disadvantages. It has been observed that even after children
have married, they still lie under their parent’s roof and depend wholly or partially on them. Too,
the tendency of parents to keep children on their side has hindered individually progress. They
react strongly against divorce thus reflecting a high value on family solidarity.
1.1 Nuclear
1.2 Extended
2) Kin groupings
2.1 Residential kin group
2.2 Consaguinal kin group
2.3 Clan
3) Family patterns and changing roles transcend from a basic social heritage which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society, the essential point of which lies in the ability of
culture patterns to be transmitted from one group to another.
Patterns are established modes of behaviour or cluster of mental attitudes, beliefs and
values held in common by the members of the group. Roles are socially prescribed patterns of
behaviour corresponding to an individual’s status in particular society.
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Man’s behaviour patterns are composed of the social habits that each new individual begins
to acquire soon after birth from the other members of his group. Culture content may vary
tremendously from one group to another but no group can exist without an intricate web to hold it
together.
A culture is always growing for new ideas, new techniques are discovered and old ways
are modified or discarded. The degree, manner, and rate of change vary enormously as they are
brought about by new ideas introduced from within or without, through the process of discoveries
or inventions or through the medium of cultural borrowing.
4) Cultural Variables
4.1 Folkways are those types or behavior that are organized and repetitive. The group way
of doing things in a common manner are called customs. The folkways of a group are the
behavior pattern of everyday life. Changes and additions gradually are made for folkways
adapt themselves to the conditions of life each generation.
4.2 Mores are special folkways which involve moral or ethical values, since they involve
respect for authority, marriage and sex behavior patterns, religious and other rituals and
other codes of human behavior.
4.3 Folkways is traditional customs, beliefs, dances, songs, tales, or sayings are preserved
orally and unreflectively among a group or people.
4.4 Costumes are distinctive styles and prevailing fashions characteristic of any period,
country, class, occupation or occasion.
4.5 Values according to R.J, Williams, refers to any aspect of a solution, event or object
that is invested with preferential interest as being good desirable and the like.
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In his research paper, Fr. Bulatao surmises that “this could be the result of the
tender and highly protected upbringing received by the child that the ego seeks to
maintain a similar environment as it grows up. The Filipino ego values the secure
relationships of the family and looks upon the family as a haven against the dangers
of harsh world.”
5) Physical Variables
1. Environmental pollution
2. Space relationships
3. Denudation of Forest Areas resulting in the destruction of trees and humus in
the forest.
4. Transformation of rural areas into urban centers leading to population
congestion resulting in health, social, educational problems, etc.
5. Automation and structural unemployment.
5.3 Ecology: that branch of science concerned with the interrelationships of organism and their
environment especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development
and structure, interaction between different kinds of organism; geographic distributions and
populations.
1. The concepts of life as intrinsically and death intrinsically bad: the result of an
imbalance between birth and death rates; thus accelerating human numbers as the
inevitable consequences.
2. Under development. The rapid rate of population increase would not enhance
industrialization. “All the country’s resources would be absorbed year by year in task
of supplying, or not quiet supplying; the primary needs of its new members.” (Mr.
Eugene Black).
3. The contraceptive revolution has had as yet no effect upon the family life of the people
in underdeveloped countries.
4. Birth control is expensive and involves the whole adult population.
5. To persuade men and women to abandon their traditional views of sexual morality is a
huge and difficult task.
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6. Poverty, combined with ignorance breeds that lack of desire for better things
(wantlessness), hence the resigned acceptance of a sub human lot.
5.4 Population Explosion; the problem of overpopulation inevitably arising in connection with
every approach to the analysis of our civilization and its prospects – emphasis on quantity rather
than quality; the spectre of war; the equally terrifying spectre of universal starvation. Nature left
to herself works out a balance of population adjusted to the available space and food supply but it
may be disturbed and then destroyed by what might appear to be the very slight intervention of
man.
Factors to be considered in the study of family planning and population control:
1. Consequences of fertility on health, child development, family income, housing and
interpersonal relationship
2. Effect on economy, air and water resources and human services
3. Education
4. Political factors
5. Emigration and immigration
6. Impact of fertility on society and people
7. Need for new values and behaviors
8. Role of the social worker
6) Socioeconomic aspects:
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II. Love, Courtship and Marriage
1. Courtship and Make selection
1.1 Courtship is a social process engaged in by two individuals.
1.2 It is a form of behavior seeking to win the consent of another for marriage.
1.3 It is a progressive commitment leading to a succession of event toward to the
development of stable interpersonal relationship.
1.4 Most significations are the development of love and affection.
1.5 Courtship is a process which undergoes various stages:
1. Personality adjustment
2. Domestic grievances
3. Temperamental traits
4. Frustration
5. Emotional immaturity
6. Parent fixation
7. Recreation
8. Authority and responsibility
9. Relatives and in-laws
10. Trifles
a. Extreme physical or mental fatigue
b. Unsatisfactory sex relations
c. Emotional or intellectual maladjustment
11. Handling money
12. Immorality
13. Jealousy
14. Sexual relations
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2.5 Role of husband and wife in marital and adjustments:
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3.1 The child must receive his first education about sex from his parents.
3.2 Questions of the child about sex should be answered by the parents in the simplest,
honest and most objective manner understood by the child.
3.3 Sex education has its roots in the attitudes of the parents.
1. Child Rearing
1.1 Points to consider in the rearing of children:
a. Each method or rearing the child is individualized. Depending upon the
nature of the child
b. There is no child without some problems: relationships between parent
and child must be dynamic
c. Each child is a “bundle of potentials”
1.2 Children’s needs: the child reflects his whole family in all that he is and all that he
does. Most common needs of children are”
a. Need for self-respect: the element of mental health
b. Need for communication
c. Need to belong
d. Need for independence
e. Need for love and affection
f. Need for recognition
g. Need for discipline
h. Need to face reality
1.3 Forces outside the home which help to shape and mold the personality:
a. School
b. Religious training
c. Community standards
d. Friends and contemporaries
1.4 Parenthood requires adjustments:
a. Parental role
b. Emotional adjustment
c. When to have children
d. Precautions for physical safety
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b. The increasing multitudes of mothers who are employed outside the home are
making re girl’s problem of maturation more difficult.
2. Marriage
Empirical research has shown that there are two forms of crisis in the family leading
to disorganization:
a. mobility
b. sudden loss of economic support
c. death
d. prolonged illness
e. separation
1) Disgrace
a. Loss of virginity
b. Illegitimacy
c. Extra marital relationship
d. Living with a married man
2) Crime
3) Alcoholism and drug addiction
4. Some helpful guides and suggestions for the solution of the problems of family life
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2. SOCIAL PROCESS IN THE GROUP AND COMMUNITY
“Social process are those ways of interacting which are observable when
individuals and groups meet and established systems of relationship or the results that arise
when changes disturb the already existing modes of life.”
II. Classifications
1. Basic social processes
1.1 Competition
Forms of opposition and struggle
“Less violent forms of opposition in which two or more persons or group
struggle for some end or goal but the cause of which attention is formed
chiefly on the reward rather than the competition” – Young and Mack
Found in every field of social activity
Contacts between competitors may be direct or indirect.
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Focus of the attention is the opponent with the intention of blocking,
destruction and defeat accompanied by fear, hate, or anger.
1.2.1 Classification
1.2.2 Functions
1.3 Cooperation
2.1 Accommodation
Process which follows competition or conflict
Used by Young and Mask in two senses; as a condition and as a process
“As a condition, it refers to the fact of equilibrium between individuals
and groups and the “rules of the game” which has develops…as a
process, it refers to the conscious effort of men to develop such working
arrangements among themselves as will suspend conflict and make their
relationship more tolerable and less wasteful of energy.
Each group tries to adjust to the other and yet maintain its own identity
and interest
Forms include coercion, compromise, arbitration, conciliation, and
toleration.
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2.2 Assimilation
2.3 Amalgamation
2.4 Acculturation
Process by which societies of different cultures are modified through
fairly close and long-continued contact but do not blend with one
another.
Usually a two way process, society borrows from the culture of the other
without using its identity
III. Understanding Group Behavior (Knowles and Knowles. Introduction to Group Dynamics,
N.Y. Associated Press. 1959)
1. Group Qualities
2. Properties of Group
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a. Refers to what is expressed verbally and non-verbally
b. Applies to articulated words, thoughts and unvocalized feelings
c. Concerns the intention of the communication and the impressions
received by the ones to whom the communication is addressed.
d. May be formal i.e. conveys in an organization through regular
channels of informal than interaction among friends.
e. Difficulties in communication may result from imaginary threats to
group members or may be related to questions of power and
influence
f. Channels of communication maybe built into the structure of a
group or may be develop informally as a function of interpersonal
needs and conflict.
B. The Group
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1.1.3 Social action groups – formed from the desires to influence the force of events
in society – e.g. parties, lobbies, trade associations, civil rights groups, etc.
1.1.4 Mediating groups – e.g. coordinating councils, interdepartmental committees,
arbitration boards, etc.
1.1.5 Legislative groups – to formulate rules, regulations, laws, policies, e.g. boards
of directors, government legislative bodies.
1.1.6 Client groups – formed based on the assumption that the performance of certain
services is more effective or efficient if the “clients” are treated as groups rather
than as individuals.
1.2 Spontaneous Formation – many groups arise because people expect to derive
satisfaction from associating together e.g. social plans, juvenile gangs and friendship
cliques.
1.3 External designation – a collection of individuals may become a group because they
are treated in a homogenous way by other people. People may be placed into categories
on the basis of color, age, sex, height, weight, ability, education, religion, ethnic groups
and etc.
Initiates action, keep member’s attention on the goal, clarifies the issue, develops a
procedural plan, and evaluates the quality of work done, make expert information
available.
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3.1.1 Encouraging – being friendly, warm, and responsive to others, praising others
and their ideas, agreeing with and accepting the contributions of others.
3.1.2 Mediating – harmonizing, conciliating differences in points of view, making
compromises.
3.1.3 Gate keeping – trying to make it possible for another member to make a
contribution by saying “we haven’t heard from jim yet.” Or suggesting limited
talking time for everyone so that will have a chance to be heard.
3.1.4 Standard setting- expressing standards for the group in choosing its subject
matter or procedures, rules or conduct, ethical values.
3.1.5 Following – going along with the group, somewhat passively accepting the
ideas of others, serving as a n audience during group discussion, being a good
listener
3.1.6 Relieving tension – draining off negative feeling by jesting or throwing oil on
troubled waters, diverting attention for unpleasant to pleasant matters
4. Group Task Roles – those which help the group do its work. Required for the locomotion
of the group towards its goals.
4.1 Initiating – suggestion of new ideas or a changed way of looking at the group
problem or goal, proposing new activities.
4.2 Information seeking – asking for relevant facts or authoritative information or relating
personal experience pertinently to the group task
4.4 Opinion giving – stating a pertinent belief or opinion about something the group is
considering.
4.5 Clarifying – probing for meaning and understanding, restating something the group is
considering.
4.7 Coordinating – showing or clarifying the relationship among various ideas, trying to
pull ideas and suggestion together.
4.8 Orienting – defining the progress of the discussion in terms of the group’s goals,
raising questions about the directions the discussion stating.
4.9 Testing – checking with the group to see if it is ready to make a decision or to take
some actions.
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5. Non Functional Roles emanating from self-centered behavior
5.1 Blocking – interfering with the progress of the group by going off on a tangent, citing
personal experiences unrelated to the group’s problem, arguing to such on a point the
rest of the group has revolved, rejecting ideas without considerations preventing a
vote.
5.2 Aggression – criticizing or blaming others, showing hostility toward the group or
some individuals without relation to what has happened in the groups, attacking the
motives of others, deflating the ego or status of others.
5.3 Seeking recognition – attending to call attention to one’s self by excessive talking,
extreme ideas, boasting, and boisterousness.
5.4 Special pleading – introducing or supporting ideas related to one’s own pet concerns
or philosophies beyond reason, attempting to speak for the “grassroots” “the
housewife” “the common men” and so on.
6. Smelser’s Theory of Collective behavior (Mary Hointeiner, Society, Culture and the
Filipino, IPC, 1975) determinants of collective behavior
6.1 Structural conduciveness – social conditions that are permissive of a given sort of
collected behavior.
6.2 Structural strain – a matter of conflict among values or norms, e.g. present inequality
between the blacks and the whites in the U.S.A.
6.3 Growth and spread of a generalized belief. The belief identifies the source of the
strain, attributes certain characteristics to this source and recommends that certain
actions be taken to relieve the strain.
6.4 Precipitating factor – e.g. an incident which is interpreted in terms of hostile belief
and its occurrence in a situation of structural conduciveness and strain.
6.6 Operation of social control – its relative weakness or absence makes collective
behavior possible
Each of these six conditions is said to be a necessary condition for the production
of collective behaviour and all six together are said to be sufficient. While the same
six kinds of determinants are said to be necessary and sufficient for the production of
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every sort of collective behaviour, each determinant comes in many varieties and the
combinations or varieties determine what kind of collective behaviour will occur a
craze, a panic, a hostile outburst, or a social movement.
Behaviour contagion – the spontaneous pickup or imitation by others of the behaviour
initiated by one member of the group where initiator did not intend to get the others to
do what he did.
7. Group Cohesiveness: a resultant of all forces acting on members to remain in the group
component forces arise from attractiveness
7.2 Motive base of members – needs, for affiliation, recognition, security, money or other
values that can be mediated by group.
7.3 His expectancy – that membership will have beneficial or detrimental consequences
for him
7.4 His comparison level – his concept of the level of outcomes that group membership
will provide.
8. Consequences of Group Cohesiveness
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Some mechanisms which support the system or social control are:
c) Gossip
A conversational technique which lynch has called sociostat cuts down to size any individual who
publicly takes credit for an act claims any kind of superiority over his in group. He who tries to be
different from members of his group in an attempt to improve his lot is quickly shown that his
effort are not appreciated. If he values the social approval of the old in group more than he does
the approval of others who would benefit from his alternate forms of behaviour, then he falls back
to the ways of the old group.
The pressures for conformity are difficult for the lone individual to resist. Yet if Philippine society
is to keep in step with new needs. It must provide channels for legitimate deviation. More people
must be freed, no from all the old familiar norms, but from traditional patterns which have become
a dysfunctional in a developing society. If we are to develop Filipinos who dare to deviate from
norms which do not seem to fit in the twentieth century context, we must make sure deviants get
their reward or social approval by helping them find others new in group, by set of common, non-
traditional but necessary values, these badly needed deviants will reward one another for their new
type of behavior by giving their companions the social approval they seek. (Hoilnsteiner, M.
Society, Culture, and the Filipino, IPC, 1975, p. 441-446)
1) Among Bagobo leaders are those set by people as models, advisors and
innovators with others in solving the crises of life - - birth, maturation, social
formations, creative struggle for food, shelter, language and art forms, solutions
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to sickness, interactions of humans with the supernatural and death.
3) A true leader does not solve the people’s problems. He helps motivate and
inspire them to find solutions to their problems. He restores the people’s pride
and confidence in themselves. (Montemayor: Leadership Formation in the
FFF, Silliman Journal, First Quarter, 1975, p. 12-13)
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C. Power and influence in Groups
(Cartwright and Zander, Group Dynamics, pp. 215-232)
Most theories assume that influence should be viewed as a relationship between two
social entities such as individuals, roles, group, or nations. We refer to these as agents and denote
them by O (the one exerting influence) and P (the one influenced). The discussion will be limited
to interpersonal influence and power, to relationship between agents conceived as individual
people.
One person has power over another if he can perform as act that will result in a
change in the other person. The source of interpersonal power has at least two components:
(a) certain “properties” of O, called resource of power, and (b) certain needs of values of
P, the motive bases of power.
1.1 Resources
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The decision whether to engage in an act of influence is determined and
governed by these four considerations: (a) the net advantage to the individual
performing the act, (b) the consequences of the act for the group (c) the
subjective probability that the act will be successful and (d) the prospect of
being rewarded for fulfilling role expectations,
2.1.3 desire to abide by one’s values e.g. appeal is made to values like
fairness, generosity, honesty, acceptance of authority structure
(legitimate power)
3. By-products of power
3.1.1 The high power person is able to initiate activities, set the pace, and “call
the changes” in the interaction
3.1.2 The possession of power increases one’s sense of personal security and
permits making plans that extended farther into the future;
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3.1.3 Since powerful persons can readily have their own way, they may tend
to be insensitive to the needs of others.
4.1 The way in which individuals learn, the speed of their learning, the retention of learned
material, and the way in which they solve problems are influence by the group to which
they belong and participate.
4.2 The group influence the individual’s formation of attitudes and tends to be decisive in
the development of norms of response to situations (predictable behavior reactions).
4.3 Group experiences operate to change an individual’s level of aspiration and striving.
Individual goal setting is highly dependent upon group standards and their attainment is
relate to the extent to which the whole group moves toward them.
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4.4 Group experience operates to modify the individual’s habit of living, working and
carrying on life’ pursuits. (Dominant group pattern setting)
4.5 Group experiences has a powerful influence upon the individual’s perception of
himself and his role in a given situation (acquisition of self-insight and self-understanding)
4.6 Group tends to provide psychological support for individuals and helps them
express themselves positively and negatively (noticeable in his acceptance and adoption to
life situation)
4.7 Group tends to influence the choices that individuals make in situations where there
are alternatives.
4.9 Group have strong effect upon an individual’s susceptibility to fear, frustration, and
his recovery from them is hastened because of the security giving function of the group.
4.10 Group tends to place limits on the individual’s drive for power and his need to be
controlling. (Resolve conflicts between authorities and dependence)
1) Terrestrial
2) Aquatic
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2. Technology
2.1 Definition
Industrial science, particularly its application to replacement of skilled labor
by modern machinery.
2.2 Kinds of Technology
1) High-capital-intensive
3. Urbanization
3.1 Definition
1) The increasing appearance in rural and small town areas of behavior patterns and
cultural values characteristically associated with big city life.
2) Urbanization
1) Number
2) Population density
3) Heterogeneity of people
3.3 Characteristics of Urban Social Relations
1) Superficial
2) Anonymous
3) Transitory
4) Overload
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3.4 Adaptive responses to overload
3.5 Boundaries are redrawn in certain social transactions so that the overloaded system can
shift the burden to other party in the exchange.
3.6
Example: Love Bus drivers require passengers to have exact fare ready rather
than making change for customers
3.8 Intensity of inputs is diminished by filtering devices, so that only weak and relatively
superficial forms of involvement with others are allowed.
3.9 Specialized institutions are created to absorb inputs that would otherwise swamp the
individual.
4. Industrialization
4.1 Definition
A stage of social-technological development or movement toward such a
stage characterized particularly by assembly-line mass production – large
factories employing extensive power-driven machinery and specialized
work force with a finery wrought division of labor and characterized also
by urbanization and by highly mechanized method of communication and
transportation.
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4.2 Values that underwrote the rise of Industrial civilization
5.1 Pollutions
5.2 Congestion
5.3 Resource depletion
5.4 Land speculation
5.5 Subsistence levels of living
5.6 “Over-unemployment”
5.7 Agricultural Stagnation
Solutions offered
61. New spatial arrangement to minimize transport needs and reduce congestion;
6.2 Better health services located within “economic distance” of rural population and
managed by para-medical
6.3 Education system providing the rural people with new ideas or skills necessary for
doing agricultural work more effectively.
7. Socio-economic forces
The complementary roles of social and economic forces in reinforcing group behaviour are
reflected in the following statement of Guthrie
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In identifying reinforcing conditions in the community, money is found to be a superb
reinforce.
8. Political forces
8.1 Definition
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IV. SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE (Social Work Methods)
1. Restorative/Curative/Remedial/Rehabilitative
Curative seeks to remove factors which have caused the breakdown in the person’s
social functioning.
Rehabilitative tries to put back the person to a normal or health state of social
functioning.
3. Developmental – to seek out, identify and strengthen the maximum potential in individuals,
groups and communities. The aim is to both help the individual make maximum use of
his/her own potentials and capacities as well as to further the effectiveness of available
social or community resources.
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SOCIAL WORK METHODS
(Primary)
1.1 Social Casework is a method of social work which intervenes in the psychosocial
aspects of person’s life to improve, restore, maintain or develop his social functioning
by improving his role performance.
1.2 Social casework is a problem-solving and helping process. It requires knowledge of the
science of human relations and skills in relationship in order to mobilize capacities in
the individual and resources in community appropriate for better adjustment between
the client and all or any part of his total environment.
1.3 Social casework is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectively with their problem in social functioning. The
process is to promote human growth and development and self-satisfaction an
accomplishment.
1.4 Social casework operates in consideration of all social economic, psychological and
physical factors that influence the life of the individual, the family and the social group
and the community for better adjustment. Social casework in client centered (a person
with problems) rather than problem centered.
1.5 Social casework also recognizes the importance of family centered approach (1) to
contribute harmonious family inter-relationships (2) to strengthen the positive value in
family life, and (3) promote healthy personality development and satisfactory social
functioning of various family members.
1.6 The aim of Social casework is not only to help the individual, the family and the group
of persons in their social relationship, but it is also concerned with the improvement of
general social condition by raising health and social and economic standards and
harmonious and satisfying human relationships.
1.7 Further, its aim is the development of individual and family productive members, as a
basic unit of society. They are integral part of national development of nation-building.
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Social Role is the sum total of the culture patterns associated with a particular
status. Whether a social role is performed in a satisfying, effective and acceptable manner depends
always upon the capacities and motivations of both the persons occupying given role and those in
roles reciprocal to his.
Study and analysis reveal what the client’s dominant modes of adaptation have been
and lead to formulation of plans for casework intervention.
Faced with the threatening situation, a client will try to use his accustomed modes
of adaptation. When these have failed he will regress to modes of adaptation used earlier in life:
flight or pairing. Pairing is entering into a dependent and solace-seeking relationship with another
person perceived as stronger and able to help her handle the situation. Finally, in extreme
situations, he may become apathetic resigned, mentally disoriented and immobile or hyperactive.
Those intrapersonal forces which constantly strive to balance the person’s diverse
and conflicting motivations with one another and with demands of the outside world. Under stress,
we may perceive the world around us in distorted way. Knowledge applicable to a problem may
escape. Overwhelmed with anxiety we use defences – projection, denial placement, reaction
formation. Caseworker, by the case work process. Determines whether it is merely situational
response toward overwhelming stimuli or maybe a characteristic lifelong condition, indicating
deficiency in development of the ego.
3. Concept of Stress
The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress and dependent.
Stressful situation involves personally or socially unsatisfactory adaptations to problems that are
beyond observation as personal and social imbalances.
Stress factors are threats which arise within an individual’s body. His
physical environment, the function of the social systems and with the individual’s
network of roles. Threats from the social environment are mostly caused by such
breakdowns in social system as unemployment, depression, but also by status
insecurity, rapidity of technological change, mobility of population which make for
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lack of stability and security in habitual social role and therefore, can cause threats
to existing relationships and create threat or an actual attack.
Life, health, property, privilege, freedom, security, status, face honor, self-respect,
opportunity, future prospect are the major personal values threatened. The same values may
have different meaning and significance to different individuals who have them. Human
integrity, dignity, rights are threatened.
Reaction to stress consists of the responses made by the individual with the goal of
maintaining the level of social functioning which existed prior to the occurrence of the stress.
Most of human behaviour which expresses itself in role performance according to hypothesis
consists of reaction to stress, and is more or less a successful effort at re-establishing a previous
level of functioning or reaching a new level of or socially by adapting to the stress situation.
The adaptation can consist of re-arrangement of physical, psychological and social factors or
frequently consists of combination of these three. These people who have considerable
difficulties in their adaptation toward stress situation or unsatisfactory adaptation, the people
who constitute problems, potentially coming to the attention of social case workers. A person
may be unable to cope with it; it increases his tensions, and the more overwhelmed and helpless
he may feel.
4. Professional communication
Although social workers from different types of relationships with different systems, there are
common elements in all professional relationships which make them different from personal
relationships. Three major characteristics of social work relationships can be identified.
4.1 Social workers from relationships for a professional purpose. In everyday life,
satisfying personal relationship may be an end in itself.
4.2 In professional relationships the worker devotes himself to the interests of his clients
and the needs and aspirations of other people rather than his own interests.
4.3 The worker forms relationships based on objectivity and self-awareness which allow
him to step outside of his personal struggles and emotional needs and to be sensitive to
the needs of others.
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The Caseworker Relationship
5. Components of Relationship
5.1.1 Reality
5.1.2 Transference
5.1.3 Counter-transference
5.1.1 Reality
5.1.2 Transference
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5.1.3 Counter-transference
6.1 The education approach covers a cluster of roles such as those of the teacher, expert,
and consultant. The objective is to help people and the system acquire information,
knowledge and skills. Typical activities the worker might engage in are giving
information and advice, providing feedback, teaching skills, role playing and
modelling, and demonstrating behavior. This role cluster operates within the general
stance of collaborative relationship.
6.2 A second general approach, facilitating, encompasses a role cluster including the
enabler, supporter, mediator and broker. Objectives are to stimulate and mediate
linkage within and between systems, strengthen the integration of systems and help the
overcome apathy and disorganization and help systems mobilize internal resources as
well as secure external ones. The worker’s activities must include eliciting expression
of feeling interpreting behavior, discussing alternative courses of action, clarifying
situations, providing encouragement and reassurance, practicing logical reasoning and
recruiting members.
6.3 The third general approach, advocacy, include the roles of advocate on behalf of
specific client or client groups and helper for people who want or need to advocate on
their own behalf. The objective of this strategy is to help an individual or system obtain
a needed resource, disinterested or unresponsive system.
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Stabilization of the change effort
The worker must be concerned with, at the time of termination, the stabilization and
generalization of the change effort. He needs to assess the steps which must be taken to make
sure that the positive changes and gains will be maintained after he is no longer involved. In
assessing needs with regard to the stabilization of change, the worker will explore the increased
ability of the client system to cope with its own problems. To help stabilize the change the
worker looks for the kind of continuing support the client system might need and arranges for
it.
Workability is combination of motivation and capacity that enables a person to engage himself
(with greater or lesser degrees of effort and effectiveness) with the persons and means of solving
his problem. It means both “ability to work” and “responsiveness to therapeutic influence.”
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7.2.1 Emotional Capacity
Relationship capacity is seen in the client’s account of his relationship with other
persons in his current life and in the concerns and feelings he shows in speaking of others.
It is indicated by a client’s differentiated reactions to different relationships which mean
that he brings perception and pliability to interpersonal encounters rather than a fixed
pattern of response. He is also able to admit to having feelings rather than having insistently
to deny or project them. Yet they are subject to his efforts and control.
Another element is a capacity for attention the ability to pay attention to an idea or
a problem involves both motivation and interest in something outside the self. Capacity for
attention in problem-solving is to require both focusing and devoting. Attention is for the
purpose of coming to some understanding grasp of an idea or situation which in turn, is for
the purpose of making some judgment or conclusion about it. Good judgment is a major
asset in social intelligence. It follows upon realistic perception, upon the connections made
between cause and effects, between past and present, and present and future acts and
consequences, upon the ability to remember and from this to anticipate the plan.
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7.2.3 Physical capacity
Physical capacity is relatively easy to assess. However, when the problem situation
is centered in the physical area detailed and appropriate analysis becomes necessary. This
requires usually a consultation with a physician and joint work with related disciplines for
problem-solving.
The principal tool used by the worker in social casework is interviewing. Interviewing in
casework involves communication between two people; the person seeking help, that is the client,
and the person in a position to offer help, the professional worker. The communication maybe
called a professional conversation, the theme of which is to assist the person seeking help, to feel
and think through his problem with the professional worker contributing his know how in bringing
about an ordering process in the client’s effort to solve his problem.
Interviewing is an art, a skilled technique that can be improved and eventually perfected
primarily through continued practice. Skills can be developed to their fullest potentialities only
when practice is accompanied by knowledge about interviewing and self-conscious study of one’s
own practice.
1. Purpose of interviewing
2.2 Recording
Jotting down notes should be done after interview is over and not sharing the interview.
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2.4 Specific and general background knowledge of the interview. The worker must have
good general knowledge of the dynamics of human behavior and dynamics and
techniques of interviewing and the whole process of casework.
3.1 Observation
a) Observe what the interview says
b) Note equally what the interviewee does not say, what significant gaps there are in
his story
c) Note things such as bodily tensions, excitability and objection because they
supplement and sometimes even belief the picture given by the interviews.
3.2 Listening
a) A good interviewer is a good listener
b) One who frequently interrupts is not a good listener
c) A common error is to be embarrassed by silence and feel that he must fill them with
questions or comment.
d) Learn the values of “letting off steam” catharsis.
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3.5 Talking
Interviewer should comment only for purposes similar to those for which he asked
questions to measure or to lead discussion further on relevant matters. This should be
done when client is ready to accept them.
Many social workers are threatened when asked pointedly by client about their
personal life. One must look at the significance of such questions and answer them as
carefully as possible, those re-direct client to focus on his own problems.
A skilled interviewer actually leads the client consciously throughout the interview
but constructively.
3.8 Interpretation
This only comes after a clear understanding of client’s problems is reached by the
interviewer and as soon as the client has been prepared, or has the readiness to benefit
from an interpretation. This requires diagnostic skills to make client benefit from this.
3.9 Things to look for in an interview for diagnosis, inference and action
3.9.1 Association of idea – statements which may prove as clues as to the real
problem but may sound so far-fetched.
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Client’s story may lack consistencies and may indicate his confusion,
ambivalence or his deep scaled internal pressures of guild feelings.
Client may also hide part of an episode and will go into great lengths of
details of one aspect of the story and leave a big gap in the sequences.
Interviewer should look for clues for the reasons of his behavior.
4.2.1 Awareness of his own prejudice which means control of feelings rather than
absence of feelings on the art of the worker.
4.2.2 Acceptance
- Real acceptance involves positive and active understanding of feelings and
not merely a negative and passive refusal to pass judgment.
-
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C. RECORDING: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
The social caseworker, just like any profession has some inherent responsibilities. He is
not only responsible to himself, but most of all to his client, his agency and to the community, and
also to his profession. To all of them he is obliged to communicate, and the basis for any
communication in professional practice is a record. Not only is a record needed for
communications. It is also needed by the caseworker to guide him in his self-appraisal of what has
gone before, or what is going on, to help him see through himself and another person in need and
the situation and reflect for a moment on what he has done so far, what ought to have been done,
what is to be done, together with the person he is ought to help. A record makes a professional
social worker see through his own involvement in the process of giving help and therefore this
affords him opportunities to learn more about his client, to develop insight about his practice, to
develop more skill to improve service.
After discussing the reasons for the existence of the social casework records. It is
worthwhile touching even briefly on the purposes of the record which are as follows:
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The most important thing about a professional record in its content in recording. The most
important things to show are the nature of case situation, the client’s doing about his problem and
how caseworker carries the responsibility of offering help in problem-solving through precise
intervention,. Since the nature of the case situation itself is so complex, so dynamic and fluid. It is
very difficult to determine actually what to include in the record. But it is a must that a professional
worker write down what he thinks could be very well accurately record the situation which would
be useful in helping the client make a decision and for the worker to decide on a professional plan
of intervention.
There is no such thing as model record and in the professional record skill in practice and in
recording are so interrelated and almost inseparable. The style will be conditioned throughout by
the casework concept and practices as reported. The best records will not only contain objective
facts, events or behaviour, but are supposed to bring out clearly precise assessment and the
interventive plans as well. Each case is a sort of abstraction, a professionally conceived body of
elements relevant to our purposes which does make for some unity. The meaning of a case,
professionally emerges as the case progresses, so that our grasp of the significant is dynamic, rather
than ultimate, practical rather than theoretical. A good professional style means that it was written
by a competent professional social work practitioner or else the record cannot achieve a “problem-
solving unity.” Also a good professional style shows a mastery of the interventive process with
clarity of direction because one knows what the client and the worker are doing together.
The best records not only contain objective facts, events and behaviour but are supposed to
bring out clearly precise assessment of the person in situations with defined problems for focus.
Narrative and summarized recording are equally useful and a well-balanced record will employ
both styles. In professional records interpretation of the meaning of the case is as essential as the
reporting of facts.
Records are used for teaching and study purposes will tend to include more details than do
records used chiefly for practice.
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6. Three Most Important Styles in Recording
6.1 Narrative
This is the primarily style for the social case record. It is the style which is good for
reporting of facts in a descriptive manner and the sequence of the interview. Facts do not
only include events that are happening, an understanding of circumstances. In the case, but
also behavior, whether gesture and/or movement. Narrative as it is a “fluid” or “running”
style ran also describe interpersonal relationship and the significant interactions between
the client and the worker in the casework process.
There are two types of narrative recording the narrative condensed and the narrative
process.
6.1.1 The narrative condensed is generally useful form for all types of casework
agencies. It is good for reporting acts of practical helpfulness, events and most
collateral visit or conferences. It may be used to show the contents of the
interview in all instances, except when the process itself and use of relationship
have special significance.
There is rarely any good reason for verbatim reporting of interviews other
than those of the intimate “patient group.” In application interviews or with
sustained relationship it is important often to give the persons’ own words and
to show the verbal role of the caseworker, but in a collateral visit, typically one
is conferring rather than interviewing, so there is no need to recapture emotional
expression and it is simpler to give the gist of the discussion with or without the
emotional overtones of the participants. When there is a minimum of emotional
significance in an interview, when the anger or aggression or fears are obvious,
or when the casework relationship is not involved to any great extent or when
social resources are realistically utilized by self-directing clients, or when
information is sought on straight question answer basis, all these and much else
can be condensed, arranged and summarized.
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materials and relationships and are better able to bring the emotion to the
surface, through responsive questioning, comment and restating conflict.
This kind of recording points out the meaning of facts. This record not only presents
the facts but tells the nature and condition of these facts (assessment). It gives out the
opinion of the worker of the meaning of these facts. As the worker is expected to carry
on treatment, this kind of record reflects the goal towards social ends. It gives an
evaluation of social situations and social values of a person. This really calls for
intellectual discipline to deepen knowledge, to clarify goals and to strive for greater
development and control of skill. The record is a medium of communication, and an
assessment precision, represents the highest level of communication we can achieve
therein.
The interpretative style contain the social interpretation of the worker. It shows his
intellectual sensitivity and discipline in trying to wrest out the meaning of the facts of
the case. In this kind of recording, we have a worker whose eyes are trained to derive
the significance of events and also to see and hear and report accurately, to serve a mind
that is trained to reflect.
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2. WORKING WITH GROUPS (Social Group Work)
1. Groups:
- Level of solidarity
2.2 All groups are alike and all groups are different i.e. there are characteristics common
to all groups, but each group has unique characteristics making it different from any other.
2.3 Groups mobilize powerful forces which produce effects of utmost importance to
individuals. Groups serves to accomplish the following:
2.3.2 Media through which individual and social norms are changed.
2.5 A correct understanding of the forces operating in groups (group dynamics) permits the
possibility that desirable consequences from groups can be deliberately enhanced, that
groups can be used for better ends or to achieve desirable goals.
To understand how groups effect change requires that we view groups in at least three
different ways:
3.1 The group itself is seen as source of influence over its members (the group as a medium
of change)
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3.2 The group itself has becomes the target of change (even if the goal is to also change
the behavior of individuals, the group is the target change)
3.3 The group itself becomes he instrument or medium through which change comes about
(the groups, as agent of change)
4. Group Process
4.1 Social Integration – the dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between persons
results in modification of the attitudes and behavior of the participants
4.2 Communication – the means through which information, symbols, messages are given
or transmitted and received; maybe verbal and/or non-verbal. It basic to interaction.
4.3 Status – the position of a person occupies in relation to others in hierarchy of positions
in any given group. Every individual has a status set depending on the group and functions ascribed
or assigned. A person can therefore have different statuses in a group at different times. Ranking
depend on the tasks to be performed or emotional needs of the members. In general status is always
related to cultural values and the purposes of individuals and the group as a whole.
4.4 Roles – the term role refers to a set of expectations (behaviors, activities) from a person
who occupies certain position. In a given status certain roles become implicit. As a group also
becomes organized, certain roles emerge. A person can occupy several roles at the same time.
4.5 Values and Norms – values are indications of what we consider as important or
unimportant. Desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, etc. norms are the generally accepted ways
of doing things in a group. Groups develop norms in the course of their development.
4.6 Group Bond – the feeling of belonging in a group which develops as result of the ties
or relationships among its members. Bond may change in time. It may become anger or weaker.
Natural groups (family, friendship, etc.) usually start with the same bond; but develop it in the
course of working together. A group cannot exist for long without bond. A strong bond is always
beneficial to group members; a weak one always indicates a poor group experience. Bond is also
referred to as group unity or solidarity.
4.7 Affectional structure – the way in which persons relate with one another is the heart of
the group process. Love, empathy, cordiality, and positive identification create associative or
uniting relationships, whereas hatred, hostility, repulsion, and prejudices are dissociative or
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divisive in effect. “A feeling that one is accepted in a group and that he, in turn accepts other
members, is a powerful dynamic in the process of change. All people need to be accepted.
4.8 Conflict – the essence of this force is difference. A group that shows no conflict is a
dead one, indicating either an extinction of its members – individuality or pretense at it – with
underlying deep cleavages. A group that is in constant conflict with no way of solving it is a sick
one, giving no satisfaction to its members and keeping them in a state of insecurity and hostility.
Conflict-solving is a major of task groups.
4.10 Subgroups – one part of the natural workings of the group process. They may
consist of two (pairs or diads) or three (triads) or more members of the group. Subgroups are
inevitable and legitimate, and the worker’s acceptance of them is a prerequisite for good and
skillful group work. Subgroups may enhance the quality of the total group when they feel part of
the group and contribute to its strength and growth. These are the subgroups with “wals,” called
cliques. Sensitivity to their beginning before they get to be full blown and destructive is part of the
task of the worker.
4.11 Isolation - the isolate is a member either neglected or highly rejected by the group,
yet present in it. The neglected isolate is in the most lonely situation. He has no bridge, no
communication with the group. Isolates are frequently people who are most in need of group
acceptance; they yearn for nearness to others; and yet they have a low self-concept and cannot
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reach out. They find tenuous satisfaction in just being tolerated by the group or in pretending to
themselves that they are really part of the group. The rejected isolate is more actively involved in
the total group situation. He usually reaches out to other members of the group or the group as a
whole, but finds himself rebuffed. The person who violates the mores of the group may find
himself in this position. The rejected isolate sometimes becomes the scapegoat of the group.
4.12 Leadership – a process of influencing others for the purpose of performing a shared
task. This process requires to a greater or lesser extent than one person direct, coordinate, or
motivate, others in the group in order to get the assigned task accomplished. In grossly
oversimplified terms, the leader, may use the power of his position to enforce compliance or he
may persuade and cajole his members to do his bedding.
The indigenous leader grows out of the group and should not be confused for the group worker
who is not considered a leader in the context of social group work.
A groupworker, besides understanding the forces at play when people interact in groups
must also realize that individuals who comprise a group have their own personality
dynamics. We must understand that every group member brings his self to the group, that
self being the product of constitutional psychological, sociological, cultural, and physical
factors. Each group members brings such a self to the group and he being in the group
results in the network of the forces described earlier. Unquestionably, one has to understand
each group members background (what he brings to the group) if one is to really understand
the dynamics of a group. And this is no ll. One must go even further and see the group in
the context of community processes - - the forces operating outside the group itself which
invariably affects its processes workings, and operations, e.g. social problems including
poverty, crime and delinquency, pollution, population explosion, technology, socio-
political climate, etc.
There are several conceptions of the functions of group work service which have
shaped the selection of goals and methods. In the order of their historical emergence, these
conceptions are:
5.1 The cruciality of small groups in the maintenance of a democratic society: At the
turn of the century, some were troubled by the emergence of a mass society and by
problems of urbanization. It was believed that special devices were necessary to conserve
humanistic values. These values appeared to be threatened by trends toward centralization
and concentration of power, and pressures toward anonymity and conformity. Small groups
within or linked to a larger social units were viewed as providing significant opportunities
for collective decision making, for facilitating individual participation in important social
movements, and for articulating the otherwise isolated citizen participation, decentralized
but share decision making and active pursuit of social goals. This connection is more likely
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to be asserted by practitioners in settlements or other agencies directly concerned with a
disadvantage stratum of the urban population. Central to the conception, then, are goals of
social participation and democratic decentralization.
5.2 Individual developmental processes can be facilitated by training in social skill and
the inculcation of social values mediated for clients through guided group experiences.
Such group experience benefits the individual by developing potentialities which might not
otherwise achieve fulfillment. In general, these outcomes of social group work maybe
regarded as serving socialization or development goals, seeking fulfillment of individual
capacities and preparation for responsible assumption of social roles.
5.3 A third conception of group work focuses on its utility in ameliorating the adverse
condition of individuals whose behavior is disapproved or who have been disadvantages
by the workings of an imperfect society. This conception emphasizes manifest personal
and social problems and the rehabilitative potentials of guided group processes in
alleviating these problems. Clientele most appropriate for such service includes the
physically or mentally handicapped, legal offenders, emotionally disturbed, isolated or
alienated person, etc.
This conception stresses treatment or rehabilitative goals, and focuses on the small group
as a means for altering individual identity, performance or status. This conception is more
typical of practitioners in agencies concerned with problems or deviance and disability,
such as juvenile correctional institutions or vocational rehabilitation programs.
There are no clear-cut or fixed boundaries between these various conceptions, and those
who emphasize one or another do not necessarily deny the validity of others. They do no
represent, however, organizing themes with reference to which orientations are clustered
and strategies are formulated.
“A social group which is the framework within which personalities develop and
mature or also become disorganized, maybe through of as a number of persons who have
common activities, and who are stimulating to reach other – a social group consists of
human beings in inter-stimulation.
In social group work, the client is the group which is made up of individuals whose problem
situations are seen as better served with the group as both the means and the context for
helping.
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6.1.1. Characteristics of “Group Work” Group
6.1.1.1. The group should be small enough to enable the members to know one
another intimately and to have a part in the functioning of the group. It
should be small enough to allow the worker to know and understand the
members of individuals.
6.1.1.2. The group must have some degree of cohesiveness, some bond that will
hold the members of the group together for at least a minimum period of
time. This bond may be interest in a certain activity; it may be personal wish
and need to be with one another. It could be the wish to do something about
a social problem or the desire to explore some unknown area of human
experience. Whatever it may be, the group must have a reasonable
expectancy or remaining together for a sufficient period of time to achieve
its objectives.
6.1.1.3. The group work must have at least a minimum degree of organization,
formal or informal, so that the members have a way of agreeing on
objectives, sharing the duties and assuming responsibility for group
decisions. If the members went and are willing and able to take their share
of responsibility for the group, it is a group work group.
6.1.1.4. The group work group must have some agreed-upon way of selecting and
admitting members to the group, so that social controls can emerge and their
group can take the responsibility for its own conduct. This admission
process must be worked out in cooperation with the agency and in keeping
with the agency’s policies. Group must have boundaries that are known to
the members.
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traditional setting of a social agency (e.g. integrated social work practice in
open community setting, sans agency sponsorship), but many of the social
agencies which would fall under the terms “character-building” or even so
called “therapeutic settings” are expanding their functions as to include a
broad range of programs and services many of which are development-
oriented, but still relying on the method of social group work as its main
mode of helping individuals/clients.
An important thing to remember is that not all agencies serving groups are
social group work agencies. Agencies become social group work agencies
when trained practitioners work with organized groups using the method of
social group work. The recreation movement was a vital root of group work,
but social group work as it is conceived today must be clearly distinguished
from recreation. Many recreational activities, however, do continue to be
used as program tools by social group workers. Recreation can be an end in
itself, but social group work is a methodology for helping individuals using
the group as the medium for helping.
6.2.3. What the Group Worker Should Know and Understand About the Agency:
6.2.3.2. The worker should have the knowledge about the general
constituency the agency is set up to serve, it is defined in
terms of age, sex, geographical location, interests and needs.
6.2.3.3. The worker should have the knowledge of how the agency
helps groups to form and how it accepts group into a
relationship with it. Conditions of group facilities with the
agency must be clearly understood. If the worker is to
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interpret properly the agency to the group and the group to
the agency.
6.3.3. Some Specific Skills: In addition to basic skills needed in working with all types of
client systems, the following specific skills are essential in work with groups.
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6.3.3.2. skill in analyzing the group situation
Program: this involves the various activities which workers may design for group
participation. The following therefore, are essential.
6.3.4.1. Worker must have some knowledge of the total range of program
possibilities.
6.3.4.2. Worker must think in terms not only of specific activities, but of the
sequential development of program over a series of group sessions.
6.3.6.2. The worker must analyze the consequences of activities for the
participants and chose or modify activities appropriately.
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6.3.7.1. be person-centered and meet specific needs
6.3.7.2. develop out of the interest and needs of the group members
6.3.8.1. Basic group work practice – direct social work practice with
small groups
Social group work as a method of social work “helps individuals to enhance their social
functioning through purposeful group experiences to cope more effectively with their
personal group or community problems.”
Group work is a way of serving individuals within and through small face-to-face groups
in order to bring about desired changes among the client participants. This method of
practice recognizes the potency of social forces that are generated within small groups and
seeks to marshal them in the interest of client change. The composition, development, an
processes of the group are deliberately guided by the practitioner toward achieving his
service goals for the clients intervention in the experience of the group is the primary means
of affecting change, although practitioner engages in many other activities with or on
behalf of their clients in addition to conducting group sessions.
This method involves an orderly process which takes place within a meaningful, purposive
relationship between worker and group. This helping process is generic or common to all
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social work practice, and involves the following steps in problem-solving; assessing the
problem, planning solutions, implementing the plan, and evaluating the outcome (Boehm).
When applied to work with small groups, this helping process can be broken-down into
more specific steps or stages. The entire process is referred to as the social treatment
sequence.
6.4.1. Intake: the process by which a potential client achieves client status. On the client’s
part this often involves some kind of presentation of himself and his problem or “need” as
his experiences it. On the worker’s part, this typically involves some assessment of the
client and his problem – a preliminary diagnosis – and of the adequacy of resources
available to resolve the problem. This stage ends in either of the following: the worker or
the client decides not to process, for whatever reasons, or the client commits himself to
client status and worker commits himself and his agency to provide service (however,
limited). The intake process of course does not mean only that the client goes to an agency
and applies for help. Many agencies today reach out to clients. In social group work
practice this is particularly true, with workers reaching out to informally or loosely
organized groups, or actively recruiting member for groups it can service. In the context of
agency goals and priorities.
This marks a more rigorous and exacting assessment by the worker of the client’s problem
or problems, of his capacities for help and change and of the various resources that might
be marshaled in this effort. It involves a preliminary statement of the treatment goal – the
changes which hopefully can result if the intervention effort is successful. It involves a
preliminary plan of the general ways in which this helping process will be undertaken, and
of the general directions in which it will be guided. This stage often necessitates the
collection of additional information about the client and his situation, the use of
consultation, etc. This phase should culminate in a concrete statement prepared by the
worker, which serves to crystalize his assessment of the client, making explicit the
objectives he will pursue and the means by which he will seek to implement these
objectives. This is called a diagnostic statement which essentially serves the same purposes
as the social case study in casework. It is an analysis and summary of the problems of the
client, his resources and potential for change and the barriers or constrains which might
impede change. It also includes the treatment goals or recommendation for change, and
propose plan of treatment.
Information for the working diagnostic statement is obtained by the worker from the client
and or relevant others. The working diagnostic statement, however, represents the present
worker’s synthesis of the information collected and his judgment of treatment potential. It
is usually completed after the practitioner has had the opportunity to observe the client in
the group situation on a few occasions. Part of the task is the decision as to whether or not
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client will receive group treatment (service or help) or not. If not, the diagnostic statement
is thus prepared for use by other professional personnel. If the client is accepted for group
treatment, the diagnostic statement may have to be revised from time to time a new
information is obtained about client, or a new behaviour is observed in the group situation,
etc.
Specific treatment goals must be established for each member of the client group.
This follows from the fact that individuals never enter the treatment sequence with
identical problems and capabilities.
Treatment goals are these specific ends the practitioner pursues in the interest of
particular clients within particular groups. A treatment goal is a specification of the
statement or condition in which we would like this client to be at the end of a
successful treatment sequence. Some considerations pertinent to treatment goals
are:
6.4.2.2.3. The treatment goals must be linked to diagnosis in that it should seek the
reduction of the stress or difficulty as experienced by the client. Treatment
goals must bear a relationship to the capacities of the clients and to their
readiness or motivation to change.
6.4.2.2.4. The treatment goal should refer to a state of improved client functioning
that will occur outside of and beyond the treatment group itself.
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6.4.3. Group Composition and Formation
At this stage worker assigns individual clients to group composing them of persons whom
he believes can be served together. He also sets the purpose of the group, at least within
broad limits, in accordance with his treatment goals for its individual members.
He begins the establishment of relationships with the group members, and helps the group
to commence its program.
6.4.3.1.1. The worker’s goals and purpose for the group is established and served and
what is expected to accomplish.
The worker here seeks the emergence of simple goals, activities and relationship
which can render the group an effective means of treatment (helping) its members. The
worker guides the group’s interaction and structures its experiences in order to achieve
those treatment goals which he holds for each member. The particular nature and degree
of group cohesion, self-determination, program, and governing procedures are defined by
those specific treatment goals, and not by any uniform standards workers have about
“successful” or “well organized” groups. His main concern is that each group becomes the
most potent means possible to attain the ends he seeks for its members.
Since practitioner do not hold the same goals for all groups and because of differences
among the members who composed them, no two groups ever appear to have the same
experiences or advance along the same developmental path.
Group services may be terminated when under any of the following conditions:
6.4.5.2. When it appears that maximum benefits for the members clients have been
attained.
6.4.5.3. When any additional gain that can be anticipated is insufficient to merit
continuation.
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6.4.5.4. When clients drop out (this is often a problem when groups “die a natural
death,” and in many cases can be traced to lack of skill on the part of the
worker, or things he “does or does not do” in relation to the group.
6.4.5.5. When the agency for certain reasons, e.g. other priorities, decides to
terminate its group programs.
6.4.5.6. Other reasons like lack of staff, etc. The decision to terminate necessitates
a review of progress made by each of the client members, and an estimation
of whether continuation of the group would be worthwhile. The worker is
compelled, therefore, to return to his original diagnostic statements
(containing his treatment goals for each group member), and to evaluate the
movement made in terms of these goals.
In general, evaluation (and the decision to terminate a member or group) is based on two
major factors: individual change in the context of treatment goals for each member and
group growth or movement.
It is seldom, if at all, that an entire group is terminated, since group members will show
different degrees of movement. Accordingly, the worker may reconstitute the group
keeping as members only those who have not shown satisfactory progress (but who may
be expected to do so), terminating those for whom maximum benefits have been achieved,
and adding new members. Persons may also be transferred to different groups or other
services.
The preceding five stages in the group work helping process ("treatment sequence", Vinter)
represent general patterns, not ideal periods that ought to be neatly accomplished. In reality,
it is often difficult to determine the end of one stage, and the beginning of another.
Regardless of these stages, worker must engage in activities that are responsive to the
group's process and will advance his treatment goals.
6.4.6 The following are some activities that are constantly occurring and may occur at any stage.
6.4.6.2 Inclusion of a new member even long after others has been admitted.
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conditions of individuals whose behaviour is disapproved, or who have been
disadvantaged by the workings of an imperfect society. It emphasizes manifest
personal and social problems and the rehabilitative potentials of guided group
processes in alleviating these problems. Persons who are the recipients of such
group work service are individuals who exhibit socially relevant problems through
their performance in conventional social roles.
The foregoing "treatment sequence" need not apply only to groups whose members
present pathologies, or deep seated personal problems requiring "treatment". It is a
theoretical formulation which offers "a coherent and prescriptive strategy of
intervention" that the student or practitioner may adapt or modify as necessary (as
to apply to group work service that are primarily preventive and developmental in
orientation). For this reason this "treatment sequence" is viewed as essentially
constituting the steps or stages in the social group work helping process.
The word "community" is used to refer to people and the pattern of social relationships
among them when these relationships may be characterized by 1) a common system of values,
2) normatively, defined relations, 3) interdependence, 4) a recognition of belonging, 5) a
system of stratification, and 6) locality. Sometimes the term is used to describe people and the
potter of relationships among them when these are ordered by a special interest, such as the
church, school, or welfare community. The "geographic" community is composed of many
"special interest" communities. In addition, smaller segments of the geographic community
may be referred to as communities in microcosm, i.e. an area, district, neighbourhood, block.
When the C.O. practitioner works with a community, he is working with the members and
representatives of one or more of the "special interest and geographical" sub-communities.
These different although related, smaller systems are increasingly referred to in
communication among professionals of the client system.
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3)population, 4)government, 5)housing and planning, 6)economic basis, 7)educational,
8)health, 9)recreational, 10)social welfare, 11)religions, 12)traditions, 13)attitudes, 14)
relationships. All communities possess these fundamental elements of community life and
structure, and yet each community is unique.
Community Organization
3) Formulation and evaluation of policy programs and action proposals for the
consideration of community representatives in dealing with community welfare problems.
2.3.4 This knowledge may be categorized into at least five broad content areas:
1) The development and operation of the community and its constituent groups and
institutions, the functional relationships of its subparts, its processes of growth and
change. The worker needs to know such things as the institutional make-up of the
community; the scope and strength of the authority which these institutions
exercise; the dominant cultural patterns of the community; the stratification
arrangement; the influence structure; the dynamics of community life; the people
who belong to the community; their distribution in the community; the changes that
are taking place in the institutional and cultural life of the community; the speed of
those changes.
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members; the significance of individual breakdown for the community. The worker
needs to have knowledge of behaviour; the dynamics of social functioning of the
individual; the consequences of institutional change upon individuals as a result of
scientific, industrial and social inventions; the natural history of problematic social
phenomena, the distribution and prevalence of these phenomena, the factors,
personality and social, which contribute to these phenomena.
3) The contribution (present and potential) that welfare and related institutional
policies, programs, and action can make towards the control, alleviation and
prevention of community dysfunction. Among the specifics of welfare services:
standards of services, methods of measuring effectiveness of services techniques
and methods of packaging services for greater usability; goals, attitudes, methods
or related professions having a role and contribution in the solution of community
welfare problems.
5) The role which the practitioner must selectively use in working to carry out the
purpose of community organizations. Included here is knowledge about such specifics as
understanding or self in terms of motivation and personality needs; the criteria for selecting
subroles to be assumed at a given time; the dynamics of establishing and maintaining
relationships with individuals of a variety of capacities and statuses; methods of modifying
individual behaviour in relation to the performance of defined participant roles.
2.4 Sanction
The general community sanction is necessary for creating and sustaining these
institutional and organizational arrangements of society which make community
organization practice possible. Sanctions may be expressed in various ways, including law
and legal statuses; governmental regulation or directive; approval by voluntary
organizations; consent and approval of citizens and groups.
2.5.1 Definition
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The aim of community organization has been defined as being concerned
with task goals, process goals, and relationship goals. This indicate why community
organization, that is, a distinctive way of working to achieve task, process, or
relationship goals.
2.5.2 Problem-solving
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XII. Use of conflict; (“The worker employs community conflict and controversy as a tool
in this process by encouraging the airing of different views in an environment:
conducive to rational discussion.”)
XIII. Management of power; (“where power is diffuse and ineffectual, he (the worker/helps
to create centers of powers through organizational procedures; where there is
concentration or monopoly of power; he helps broaden the base of decision-making”
through education. Involving new leadership, and “creation of new structures”.)
XIV. Interdisciplinary emphasis (encouragement of “the development of team approach…”)
2.5.3 Techniques – are considered as sub-parts of method, the specific ways in which the
worker applies his method in specific settings.
Skill implies not only knowledge but the ability to put knowledge to practical use;
it connotes competence, ease, and precision or execution, dexterity, efficiency d
effectiveness in performance. Skill has been called the “ability to do thing right the first
time.” Skills is concerned primarily with doing rather than with either knowing or
feeling. At least three different kinds of skills are involved in the practice of
“community organization.”
First, there are skills which are basic to the practice of any kind of social work, for
example, establishing relationships with individuals and groups and what is frequently
referred to in social work literature as the “use of the professional self” (the professional
use of self).
Second, there are skills connected with each of the methods of community
organization – fact finding, analysis, evaluating, planning and so on. We have already
notes that the term “technique” (detailed application of methods) carries the
connotation of skill.
Third, there are broader community organization skills that cut across and transcend
specific methods.
1) Organizing
2) Planning and policy-making
3) Political and legislative skills
4) Inter-personal and small group skills
5) Administrative skills
6) Strategy design and implementation
7) Promotion and communication
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Skill, when it is highly developed brings about automatic or nearly automatic responses to
situations. Skills at its highest are no longer concerned with a set of external techniques;
rather, st its best, skills becomes a part of the self.
1) Fact finding
2) Planning
- - in the sense used here, means determining a proposed future action or course of
action. This may include choosing methods, procedure forms of organization or
instruments to be used in the future.
Planning implies:
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3. Analysis
It involves breaking up a problem, situation or collection of data, exploring the content and
examining and setting forth of the various aspects; issues and relationships involved. The purpose
of analysis is to gain insight and understanding, particularly to understand the relationship involved
in the content. The outline, the chart, the written statement, and the “kind” are all forms of
recording and presenting the results of the analysis.
Analysis is the most typical method of dealing with problem in community organization.
No complicated problem can be intelligently attacked wholesale. It must be first be resolved
into its elements or into number of specific problems.
Analysis is closely related to both fact-finding and planning. However, we may have fact-
finding without analysis. Statistics may be merely “collected” without ever being analyzed; data
may be gathered and left in undigested masses without being subjected to the analytical process
which would reveal their meaning.
Planning can sparsely exist without analysis. The two are complementary. Analysis is the
breaking up of the problem, planning is the synthesis, the putting together of proposals for future
action. A second plan normally implies that the planner has the facts that the facst and probkmes
have been analyzed as a basis for the formulation of the plan.
4. Evaluation
Evaluation or appraisal is closely related to both analysis and planning, but it has a
distinctive aspect. Evaluation concerns making value judgment about certain phenomena.
Thus it goes a step beyond analysis but not necessarily as far as planning.
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The essence of evaluation is the comparison of actualities for proposals with certain
standards of assumed values. Some of these values or norms are expressed in written
formulations – statutory provisions for characteristics of a “workable plan”, licensing
standards for child-caring agencies, or membership standards for a national formulated in
writing. They may be implicit in the philosophy, convictions, general professional
standards or experience of the evaluators. They may be vague ad colored by subjective
factors. In general no social welfare evaluation that involves judgment is better than the
capacity or equipment of the evaluator.
1. Community Development
1.1 Community Development Defined
The term community development was first normally introduced into the
Philippines in 1965. The Office of the Presidential Assistance on Community
Development (PACD) was created. A new breed of grassroots workers called
community development workers was thus born.
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1.2 Community Problems
Of the approximately 3 billion people in the world, about half live in the
newly developing, or technically less-developed countries. Most people in these
countries live in the rural village.
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Social action may be defined as public promotion of a cause, measure, or
objective in an effort to obtain support or official action. Ordinarily, social action
involves organized efforts to influence public opinion or official policy or executive
action through enlistment of the support of groups or individuals.
2.2 Approaches
Social action embraces two broad methods of approaches; procedural and direct
action.
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2.3.5 Compromise – a conflict may be resolved thru a process of direct negotiation,
bargaining and compromise by the parties to the conflict. In a compromise, each
party gives up something in order to gain something else that he values even
more.
2.3.6 Consensus – this means the resolution of conflict by agreement which
represents the thinking and the wishes of all parties to the conflict. In the
consensus there is a real group idea or “sense of meeting”, not mere
acquiescence. In this case, majority and seniority disappear is common
agreement. The group decides and moves forward as a unit.
2.3.7 Ending without resolving
1) Separation – In this case, one or both parties avoids the other and the conflict ends because
there is no confrontation.
2) Intervention - a conflict may be brought to an end by someone with sufficient authority and
power to stop encounter, usually in his own initiative.
3) Postponement of further conflict – controversial motion may be laid on the table or
postponed to the next meeting, by the time it is taken up again everyone may wonder why
it seemed so important and why everyone was so excited about it.
4) Acceptance of the conflict – a controversial motion may sometimes end with the parties to
a conflict “agreeing to disagree”, “to live and let live”, to ignore the conflict and focus
attention on matters where they can reach a decision by one method or another.
3. Social Planning
Social planning is the process of defining and measuring problems affecting social
and human welfare, understanding the causes of these problems, establishing goals and objectives
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based on needs and existing resources, and developing a constructive program of action and
services to move toward these goals or objectives.
Social planning is the integration of social aims and projects into development plan:
to ensure that plans and policies are fully responsible to the needs and aspirations of the people, to
alleviate the most urgent social problems without undue delay, to minimize if not entirely eliminate
the adverse consequences of modernization, and to see to it that the benefits of development are
more equitably shared among the people.
Social planning has a much broader scope than social welfare planning. It is
concerned with such fields as health, nutrition, education, manpower development, and housing
and of course social welfare, but which require a cross-sectional or an integrated approach.
There are two aspects of the social planning process: the rational technical aspect
and the other, the political aspect.
Few social workers are involved in the technical process. Majority are involved in
the second. In the simple planning stage the social worker is more likely to act as an enabler by
bringing together the people who could work out judgments in needs and resources. Planning for
development even of only a small community is a new behaviour for Filipinos and the social
workers helps them learn and acquire the simple intricacies of planning. She facilitates the
decision-making process although she may not be directly responsible for the plan. Perhaps the
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plans may have been brought down from the higher levels or from another place, leaving to the
community concerned the responsibility for making a choice from several alternatives courses of
action. What the social worker does is get the people to clarify their problems, identify their needs,
and develop the capacity to deal with their own problems effectively. Many social workers at the
grassroots level operate in this fashion.
3.3 Settings
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SOCIAL WORK SECONDARY METHODS
1. Definitions
Scwarts – “The process and the organization of people toward objectives which entails the
production of goods or the provision of services.”
2.1 Organization is the setting up of the framework or structure of the different units of
the system to carry out or perform distinct tasks for a specified objective.
2.2 Management is the scientific utilization of manpower, money, machines, materials,
methods, time and space for the achievement of agency goals.
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4. Assumptions about social work administration.
5. Dimensions of administration.
5.1 A central dimension is the task or work assignment within the agency structure.
5.2 The community within which the agency works.
5.3 The psychosocial dimensions within which people release their feelings and energies
which are properly channeled and directed by administrators to enable people to
accomplish their tasks in relation to the goals of agency service.
Social work administration requires the content of social work knowledge and the
skills of administration. The content of social work knowledge would primary
include the nature and purpose of social work as well as social work’s values and
methods.
8.1 Study the community and determine agency purpose as basis for the selection of
clientele.
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8.2 Develop agency policies, programs and procedures for the implementation of agency
purpose.
8.3 Provide financial resources, budgeting and planning.
8.4 Select and work with agency leadership and professional and non-professional boards,
committees and service volunteers.
8.5 Provide and maintain physical plant, equipment and supplies.
8.6 Develop a plan, establish and maintain effective community relations, interpretation.
8.7 Keep full and accurate records of agency operations and regular reports.
8.8 Continuously evaluate programs and personnel, plan and conduct appropriate
research.
1. Definitions
The social welfare agency is the structural framework within which administrative
tasks are carried out. The agency structure inevitably conditions and controls the
specifics of the administrative process in a given situation. In as much as social
agencies are wholes and their parts are interrelated, administration likewise must
be thought of as a total process rather than a series of segmented acts.
The modern social agency is a complex social system involving many people.
These may include the board, administrative staff, other staff, volunteers, members,
clients or persons served, and the supporting community. It is a social system with
each part bearing a relation to every other part and all are interdependent.
2. A Social System
2.1 Definition
A social system is a whole with each part bearing a relation to every other
part and all are interdependent.
Under the systems concept, consideration must be given to the means for
the interrelation and coordination of the various sub-systems. These parts
are integrated through various processes, such as the information and
communication network, the decision systems, and built-in equilibrium
mechanisms which exist in every organization.
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The social system is not impermeable to other social systems and is affected
by other systems.
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In cost-benefit analysis the comparison is expressed in terms of their cost
and effectiveness in attaining a desired objective.
Example: The need for social indicators as well as economic indicators for
national economic and social development must be emphasized.
- By constitutional mandate
- By legislative act
- By executive order of the president/presidential decrees/letter of instruction
A private social welfare agency is created by a group of citizens who have decide
to organize to meet the felt/identified needs of the community or groups of people,
utilizing community resources to render social services to the people. It has
constitution and by-laws, a governing board responsible for policy formulation,
policies to guide its programs and trained personnel to implement its programs. It
generally draws volunteers from the community that help in social services
delivery.
Their creation, functions and programs are determines by law and can
be changed only by law. Their organizational structure is bureaucratic and they are
less flexible than programs of private agencies. They have budgets approved by the
legislature and may have more facilities and funds. Very often they can work only
with government agencies. They also must conform to government procedures
especially in accounting and auditing of funds and property. They have to follow
standards of quality and service to clients. Government agencies may purchase
services form private agencies if they do not have such services. Their employees
are subject too civil service rules and regulations.
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Characteristics of private welfare agencies or non-governmental organization
(NGO’s):
They are governed by their own charter, constitution and by-laws and
by a governing board.
3. Constituencies
Board policy-making body in the agency
3.1 Functions:
3.2.1 Vital interest , understanding of and the belief in the purpose and policies of the
agency
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3.2.2 Ability, capacity that will contribute to the agency programs and services
3.2.3 Representative of the different sectors of the population
3.2.4 Skill in working with people and groups
3.2.5 Has the respect and confidence of the agency
3.2.6 Has time to perform assigned tasks
1) Profession competence
2) Leadership qualities
3) Integrity and respect of the community and her peers
4) Broad vision and deep insight into peole and situations
5) Ability to inspire both staff and volunteers
6) Ability to work under limitations and frustrations
7) Good public relations
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III. FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATION
1. Policy formulation
2. Planning and programming
3. Organizing
4. Staffing
5. Directing
6. Controlling
7. Supervising
8. Coordinating
9. Communicating
10. Budgeting and financing
11. Reporting and recording
12. Public relations
13. Evaluation and research
1. Policy Formulation
1.1 Definition
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1.3.1.3 Informing the public
1.3.1.4 Developing policy goals including other agencies
1.3.1.5 Building public support
1.3.1.6 Legislation
1.3.1.7 Implementation and administration
1.3.1.8 Evaluation and assessment
2.1 Definition
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getting the facts and arranging systematically the steps to be taken and the methods of
doing them to give focus and direction. It establishes the future by:
- Determining priorities
- Determining the short-term and long-term goals
- Determining the human and material resources that are needed and available
- Plans must be dynamic and suitable existing situations
- Must be realistic, practical and feasible for accomplishment
- Must have a good sense of timing
Substantive planning calls for formulations of broad issues confronting the program,
whereas procedural planning reflects concern for day-to-day details.
9) Evaluating data
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13) Testing the plan and making adjustments where necessary
2.2 Programming
2.2.1 Definition
a) Administrative structure
b) Manpower
c) Funding
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3. Organizing
3.1 Definition
- Distance
- Time
- Ability and competence of workers and staff
- Availability of adequate facilities like the telephone, vehicles, etc.
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3.2.5 Hierarchical or scalar principle
Men are organized in groups under leaders with ascending and
descending levels of authority. When shown inn chart, the hierarchy
assumes the form of a pyramid.
3.2.9 Balance
There must be reasonable balance between:
4.1 Definition
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wage plan. Proper incentives, motivation, and morale, are ingredients of successful
administration. It is important to recognize that the informal organization provides
the means for the fulfillment of human satisfactions.
5. Directing
5.1 Definition
6. Controlling
6.1 Definition
Plan
Plan, review and alter depending on feedback
Implementation
Evaluate
Power is the capacity to change others or that which can affect the activity
of others.
The power that evolves from a managerial position is authority. People with
authority have power, but power does not always denote authority.
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Example: A subordinate may have no authority, but he can have a great deal
of power.
7. Supervising
7.1 Definition
Supervision is defined as the art of enabling workers and students to perform their
functions under the guidance of someone with authority and competence.
8. Coordinating
8.1 Definition
Coordination is an activity that interrelates the various parts of the agency so that it
functions as a whole.
It has been defined as the activity that allocates and directs various persons,
functions, specialties and spaces with a view to their reciprocal relations so that they
contribute maximally to the accomplishments of an organization’s purposes.
8.2.1 It must provide high levels of cooperative behaviour between the supervisors
and subordinates and especially among peers.
8.2.2 Favorable attitudes, confidence and trust are needed among its members.
8.2.3 It must have the organizational structure and the interaction skill required to
solve differences and conflicts and to arrive at creative solutions.
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8.2.4 It must have the capacity to exert influence and to create motivation and
coordination without the traditional forms of line authority.
9. Communicating
9.1 Definition
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10.2 Characters
10.2.1 The agency budget is the annual estimate of the financial needs of the
organization
10.2.3 The budget is a link between financial resources and human behavior to
accomplish policy objectives.
10.3.1 The first step in budget preparation is to look again at the purposes of the
agency and the needs it is designed to meet.
10.3.3 Involving heads of departments and other key staff members in the budget
preparation.
10.3.4 When the budget estimate has been drawn up it must be presented to the board
of the voluntary agency to the executive branch of the governmental agency.
10.3.5 Budget hearing – the administrator, often assisted by departments’ heads and
fiscal officers, must interpret the budget request, pointing out why funds are needed.
Living within the budget becomes the responsibility of the administrator once
allocations have been made. Controls have to be set up on a monthly basis and care
must be taken to see t it that expenditures conform to the intentions expressed under
the budget prepared and submitted. When budget adjustments must be made,
approval has to be sought from higher authority especially if the change is major in
scope. If deficiency appropriations are required to meet emergencies or unanticipated
needs, these requests must go through the regular process.
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5) Budgeting for programs and services should enable the agency to determine the
cost-benefit of each service.
6) All programs should have firm and adequate financing.
11.2 Characteristics
Reports and records are the basis for planning, programming, research,
evaluation and budgeting. It shoes if the resources are used efficiently for producing
services. Public money is a trust for which the agency is accountable.
Case records are used for teaching, supervision and training of students and
for research.
12.2 Characteristics
13.1 Definition
Evaluation is the process through which the affectivity of services are gauged
against the goals which the agency sets out to achieve. Research provides the tool
for evaluating agency efficiency and effectiveness.
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13.2 Characteristics
Evaluation is the heart of program development process. It provides a
direction for future courses of action. It is an element interwoven in the total process
of policy formulation and program development.
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SUPERVISION IN SOCIAL SERVICES
Supervision- referred to the control and coordinating function of a state Board of Supervisors a
state Board of charities or a state Board of control.
Applied to the inspection and review of programs and institution rather than to supervision
of individual workers within the program. And also concerned with the administration
supervision agencies.
Supervision and education in charity by(Jeffrey R. Bracket)
The first social work text that used the word supervision
Was concern with supervision of welfare agencies and institution by public board
commission.
Mary Richmond- one of the original contributors to the development of supervision of social
work.
Overtime supervision became infused with addition duties .In addition to the efficient and
effective administration of agency services.
1. education
2. support
In the service of administering agency services the social worker develop practice knowledge
and skills ,and providing emotional support to the person in the social work role.
During 19th century- supervision was originated in the charity organization movement .
Desirable direction “Not alms but friend”– the catchphrase of the charity organization movement.
1878-charity organization societies were developed in most of the larger eastern cities in buffalo
New York.
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Friendly Visitors-they are the direct service workers, the foot soldiers of the organization.
Paid agents-are the early predecessors of the modern supervisor .They responsible for recruiting,
training, directing new visitors and responsible for a sizable number of visitors.
1890-There are 78 Charity organization societies with 174 paid workers 2017 volunteer friendly
visitors.
1843- The New York association for improving the conditions of the poor "maintained a paid staff
who were supervise and train volunteers and thus provide Continuity of service". The quote points
to the historical antiquity of administrative and education supervision.
Zilpa Smith-general secretary of Boston associated charities, director of Smith College Training
school of psychiatric social work.
-One of the people who wrote on supervision and training o visitors .She exhorted the work is
satisfactory or if any suggestion can make it so. Here the administrative requirements of ensuring
that the "work is satisfactory" is coupled with the education task of supervision.
Educational task- "Aiding and advising". They were given educational literature including rules
and suggestions for visitors. They also attended the weekly conferences And had periodic talks
with agent.
Gardiner-"ill results from mistaken" by friendly visitors are easily guarded against proper
supervision.
Supportive supervision-had to deal with the feeling responses of visitors to their work
Inspiring these who become discourage in their work and to offer support.
-Evening reading groups met to discuss current literature and share experiences.
-conduct more formal training programs which involved systematic education of those selected to
be paid agents in service training program.
-participated in group teaching sessions conducted by the general secretary of the organization.
-The experienced agents met periodically with the general secretary to discuss problems of
educational supervision.
1879-It was the first National conference of Charities and correction was held in Chicago. They
published proceeding of these kinds of conferences providing material literature that spoke to the
concerns of people working in the field.
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-Text and tracts devoted to the work of charities agency personnel were also published.
1887- an annual report of the Brooklyn Bureau of charities state that " the nucleus of library has
been formed at the central office and now includes some twenty five hundred books, pamphlets
and papers relating to the principles and methods of charities work and cognate subjects. The
collection is already worth the attention of those interested .And gradually a body of practice
wisdom was being developed codified and made explicit in communication through published
channel.
The development of a knowledge base made it possible to offer course on social work
1894- it was reported that 21 of 146 colleges and universities were teaching courses in
Anna L. Dawes-credited with the initial suggestion for "training schools for a new
Profession".She argued that it ought to be possible for those who take up this work to find some
place for studying it as a profession.
>Educational apparatus of a profession was being organized and was assuming the main
responsibility for training.
>The process itself became more formalized as to the time, place, content, procedures and
expectation.
>Professional education was gradually transferred from the agency to the universities, medical
school work agencies and schools.
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Developing a Literature on Social Work Supervision
Executive treatment approach- where the worker of friendly visitor knew what was best for the
clients knowing this, the worker offered the client clear advice as to what should be done, and he
or she arranged ,independently of the client , to make resources available on the clients behalf.
Coordination of practice with the policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and
smooth working office.
Ellis and Ladany (1997) - have reviewed 104 studies of supervision in social work and social
work psychology, one fifth of which were found in journals identified with social work and 27 of
which were published after 1990.
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Supervision in Group work and Community Organization
Almost all of the literature mentioned previously reflects a traditional case work. Orientation to
direct social work practice in agency settings rather than to any of the models of group worker or
community worker interaction. As kutzik notes, consultation rather than supervision "was the rule
among settlement staff ".Supervision in group work is less clearly formalized in group work
agencies and even less explicitly formulated Spellman noted 6the odd assortment of practices
which had grown up" in response to the need to perform supervisory functions but without explicit
consideration of the process.
We've had a trouble shooter method "let me know if anything goes wrong and you need Me for
any emergency and I’ll be right there. Another is the hit and run method". I’ll see you in the hall a
couple of minutes after the meeting is over. Community organizers is often work in agencies .The
nature of the community organizers often tends to be diffuse and goals amorphous ,no hierarchal
structure that includes supervisory personnel supervision is not only associated with the agency
and its bureaucracy but also with professionalism.
1. Assignment of work
Administrative Supervision- the primary problem is concerned with the correct, effective, and
the adherence to policy and procedure.
Educational supervision- the problem is worker ignorance and/or ineptitude regarding the
knowledge, attitude and skills required doing the job; the primary goal is to dispel ignorance and
upgrade skill.
Supportive supervision- is the worker's morale and job satisfaction, the primary goal is to
improve the morale and job satisfaction.
Management
- a process of planning, organizing, controlling and directing towards to achieve specific goals.
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Classical Management Theories
The first identifiable theories of management, collectively labeled "scientific management", really
had their origins in the apprenticeship method of nineteenth century. Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856-1915), an engineer by profession ,is the name most often associated with scientific
management .He is often regarded as "father of scientific management" offered numerous
suggestions at the turn of the twentieth century for improving efficiency and effectiveness .His
studies and recommendations were specific and meaningful .He suggested that efficiency could be
obtained by division of labor ,piecework incentive, and careful use of time .Scientific management
was based on a number of assumptions about people and their behavior in the work place.
B. Administrative Theory
Another approach to management was also taking shape during the first half of the twentieth
century. Henry Fayol (1841-1925). A French mining engineer was advocating numerous changes
to improve production in his country. He believed that there are certain management principles
that are universally appropriate for higher administrative levels in different settings .People can be
taught to do a better job of management wherever they manage if they adhere to his basic principles
.These basic principles are outlined below.
1. Division of work. Fayol believed that specialization will produce more and better work without
increased effort.
2. Authority and responsibility for Fayol, authority (the right to give orders and expect
obedience) is closely related to responsibility. Responsibility is a natural consequence of authority.
A manager not only possesses but also encourages others to accept responsibility.
3. Discipline - Fayol saw discipline as part of the 'contract' between workers and employers and
as absolutely essential for the smooth functioning of an organization.
4. Unity of command- Fayol believed that an employee should receive instructions and be
accountable to only one boss .Any other situation undermines authority and causes major problems
for the organization.
5. Unity of direction. Fayol believed that a group of activities that are designed to achieve the
same objective should have one plan (and one leader).
6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest. Fayol believed that each human
characteristics as selfishness and laziness could produce an organization in which self-interests of
organization which unless supervision, certain agreement, firmness and example of supervisors
precluded it.
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7. Remuneration. Fayol believed that it should be fair and whenever possible, satisfactory to both
employer and employee .He advocated some innovative (for his time)methods of compensation
such as bonuses and profit-sharing.
9. Scalar chain. Fayol believed that strict adherence to the chain of command could cause
problem, especially when prompt communication is required .He suggest that organizations
sometimes need to create a shorter, more direct route that are much more efficient for
communication flow, even if they do not coincide with the chain of command.
10. Order. Fayol believed strongly that everything and everyone in an organization needs to be in
their proper place. He placed great emphasis on matching employees to the appropriate positions
so that employees would find themselves in a job where they could make their greatest possible
contributions.
11. Equity. Fayol viewed fairness as being more than justice based on convention. He stressed the
need for common sense and kindliness in making decisions that would be perceived as fair.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Fayol observed that prosperous firms tend to be stable .they
tend to have relatively little staff turnover. He noted the high cost of training new person advocated
job security through such methods permanent employee status .
Initiative among employees of an organization. But he believed that this must be balanced by
respect and discipline.
14. Esprit de corps. Fayol valued unity and harmony within an organization
C. Bureaucratic Theory
The third "school" of what is collectively referred to as classical management theory , bureaucratic
management , is quite familiar to most social workers .Bureaucracies are very much evidence
within the human services . As with the two theories discussed previously, one name is most
frequently associated with bureaucracies: Max weber (1864-1920). Like scientific management
and administrative management, it emphasized efficiency. However, weber focused on the
efficient handling of clients ("peoples processing") through methods of staffing and structure,
whereas the emphasis is scientific management and administrative management was on economic
efficiency (profit) .
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A bureaucracy is really an organizational design, one specially constructed along certain principles
that are believe to promote efficiency.
These principles are familiar to anyone who has ever worked in a human service organization. For
example, bureaucracies are usually characterized by:
1. A vertical organizational hierarchy. The person on the top is the boss; power decreases at
each respective lower level of hiererchy. Everyone's behavior is monitored by somebody else.
2. Well-defined guidelines that limit functions. Rules and policies are widely used written
procedures also are common .and there are even decision-making rules to govern and control
behavior when no other formal guidance exists. The idea is that they will function within
organizations much as habits work for individuals.
“Do your job well and you will be rewarded,” often with the promotion to the next level in the
organization’s hierarchy.
4. Formal, rigid communication channels. There is a strict adherence to the chain of command
in communication (and in other activities).
5. Job security for full-time employees. “Do your job and you cannot be fired”.
6. Division of labor. People have very specific jobs to do. They know exactly what their job
entails and so does everyone else. Detailed job descriptions are used.
Four of the common problems can be seen in the scientific, administrative and bureaucratic
approaches to management. All three classical management theories tend to ignore (1.) power of
the group norms on individual behavior; (2.) the degree of individual differences that exist among
people, particularly in regard to their motivation; (3.) the irrational side of human beings that
results in their doing things that are not always in their best interest; (4.) the existence of a very
powerful force, namely the informal organization that they may bear a little resemblance to what
appears on a tidy organizational chart.
Taylor, Fayol, Weber and other classical theorists saw managers as rational people capable
of possessing the necessary knowledge to make the right decisions. Managers simply identify the
various available alternatives and project consequences of each. Then based on previously
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identified priorities, they decide and act. It all sounds perfectly logical. The idea is to seek out the
perfect solution referred to in the literature as ‘optimizing’.
Based chiefly on recognition of the complexity of human behavior, those writers who have
been especially critical of the classical theories held somewhat different perception of managers.
They viewed managers more as pragmatists, making acceptable decisions based on limited
information and with knowledge that even good decisions guarantee success. As opposed to the
optimizing of the classical theorists, Herbert Simon viewed managers as ‘satisfying,’ that is,
searching until they find an acceptable solution, one that is good enough rather than optimal. The
term ‘bounded rationality’ was used to described managers’ approach to decision making.
Because they cannot consider all possible alternatives and cannot fully understand all the variables
involved limits (boundaries) are placed around the amount of information that will be processed
prior to making a decision.
RECENT THEORIES
A. MODERN STRUCTIONALIST
-assumes that there is an inevitably a lack of congruence among persons who
work in an organization.
CONFLICT- occurs within the organization due to the different goals and
agenda of the employees.
LEWIS COSER (1913-2003)- suggested that conflict has many positive
functions including:
Producing group cohesiveness
Promoting changes in norms and values
Informing leaders of problems that exist
Preventing stagnation
B. HUMAN RELATIONS
- Stress the complexity of human motivation
- Concluded that social issues as well as the content of the job itself can
influence worker productivity.
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HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS- adjusted the working conditions of young
women in a Western Electric Plant in order to study their effect on productivity.
C. CONTINGENCY THEORY
- Argue that there is no one best way or no correct decision that will work for
all the situations.
FRED E. FIEDLER (1922)- concluded that there is are no such thing as an ideal
leader or a universally one best way to manage.
- Proposed that a good leadership style is one that matches the needs of a given
situation.
-
D. PARTICIPATIVE THEORY
- Probably better understood as an application of a manager’s belief that human
beings are more productive, more loyal, and are more trustworthy if they are
granted a role in decision making in areas that affect them and their jobs.
- Promote consensus between individual goals and the goals of the organization.
Manager
Other people involved (staff)
Situation
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VARIATIONS ON PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT
Focuses on outcome
measures, that is, indicators of service
effectiveness in organizations like
hospital and public welfare or mental
health centers.
E. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
- Express the belief that organizations, just like societies, have a unique culture
that must be understood. It consist of:
Experience
Beliefs
Values
Attitudes
Managers must learn to understand them to be successful, especially if they hope to
overcome resistance to changes that must be implemented.
I. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
A. X and Y THEORIES – suggested by Douglas Mc Gregor
THEORY X- describes the working situation in which leaders are
authoritative, autocratic and maintain close control.
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b. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work most people
must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment
to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of
organizational objectives.
c. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, and has relatively little ambition, wants security above
all.
THEORY Y- stresses a work climate and situation in which democratic
participation is practiced and the rights and suggestions of the workers are
encouraged and supported.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS:
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HYGIENE FACTORS MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
FUNCTIONS OF SUPERVISION
Objectives of Supervision
1. Educational Supervision- to improve the worker’s capacity to do his job more efficiently.
2. Administrative Supervision- to provide the worker with a work context that permits him or
her to do the job effectively.
3. Supportive Supervision- to help the worker feel good about doing his or her job.
1. To effectively and efficiently provide clients with the particular service the particular
agency is mandated to offer.
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Supervisors- responsible for the performance of the direct services workers and is
accountable to administrative directors.
- “in-between” functionary
- “leaders of their subordinates” but are subordinate to the agency administrator.
- “highest level of employee and the lowest level of manager”, a “sub-administrator and a
supra-practitioner”
1. Institutional Level
2. Managerial Level
3. Technical Level
DEFINITIONS OF SUPERVISION
The word supervision derives from the Latin word “Super” which means “over”
and “videre” to watch, to see”. Hence a supervisor is defined as an overseer, one
who watches over the work of other with responsibility for its quality.
A dynamic enabling process by which an individual worker who have a direct
responsibility for carrying out some of the agency’s program plans are helped by a
designated staff member to make the best use of their ability so that they can make
their job effectively and with increasing satisfaction to themselves to the agency.
(Gertrude Wilson and Gladys Rayland)
The first edition of the encyclopedia of Social Work (1965) defines supervision as
an educational process. It is the “Traditional method of transmitting knowledge of
Social Work skills practice from the trained to the untrained, from the experienced
to the inexperienced student and worker”.
The second (1977) editions of the encyclopedia emphasize the administrative
function. It defines supervision as administrative function, a process of getting the
work done and maintaining organizational control and accountability”.
It is an art and process of enabling workers and students to perform their functions
under the guidance of the supervisor. (PASWI, 1997)
It is an administrative process in the conduct of which staff development is a major
concern. In this process the supervisor has three functions administrative, teaching
and helping. (Charlotte Towle)
According to Alfred Kadushin, each of the definition presented is partially correct.
It is true that supervision is both administrative and an educational process. The
Social Work supervisor has the responsibility for implementing both functions in
contact with supervisees. There is, however, an additional and distinctively
different responsibility that needs to be included in the definition. This is the
expressive-supportive leader function of supervision. The supervisor has the
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responsibility to sustaining the worker morale, helping with job related
discouragements and discontents, giving supervisees sense of worth as
professionals, a sense of belonging in the agency, and sense of security in their
performance.
A social work supervisor is an agency administrative staff member whom authority
is to delegate, direct, coordinate, enhance and evaluates the on-the-job performance
of the supervisees for those who work he or she is hold accountable.
In 1977, the Wisconsin department of Health and Social Services sponsored a study of the
tasks performed by those holding the position of Social Work supervisor I.
Administrative supervisor is the largest number of task performed by the largest
number of supervisors (60% of all tasks performed)
Tasks related to educational supervision constituted 10% of tasks performed
Tasks related to supportive supervision were rarely explicitly identified
Patti (1997) asked 90 Social Welfare managers to delineate the activities they engaged in
during typical work week.
Administrative and educational functions and activities of supervision are clearly
identified in the findings.
Shulman reports on a study in which 109 supervisors were asked to indicate the percentage
of time they allocated to various tasks.
About 49% of the supervisors’ time was spent in administrative supervision
About 40% of the time devoted to educational supervision.
Poertner and Rapp (1983) did a task analysis of supervision in a large public child welfare
agency.
80% of the tasks performed were concerned with administrative supervision.
20% of the tasks performed were divided between supportive and educational
supervision.
In 1989, Kadushin distributed a questionnaire containing a series of questions about
functions performed by supervisors to 1500 randomly selected Social Work supervisors.
44% identified educational functions as most important.
32% cited administrative functions as most important
24% cited supportive functions as most important.
Erera and Lazar operationalized and tested the social work supervision in Israel
7 Distinct Supervision Factors
1. Policy modification, planning and budgeting
2. Quality control
3. Contacts with community services
4. Professional skills and techniques
5. Professional boundaries
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6. Knowledge and information
7. Support
We have noted that historically, supervision has always been an important element in social
work. Supervision is not, of course unique to social work, but the function and supervision have
achieved special importance in social work as contrasted with other professions. This prominence
might be explained by some distinctive aspects of the profession, the nature of its service delivery
pattern, the problems with which it is concerned, the clientele to whom service is offered, and the
characteristics of social workers.
Social work, however, from its inception has been organizationally based. Considerable
education and training effort is expended in helping social work recruits understand and identify
with organizational models and values.
As Scott notes, “Social workers, unlike members of other profession, expect to enter an
organization where their work will be subject to routine hierarchical supervision. “As a result of
tradition and training, the “social worker is a sophisticated and accomplished “organization man”.
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Under typical managed-care rules the social worker must obtain prior authorization to get
paid for addressing a well-defined problem with a well- defined protocol for a predetermined
number of sessions. These trends may lead to growing demand for private social work supervision.
3) The profession is required to implement policies formulated by groups outside the agency.
The finances and resources that the agency employs to help its clients, as well the policies
that the agency implements, often originate elsewhere. The agencies are then answerable to these
entities for correct implementation of policy. This circumstance creates an organizational pressure
for some system of accountability for workers’ activity within the agency.
The fact that social work agencies are concerned with problems that pose not only a
financial but also an ideological danger to the community again leads to external control of agency
policy and internal agency control of work autonomy.
4) Social workers perform their functions on clients who have little or no trust to the workers.
The autonomy granted any member of a profession reflects the degree of autonomy granted
the profession as a whole. If the community is hesitant about granting full autonomy to a
profession, there will be a pressure toward supervision of the individual professional. Where
powerful segments of the community disagree about the ultimate aims of a profession’s activity,
there will be greater reluctance to grant autonomy to the profession, as this will permit the
profession to decide on its own objectives.
5) Social work is concerned with non- uniform tasks in uncertain and unpredictable context
toward the achievement of diffused and ambiguous objectives with heterogeneous
population.
Research suggests that when a profession, such as social work, performs non- uniform
tasks in an uncertain and unpredictable context toward the achievement of diffuse and ambiguous
objectives with heterogeneous populations, there is more decentralization of decision making and
a greater need for worker autonomy. These findings logically argue for less bureaucratic structure
because they suggest difficulty in codification of procedure, formulation of standardized rules of
action, and routinization of performance. They could also seemingly argue for a less elaborate
supervisory apparatus.
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One can, however, deduce the opposite need from the same considerations. Where
objectives are unclear, where there is a great uncertainty as in how to proceed, where the effects
of interventions are unpredictable and the risk of failure is high, workers may need and want the
availability of an administrative representative with whom they can share responsibility for
decision making, from whom they can receive direction, and to whom they can look for support.
Consequently, the conditions under which the work of the profession is performed argue for the
desirability of a supervisory cadre.
6) Social workers perform their functions under conditions that do not permit direct
observation, or privately.
Social workers perform their functions under conditions that do not permit direct
observation. Social workers hold interviews in private and discourage observation as an intrusion
on the privacy of the encounter. Workers contend that direct observation of social work practice
would create hazards for effective worker-client interaction. Workers thus create an unusual
situation of role performance invisibility and interdicted observability. This being the nature of
practice procedures, the client would be left without system for supervisory review of what the
worker is doing.
7) Social work is concerned with outcomes that are difficult to discern and evaluate
objectively.
The cause-and- effect relationship between social work activity and changes in the clients’s
situation is much more subtle and difficult to define. Because the damaging effects of poor practice
are not so self- evident and observable, protection of the client requires a procedure for explicit
periodic review of worker activity and practice outcomes.
8) Social workers perform their tasks on clients who often have no alternative options.
Two additional aspects of the social work delivery system create a need or supervision: the
agency provides the workers with their clientele, and the clients are often “captives” of the agency.
The professional entrepreneur, the lawyer or the doctor, pays a price for ineptude,
inefficiency, and outmoded professional skills by a reduction of income owing to loss of clients.
The social worker, operating in an agency that provides clients, does not face the same kind of
penalties that alert him or her to the need for examining and correcting his practice. The setting
again dictates a greater need for controls. The worker could be afford to be somewhat more
indifferent to client concerns in this content of limited client control. Given the chronic pressure
of case overload, losing a client might even be perceived as rewarding.
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9) Large numbers of workers who hold the job title social worker, and perform social work
tasks are not trained nor have no sense of identification with the profession.
Kaufman identifies the significant conditions that ensure that the autonomously operating
worker will be self- supervised so that agency policy will be adhered to and the needs of the client
protected. These conditions include extensive professional education, a strong interest in the tasks
to be performed, a commitment to the ends to which these tasks are directed, and periodic agency
indoctrinization reinforcing the saliency and legitimacy of these goals. The result of these
conditions is to socialize is to socialize the worker so that he or she does, as a matter of personal
preference and professional conscience, those things that are professionally required. The
composition of social work agency staff, now and in the past, raises questions about the degree to
which these conditions are met. In the absence of these conditions, there is greater pressure to
develop a supervisory control system to ensure that work performance is in accordance with
professionally desirable norms.
A larger number of workers hold the job title of social worker and perform social work
tasks that often have to come to the job fortuitously, because an opening was available. They often
had no prior exposure to social work, have not considered it seriously as a career, have had little
or no education or training for the job, and have little or no identification with and commitment to
social work. Thus, there always has been and continues to be a need for agencies to induct, train
and socialize new recruits. Because of tenuous commitment to the mission of social work on the
part of many recruits, social work has had to perform the functions of educational and
administrative supervision.
10) Absence of effective organizational controls on the part of the profession itself.
The need for organizational controls in supervision on the part of the agency is made more
imperative by the absence of effective organizational controls on the part of the profession itself.
The ability of professional social work organizations to guarantee the conduct and competence of
the social worker’s performance is seriously limited. This absence of effective professional control
groups in social work, as compared with more traditionally established professions, argues for an
alternative control systems, such as agency supervision.
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11) Limited knowledge base and technology available.
12) The nature of the problem encountered and the tasks performed by social workers.
The principal instrumentality for helping the client is the worker him- or herself so that the
failure to help may be sensed as a personal failure. The responsibilities are great, the solutions are
ambiguous, and the possibilities for happy solutions are limited. The risks of guilt, anxiety,
discouragement, and frustration are numerous. There are few professions that come close to social
work in developing in the worker the need for support, encouragement, reassurance and restoration
of morale- a need met by supportive supervision.
The nature of social work… is work with people through relationships where the personality of
the worker is one of the tools for the work. It can be argued that no one, however, skilled or
experienced, can ever be entirely objective about the way they use themselves in relation to another
person. A third person is essential to help the social worker stand back from the relationship and
then return to it in ways which are helpful to the client. If one accepts such argument then, in the
words of one social worker, “Supervison is essential for every social worker.” (Parsloe and
Stevenson)
ADMINISTRATIVE SUPERVISION
Introduction: Organizational Bureaucracy
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Organization- “the rational coordination of the activities of a number of people for the
achievement of some common explicit purpose or goal through division of labor and function
and through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility” (Schein)
-“As a social unit that has been established for the explicit purpose of achieving certain
goals.” (Blau & Scott)
Bureaucracy- is theoretically, the most rational, efficient, and effective organizational format
for coordinating efforts of a sizable group of people, each of whom is engage in a different task
necessary for the achievement of common organizational objectives.
1. There is specialization of function and task, a division of labor among units of the
organization and among different employees within each unit.
2. There is a hierarchical authority structure, different people being assigned positions of
greater or lesser responsibility and power.
3. People in the hierarchy exercise authority on the basis of the position they hold.
4. People are recruited, selected, and assigned to position in the organization on the basis of
objective, impersonal technical qualifications rather than on the basis of whom they are
or whom they know.
5. There is a system of rules and procedures, universally and impersonally applied, that
determine the rights and duties of people occupying each of the positions in the agency.
6. All organizational activities are deliberately and rationally planned to contribute to the
attainment of organizational objectives. Bureaucracy described as the “rational
organization of collective activities.”
Administration- “is a process of defining and attaining the objectives of an organization through
a system of coordinated and cooperative effort.”
What specifically are the tasks the supervisor is called on to perform in discharging the
responsibilities of administrative supervision? They include the following:
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7. Coordinating work
8. The communication function
9. The supervisor as advocate
10. The supervisor as administration buffer
11. The supervisor as the change agent
3. Work planning
Once the direct service worker has been recruited, hired, inducted and placed, the
supervisor has to plan what the agency need him or her to do.
The supervisor is directly in charge of a group of employees responsible for
maintaining a productive flow of work, which “flow from points of decision to
points of action.”
The supervisor is provided with human resources, staff resources and service
resources.
The supervisor has to plan to organize the work force available, divide and assign
the work, and allocate staff an service resources so as to accomplish the work
assigned to the unit in a way that contributes to achieving the mission of the
agency.
Planning the distraction is not automatic mathematical process. Good planning
requires familiarity with the supervisee and with the cases requiring action. It also
requires familiarity with the tasks the units responsible for, so that all tasks will be
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concluded within a given time frame without unduly overloading the workers or
requiring overtime work.
The supervisor has to have the competence to plan for judicious deployment of
his or her workforce. Planning involves deciding what needs to be done and how
it is going to get through selective assignment and delegation of tasks to staff.
Planning involves decisions regarding scheduling and prioritizing work- not only
who will do it, but when it has to get done.
The unit supervisor has some responsibility for long-range planning as well as for
immediate planning. Long-range planning involves preparation of a unit budget as
a component of total agency budget.
4. Work Assignment
Having planned the overall work of the unit, the supervisor selects tasks for individual
workers in line with total unit work plan. In making task assignments, the supervisor needs
to take a variety of factors into consideration.
Criteria for assignment
1. Strengths and weaknesses of individual workers
2. Job pressures
3. Variety
4. Stimulation of challenge
Work assignment and caseload management involve scheduling.
Assignments need to be made and tasks allocated with some understanding of the time span
in which the work needs to be completed, so that deadlines can be met.
The supervisor is responsible for scheduling that ensures the workers’ ability to perform
their jobs without undue stress. The scheduling of meetings, supervisory conferences,
dictation time, and deadlines must be made with some appreciation of the total load
imposed on the workers and the time available to do the work.
Work assignment procedures:
“Based on knowledge of case characteristics, worker ability and experience”.
(Haring 197:5)
“Division of labor by staff members among themselves either at periodic meetings or by
rotating responsibility for intake” (haring 1974:4)
An innovative alternative to assignment of cases by the supervisor alone is assignment by
unit members in a group meeting. The cases to be assigned are introduced and summarized,
and supervisor and supervisee decide on assigning the cases together.
Problems in Work Assignment
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5. Work Delegation
Monitoring the assignment to see that it gets done in the allotted time and in a way that is
in line with agency procedures.
Monitoring involves obtaining verbal reports from workers, reading records, and reviewing
statistical reports.
The objective of performance monitoring and review is to see that no harm is done.
Work review is necessary to determine if the work is being accomplished as planned.
Work review also involves the general responsibility of seeing that supervisees are
available to cover the work load. This function, then, involves monitoring both the worker
and the worker’s work.
The supervisor needs to be concerned with tardiness, absences, and requests for time off,
sick leave, vacation schedules, and projected and emergency overtime personnel needs to
ensure adequate coverage of work assignments.
paradoxically, supervisors have reported spending relatively little time monitoring
worker performance; monitoring worker performance is an unsatisfying duty that
supervisors tend to object (Kadushin 1992a)
The supervisor or administrator not only has to review the assignment to be assured that it
is actually being accomplished and in a accordance with agency policies and procedures,
but also has to make some judgment as to whether it is being accomplished at a minimally
acceptable level.
The supervisor then has responsibility for evaluation.
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7. Coordinating work
Through coordination, the supervisor brings workers into relationship with other workers
involved in activities that are reciprocal, supportive or supplementary to their own work.
Coordination unifies different worker’s effort toward achievement of agency objectives.
Cooperation among workers and work units is maximized conflict minimized, and greater
complementarities assured.
The supervisor also coordinates and integrates her own unit with other units of the agency
and with other agencies in the community’s social welfare network. The supervisor thus
not only occupies a position in the vertical hierarchy but relates horizontally to other
administrative units on the serve hierarchical level.
Coordination involves ensuring that the different workers understand the goals and
objectives of the agency in the same way and accept them – or at least behave as though
they accepted them do each worker can operate in the confident expectation that others in
the group are working together rather than cross purposes.
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Consequently, rather than sharing dissatisfactions and problems in offering service,
communication is carefully restricted to telling others only what they want to hear or what
will reflect favorably on one’s own performance. The safest procedure may seem be to act
the part of a not to obvious yes-mam and “play it close to the vest”.
Lateral Communication (horizontal)
We have noted that the supervisor as a channel of communication in the vertical hierarchy.
The supervisor also communicates horizontally within the agency and with other agencies,
between his or her unit and other unity through peers at the supervisory level.
Horizontal Communication- is the process of exchanging information between peers at
any organizing level, usually to coordinate activities. It is apparent in horizontal
communication that information/messages are shared and activities are coordinated.
Informal Communication- is not officially sanctioned by organization; the grapevine (or
rumors) is the most familiar example.
The supervisor serves as a buffer in relation to agency clients (Burke 1997). Administration
looks to the first-line supervisory staff to handle problems relating to service.
Consequently, the supervisor performs the function of dealing with clients who want to
discuss a complaint with someone other than the worker.
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Administrative Supervision: Problems in Implementation
The Problem of Authority and Power: Rationale for Authority and Power
- “To get the job done properly, a person in one position in an organization is authorized
to direct the role activities of a person in another position.”
- Assigning supervisors the responsibility for implementing the essential function of
administrative supervision without simultaneously granting them the necessary
authority is the organizational equivalent of asking them to make bricks without straw.
- The authority delegated to the supervisor ultimately derives from the community.
- In public agencies, the collective intent is embodied in the statutes that established and
in accordance with which the agency operates.
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- In private agencies, the collective intent is manifested in the support the agency obtains
for its existence and continuation through voluntary contributions.
- Legal authority derives its legitimacy from the fact that it supposedly represents the
common good. Authority employed to achieve the common good is regarded as
legitimate. The common goal becomes the common good, which justifies the authority.
Authority – a right that legitimizes the use of power; it is sanctioned use of power, the
accepted and validated possession of power. it is the right to issue directives, exercise
control, and require compliance. It is the right to determine the behavior of others and to
make decisions that guide the action of others; the right to demand obedience, those subject
to authority has the duty to obey.
Power – derived from the Latin ‘potere’ which means to be able. It is the ability to
implement authority. If authority is the right to direct, command, and punish, then power
is the ability to do so.
Legitimation of Authority
- The supervisor can increase its effectiveness if he or she feels and can communicate a
conviction in his or her behavior. If the supervisor acts with confidence and with an
expectation that his or her authority will be respected, the directives are more likely to
be accepted.
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Non-authoritarian Authority
- The best use of authority comes out as an expression of care and concern for the worker
and the clients.
- The supervisor needs a sensitive awareness that his or her authority is limited and job-
related.
- The most effective use of authority is minimal use.
Educational Supervision
Is concerned with teaching the worker what he or she needs to know to do the job in helping
him or learn it.
Sometimes called as clinical supervision. It is concerned with teaching the knowledge,
skills and attitudes necessary for the performance of clinical social work tasks through the
detailed analysis of the worker’s interaction with the client.
Administrative Supervision and Educational Supervision share the same ultimate objective
which is “to provide the best possible service to the clients”.
Educational Supervision
Provides the training that enables the worker to achieve it.
Provides the knowledge and skills that are the workers’ necessary equipment for
effective practice.
Serves the need of the profession in developing the competent and professionally
oriented practitioners.
It is designed to increase the effectiveness of the administrative supervision.
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Administrative Supervision
Provides the organizational structure and the resources directed towards the goal.
Serves the need of the organizational bureaucracy.
1. Place: For example, the agency’s mission and objectives, what kind of services the
agency offers and their eligibility requirements, how agency policy is formulated, how
the agency is organized and administered, how the agency fits into the network of social
services in the local community, the agency’s statutory authority.
2. Problem: For example, the causes of the problems, the psychosocial nature of the
problems, how the agency relate to the different problems, local community response
to problems, the effects of a problem on a client system (individual, family, group,
community).
3. Person: For example, human behavior in response to having the social problems
experienced by the agency’s clients.
4. Process: For example, how to help clients deal effectively with social problems, theory
that explains why a certain helping technology is likely to work, the sequential nature
and the stages of the helping process.
5. Personnel: For example, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that create and sustain
effective worker-client relationship, self-awareness, the directed and purposeful use of
self, sensitivity to and awareness of diversity issues.
3 phases:
To begin the process, the supervisor structures and schedules the conference and
prepares for the meeting.
The supervisor adopts an orientation to the process of teaching and offers helpful
feedback to the worker.
The supervisor ends the conference.
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Beginning the conference (Structuring and Scheduling)
Scott and Farrow (1993) – he argued that scheduling and keeping weekly one-hour
individual conferences meets a minimum standard for the supervision of the new worker.
Baretta Herman and Veeder – discourage the individual supervision of professional social
workers in the belief that close supervision erodes professional autonomy, supervisors
who fail to provide adequate staff supervision may become liable for worker malpractice.
Second, supervisor who fails to supervise staff adequately may be in violation of social
work ethical standards. Third, although staff may passively withhold their practice
mistakes and ethical violations from the supervisor, empirical evidence suggests that
supervision is the prevalent mode that social workers use to resolve their ethical practice
dilemmas.
Preparing
It begins in the preparation for the conference by both supervisee and supervisor. The
supervisee submits some record of his or her work just like a written record, tape recording, case
files, work schedules, reports completed and a work plan.
Preparation involves ensuring the availability of educational materials that might be needed
in the conference teaching. If policies are to be discussed, the agency manual should be accessible.
EXPERIENTIAL – EXISTENTIAL
Supervisee – centered orientation sees supervision as concerned with the
development of supervisees’ self-understanding, self – awareness, and emotional
growth.
The emphasis on the worker’s feelings.
The supervisee has major responsibility for what he or she wants to learn, and the
focus of supervision is on the way the worker does the work and the nature of his
or her relationship to the client.
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DIDACTIC
Task-centered orientation sees supervision as primarily concerned with the
development of the supervisees’ professional skills.
The emphasis is on the worker’s thinking.
The supervisor has the primary responsibility for what the worker is doing, the
activities with and on behalf of his or her clients.
FEEDBACK
Information received in response to something done.
Reinforces learning that “works” and helps correct faulty learning.
The supervisor teaches and the supervisee learns through feedback. We need to know how
we are doing, what we are doing right, what needs to be changed. We learn from our
mistakes only if we can find out what they are and have the opportunity of analyzing them.
A flexible supervisor accepts the idea that supervisees will definitely make mistakes but
rejects the idea that mistakes should be tolerated indefinitely.
As Middleman and Rhodes note, the old maxi “practice makes perfect” needs revision. It
is “practice plus feedback (knowledge of results) that makes perfect”.
The supervisor should not apologize for corrective feedback. This discounts its importance
and attenuates its impact. The supervisee needs feedback to help overcome performance
deficiencies so that he or she can do better work.
The supervisor is the only one sanctioned and obligated to give feedback and is explicitly
charged with this responsibility.
feedback is more effective if certain guidelines are observed by the supervisor in offering
feedback (Abbott and Lyter 1998, Roberts 1992);
1) Feedback should be given as soon as possible after the performance.
This increases motivation and interest in learning what might have been
improved. Rewarding commendable performance by praise as soon as possible
after the event increases the potency of reinforcement.
2) Feedback should be specific.
One should be able to point to a specific intervention, act, or comment that
needs praise or correction. A specific illustration of poor question formulation
or a ragged, ambiguous transition is better than general feedback, with suggests
a need to improve interviewing skills.
3) Feedback should be objectifiable.
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One should be able to point to the concrete behaviour that illustrates a
deficiency in performance. Vague, general, global statements have less
credibility.
4) Feedback should be descriptive rather than judgemental.
5) If possible, it is desirable to highlight the effects of good performance.
6) Feedback should be focused on the behaviour of the supervisee rather than on the
supervisee as a person.
7) Feedback should be offered tentatively for consideration and discussion rather than
authoritatively for agreement and acceptance.
8) Try to tie feedback as explicitly as possible to what you want the supervisee to learn,
what you think he or she needs to learn.
9) Good feedback involves sharing ideas rather than giving advice, exploring alternatives
rather than giving answers.
It is focused on behaviour that can be modified and is accompanied by specific
suggestions for change.
10) Feedback needs to be selective in terms of the amount that a person can absorb.
The principle is to keep the amount to what the supervisee can use, not all of
the feedback you have available to give.
Toward the end of the scheduled time, the supervisor should be looking for a convenient
point of termination. It should be at point where closure has been obtained on a unit of
work. The emotional level of the interaction should not be intense. The worker should have
been given some prior opportunity to ask those questions and discuss those issues that were
of most concern.
Termination involves a summarization of the conference and a recapitulation of points
covered and content taught.
In general, it might be said that a good conference in educational supervision has the
following characteristics:
1) It involves planning and preparation by both supervisor and supervisee.
2) It has a shared, consensually agreed-on objective.
3) Its focus is the clinical work of the supervisee.
4) It gives priority to critical self-analysis by the worker of his or her performance,
assisted by the guidance of the supervisor and supplemented by the supervisor’s
contributions as a resource person.
5) It provides the worker with clear, unambiguous, relevant feedback designed to
help improve performance.
6) It takes place in the context of a facilitative learning atmosphere.
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7) It follows desirable principles of learning and teaching.
8) It provides follow-through and a tie to the next conference.
The relationship, if positive, is the bridge over which the materials passes from teacher to learner.
If the relationship negative, communication is blocked. A positive relationship intensifies the
impact of the supervisor’s educational efforts. There is considerable empirical support for the
contention that the nature of the supervisory relationship is a powerful variable in determining the
supervisee’s openness and receptivity to the supervisor’s effort to educate toward change.
Relationship propels learning and makes content acceptable.
Identification with the supervisor heightens the worker’s motivation to learn. As a consequence of
identification, the worker wishes to be like the supervisor, to have his or her competence and to
learn to emulate him or her. Only if the relationship is positive will the worker identify with the
supervisor.
The supervisory relationship itself, its nature and use, is an educational exemplification of what
needs to be taught in developing clinical competence and it is both the context for learning and a
living learning experience in itself.
The influence effects in the supervisory relationship are like influence effects in the worker-
client relationship, which is a two-stage process.
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2) The second stage in the process involves actually employing this influence potential to
induce change.
1- Supervisors may exploit educational supervision to meet their own needs without being
fully aware of it.
2- The supervisor who, in response to the triadic situation of client-worker supervisor, is still
more a worker than a supervisor, will focus too heavily on the client.
3- A supervisor may be hesitant in sharing knowledge and expertise with the supervisee out
of anxiety about competition from a “sibling”.
4- A supervisor who is anxious about his or her own relationship with the administrator may
over control the worker to prevent embarrassment at worker errors for which the supervisor
is held responsible.
5- Supervisor may act out of their own rebellious impulses toward the agency through their
supervisee, from the safety of middle management positions.
6- The supervisor who has considerable therapeutic skills but limited pedagogic skills.
7- A supervisor may be sufficiently uncertain about his or her own knowledge that he or she
cannot permit the supervisee the freedom to experiment and to learn.
8- Some egalitarian supervisor may be afraid of showing what they know.
Every supervisor has individual likes and dislikes regarding supervisee learning pattern.
1- Some supervisors like rapid, avid learners who absorb teaching quickly and voraciously
2- Some like slow, plodding learners who are less challenging and for whom considerable
repetition of content is required.
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3- Some supervisors prefer the supervisee who presses the supervisor-supervisee educational
relationship in the direction of peer consultation and colleagueship
4- Other find gratification in the supervisee who accepts a parent-child relationship.
5- Some like the exuberant, extroverted learner; some like shy, introverted learner.
6- Some are more comfortable with the learners who do best in the individual situation
DIFFERENTIATING EDUCATIONAL
SUPERVISION FROM THERAPY
SIMILARITIES
DIFFERENCES
As to the PURPOSE
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In psychotherapy the patient essentially sets his own goals. The therapist has no
vested interest in any particular degree of change. In supervision, on the other hand,
the clinical setting, whose representatives is the supervisor, sets both its
requirement and its goals in terms of standards of professional performance and
clinical service currently rendered and to be attained.
In educational supervision, the worker contracts for the knowledge and guidance,
not the alleviation of symptoms.
In accepting the role of the patient to therapist, certain prerogatives of privacy are
waived. In a supervisory relationship that is redirected to a therapeutic relationship,
there is no clear agreement on the part of the supervisee that he or she has agreed
to the suspension of such entitlements.
Effective therapy requires a psychosocial diagnosis of the client and a therapeutic
alliance between therapist and the client. Effective educational supervision requires
an educational diagnosis and a teacher – learner alliance between supervisor and
supervisee.
In therapy, unconscious feelings are explored for their genesis and worked through
for their resolution. In supervision, unconscious feelings may be identified, but they
are neither explored nor resolved.
To summarize, confusion results from the fact that educational supervision toward
developing job – related self- awareness and psychotherapy are similar in some essential respects.
The distinction lies primarily in purpose and focus and role parameters of the relationship.
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TOOLS IN MEASURING SOCIAL WORKER’S
EFFECTIVENESS
(Staff Performance Evaluation and Personnel Action)
- If managers supervise any other individuals within the organization they are
required to perform regular performance evaluations of their subordinates (often as
specified in a Policies and Procedures)
It answers the questions, “how well am I doing?” and “what are my greatest strengths and
weakness do I need to address?”
It tells a lot of about the person doing the evaluation, the supervisor (evaluations can expose
the evaluator’s values, priorities, and biases).
Can also provide other benefits (including job security) for the individual bring evaluated
(if overall evaluation is less positive, i.e. “meets expectation”, the evaluation may still
provide a level of job security, even if the evaluation is negative overall and identifies
various deficiencies, it can still be beneficial in helping to keep one’s job.).
Can perform several valuable functions for the evaluator they provide a periodic vehicle to
call attention to individual and organizational goals and objectives.
Can perform several valuable functions for the evaluator. They provide a periodic vehicle
to call attention to individual and organizational goals and objectives.
Evaluation conferences can help to refocus activities and priorities of both the evaluator
and of the individual being evaluated.
Helpful in reducing the potential for personality bias to occur.
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Characteristics of a Good Evaluation
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in its 1999 Code of Ethics informs
us that “Social Workers who have responsibility for evaluating the performance of others should
fulfil such as responsibility in fair and considerate manner on the basis of clearly stated criteria”.
Fairness
A single unfair performance evaluation can destroy the trust and respect that the manager
needs to be effective.
2. Avoidance of Comparisons.
(It is unfair to evaluate staff using other employees as reference points. i.e. selecting
an employee for performance; comparison has no place in performance evolution
of an individual.
They also create an undesirable form of competition among staff that can inhibit
cooperation and team work and promote an organizational climate of interest.)
3. Staff differentiation.
(No one benefits when all staff members are rated “outstanding” or otherwise are
rated the same. Staff members know that there are differences in the motivation,
knowledge, skills, and sometimes even the professional values of their work group.
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They have a right to expect that a manager’s staff evaluation will reflect these
differences.)
Consideration
A considerate evaluation provides plenty of opportunity for input and explanation by the
individual being evaluated. It acknowledges achievements and identifies strengths as well as
weaknesses. It offers support for improvements.
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Conducting Performance Evaluation
Written Evaluation
- Consists of the work description undertaken during the evaluation period,
a form such as a scale containing the evaluation criteria used along with the
rating for each of them, and a narrative summary of job performance during
the rating period.
- When the individual being evaluated prepares as a draft of one or more
parts of the written evaluation and submits it to the evaluator prior to the
evaluation conference. However whether the individual being evaluated
prepares a draft of the entire written evaluation or just part of it, the
responsibility for it in its final form remains with the evaluator.
Evaluation Conference
- The performance evaluation process is not complete without a person-to-
person evaluation conference.
- The conference should merely be a confirmation of the messages they have
been sending through regular written, verbal, and nonverbal
communication.
- The evaluator should plan the agenda for the conference and perhaps, even
rehearse what will be said. This reduces the likelihood that anything will be
said or done impulsively that will later be regretted or, worse yet, may be
the basis for a grievance.
The conference begins pleasantly, perhaps with the statement by the
evaluator expressing appreciation for the contribution of the staff
members.
A review of the work accomplished may follow.
At some point, a draft of the evaluator’s written evaluation is provided
and the staff member is given time to read it.
The evaluator should listen to any explanations given about any
deficiencies noted in it, but should avoid getting into an argument over
them.
The conference may end with a “look ahead”, in which the staff member
can talk about what goals he or she hopes to achieve during next
evaluation period and the evaluator can suggest ways that can be
provided to make it easier to achieve them.
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Trends in Performance Evaluation
Total peer evaluations, in which only peers evaluate the staff member, make sense only
when only when peer supervision is used. However, if other supervisory models are used, peers
may still be asked for input by the supervisor.
Staff evaluations form the basis for the manager’s assessment of staff competence.
Issues to be considered
Constraints
- In order to maintain good labor relations, they may need to adhere to union guidelines.
Affirmative action requirements and other legislative and judicial rules and policies may also
influence who may be chosen.
Past Performance
- The past is a good indicator of the future, but it’s far from perfect. We cannot be certain how an
employee will perform if promoted, but past and present behaviours and attitudes give us some
good hints.
Personal Characteristics
- Projections about an individual’s ability to function in a higher level position usually tend to be
based on the person’s demonstrated or assumed personal attributes. Managers should be absolutely
certain that their assessments are based on the requirements of the position, and not on the
characteristics of its previous occupant or their own personal preferences.
- As managers, we are committed to placing highest priority on the good of the organization and
of the clients who it serves.
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- Competition for a position that may become available sometime in the future can be a stimulus
for productivity. Open competition for a position among both current employees and outside
applicants would seem like a good compromise. However, it’s a heavy burden for the managers.
- Whenever the organization is in period of relative stability or change, the political viability of
the specific position, the condition under which the previous occupant left the position, the type of
mentoring available to assist the newly promoted employee, and the likely reaction of the
candidate’s present or co-workers.
Transfers
A job transfer, moving a staff member to another position at the same or comparable level
elsewhere in the organization, can sometimes work to the advantage of both individual and the
organization.
Regular observations and performance evaluations of staff also reveal that some other
individuals are falling well short of meeting the expectations of their current positions. Then
managers have the responsibility to address this problem.
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TERMINATION FOR UNSATISFACTORY WORK PERFORMANCE
Firing employees that are a liability to the organization and its clients is sometimes a task
that cannot be avoided.
1. Be fair and considerate – entails adhering to ethical standards and procedures as outlined
in policy and procedures manuals or other official documents.
2. Preserve the employee’s dignity – the process should be kept as private as possible, so as
not to unnecessary embarrass him or her.
3. Reduce legal risk to the organization – try to avoid charges of discrimination or
“wrongful discharge”.
4. Preserve the organization’s reputation – a manager should do whatever possible to help
avoid this
5. Minimize disruption of the work environment - a manager may have to make special
efforts to address any disruption before it gets too severe and begins to interfere with the
work of the organization.
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Dealing with terminated Employees
As an employee who has been employed for some length of time and is fired for
unsatisfactory work performance is likely to remain on the job for a while. Terminated employees
are given at least two weeks’ notice at the time of the termination interview, sometimes 30 days.
The opportunity for a follow-up interview should be provided while making it clear that the
decision to terminate is irreversible. Contact with terminated employees should not be avoided.
Bitter, openly hostile employees may need to be confronted and dealt with for the good of the
organization. The manager should monitor terminated employees’ emotions and behavior to
ensure that responses to termination decisions are within normal limits. If responses seem extreme
and show no sign of dissipating, it might be necessary to try to refer the terminated employee for
counseling, but not to attempt to provide it.
It occurs because an employee is believed to have done something so in tolerable that they
need to be fire “on the spot”.
It is sometimes referred to as “gross misconduct”
It does not involve a course of progressive discipline.
There’s no prior warning required
Depending on the agency policy, there may be few or none of the other benefits that
terminated employed receive.
It’s not a matter of discretion or judgment for the manager.
Employees fired or suspended for misconduct generally are gone in a matter of minutes.
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TERMINATION FOR JOB ABANDONMENT
To dismiss an employee is either not doing the job or is chronically absent from work. It
may be possible to dismiss an employee who simply fails to work for a certain number of
consecutive days without either calling in sick or requesting in administrative leave using the
correct procedures. It requires only a written notice of the action (abandonment of position), a
listing of the dates which the employee was absent, and a reminder that they have been charged
the appropriate number of days unauthorized leave. The organization’s rule or policy is genrally
cited.
The loss of staff members occurs in human service organizations from time to time. When
it does, it may be either helpful or harmful to the organization. Extra attention may be required
to make the transition as undisruptive as possible.
EXIT INTERVIEWS
Customarily is offered to all employed (except for those fired for misconduct) who are
leaving the organization.
Generally entails a congenial exchange of compliments between the manager and the
departing employee might previously have been reluctant to make.
For a terminated employee, exit interview is a kind of postmortem in which both parties
examine what went wrong.
SUPPORTIVE SUPERVISION
Supportive Supervision
To enable the workers and the agency through the workers to offer the client the most and efficient
service.
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1. Task-centered, instrumental consideration of supervision – relates to getting the job
done-seeing that the people who do the job are provided with the facilities, services,
information, and skills they need to do the job.
a. Technical supervision – dissatisfaction with this resulted from the fact that the supervisors
lacked competence in the technical skills they were assigned to supervise, the instrumental
component of supervision.
b. Interpersonal supervision – dissatisfaction with this resulted from failures in the human-
relations responsibilities of the supervisor, the expressive component of supervision.
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Responsible for relating Primarily concerned with Primarily concerned with
effective workers to effective increasing the effectiveness increasing effectiveness
organizations, increasing the of the worker through of the worker through
effectiveness of the upgrading knowledge and decreasing stress that
organizational structure and skills interferes with
resources available to the performance and
worker increasing motivation
and intensifying
commitment that
enhances performance.
Provides a model of an Provides a model of a Provides a model of a
efficient worker competent worker compassionate and
understanding worker
Job commitment – is associated with a feeling of loyalty to the agency, a conviction in the
objectives of the organization, a positive identification with the group, and a desire to remain with
the agency.
Supportive supervision
- includes those interventions that reinforce ego defenses and strengthen the capacity of the ego to
deal with job stresses and tensions.
- Attempts to help the worker feel more at ease with themselves in their wotk.
- provides emotional supports for the worker. It encourages, strengthen, stimulate and even
comfort and pacify him.
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- It involves care for the careers, who feel disillusionment, disappointment, and
disenchantment.
- Seen as an important responsibility of supervision. It showed “support” to be one of the
key functions of supervision. It was defined as “provision of emotional support to
subordinates and enhancement of subordinates’ feelings of importance and self- worth”.
Burnout- can be define as a syndrome of physical and emotional exhaustion resulting from
occupational stress involving the development of negative self- concepts, negative job attitudes,
and a loss of concern and feeling for class.
- Has been defined as an exhaustion reaction, the result of constant or repeated emotional
pressure associated with the intense involvement with people over a long period of time.
Symptoms
Physical
-workers experiencing burnout manifest weariness and chronic fatigue. Feeling physically
drained, they are often more susceptible to colds, tension, headaches, digestive difficulties and
sleep disorders.
Emotional
- Emotionally burnout workers feel a sense of disenchantment with the work and
alienation from the work. Discouraged, hopeless and pessimistic about the work
they are doing, they feel depresses and emotionally depleted. Workers experiencing
burnout tend to feel angry and resentful as a consequence of a sense of a work
failure and futility. There is a loss of enthusiasm, excitement, sense of mission and
a gradual erosion of commitment and interest in the job. Instead of being interested
and satisfying, the job becomes something to be tolerated and survived.
Behavioral
- Workers suffering from the burnout, or impending burnout, manifest a resistance to going
to work and increase tardiness and absenteeism. When at work they tend to watch the clock,
postpone or cancel client appointments and take notes more frequent and longer breaks.
They resist taking calls from clients and postpone calling back. They display a more
cynical, detached, indifferent, or even apathetic approach to clients in an effort to distance
themselves emotionally. There is an increase tendency to treat clients in a mechanical,
rigid, petty, bureaucratic manner, making less of an effort to help. In discussing clients,
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they are more likely to stereotype and discharge them, show a loss of caring and concerns,
and talk about them as “cases” rather than as an individuals.
When interacting with clients, burned-out workers are more likely to avoid eye contact, increase
their physical distance from the client, subtly discourage the client from sharing emotional material
and keep the interview as short as possible. Feeling physically tired and emotionally depleted,
burned-out workers tend to be more impatient with clients and more easily irritated by them.
Subject to the same stressful stimuli, some workers burnout and others are not, and
different degrees of burn out. The attitudes that people bring to the job are a factor. The workers
who is relaxed and doesn’t take the work too seriously, who has a high self- esteem that that is not
threatened by occasional failures on the job, and who is not too self- demanding and self- punitive
is less frequently a candidate for burnout.
The worker who consistently tends to blame himself for failure rather than realistically
assigning some component of failure to the client and the social situation is more likely to respond
negatively to job stress.
The self- image characteristics of many people who select social work as a career- the
image of an accepting, tolerant, understanding, and helpful person- increases vulnerability to
burnout.
For some social worker, the job is the most important thing in their lives, having clear
priority over other interests. For others, the job is a more peripheral aspect of their lives. The
workers who builds his or her life around the job is more likely to risk burnout. Investing more of
him- or her in the job, he or she is more likely to be disappointed and depressed if things go wrong.
Workers who have difficulty in separating work from the rest of life or are unable to balance
idealism and realism are more likely candidates for burnout.
If the worker’s social, marital, or family situation is stressful, even limited additional
stresses on the job may make him or her vulnerable. Stress from the home front pills over, adding
stress on the job.
Workers who have limited personal investment in their work, who are not strongly oriented
toward seeking emotional fulfillment from the client contacts, who tend to make situational rather
than personal attributions of failure in their work, or who are bureaucratically oriented toward
acceptance of rules, regulations, and procedures are likely to have less need for supportive
supervision.
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A worker who is concerned about but not emotionally involved in the job, who is satisfied
with meeting minimal standards, and who is primarily concerned with extrinsic rewards- pay job,
job advancement, desirable office space- is likely to be in moderate need of supportive supervision
when some situation is encountered that threatens job security.
The more dedicated the worker, the greater the livelihood of the need for supervisory
support.
The worker who is upwardly mobile and achievement- oriented may need the frequent
reassurance from supportive supervision that he or she is doing well. Any hint of work failure is
threatening and anxiety- provoking to such workers and calls for supportive supervision.
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interpersonal relationship, it becomes infused with transference elements, with
ambivalence and resistance, with residuals of earlier development conflicts.
Empathic supervisory relationships both exacerbate and ameliorate stress for the
workers.
Some conflicts between worker and the supervisor result inevitably from
differences in perspective. The worker faces the client directly. The supervisor is
not exposed to administrative relation, from which the worker is buffered.
The worker and the supervisor have different perceptions of their world.
D. The Clients as a Source of Tension
Workers deal with people who are living under considerable stress. Such clients
encountered at a time of crises, when their emotional reactions are overt and strong.
The worker face to face with the client in the interview is exposed continually to a
one’s taught of unrepressed primitive feelings.
The effect of exposure to client’s feeling is intensified by the fact that social work
training is designed to increase sensitivity and response to such feelings.
And during the course of the day’s work, the emotional expenditures in each
interview are cumulative, leaving the worker emotionally depleted and exhausted.
There are also problems of deciding between completing needs of different clients.
Devoting a considerable amount of time to one client means neglecting another.
E. The Nature and Content of the Task as a Source of Tension.
Bobcock says,” living on a job that is so closely allied of life itself make separation of
work from other areas of life exceptionally difficult. Since the work task and living are
often simultaneously experience, anxiety is greater than in many other fields.
Other stresses result from the fact that the worker’s responsibilities exceed their power
and resources.
The worker is faced with the stress behaving antithesis demands and expectations. He is
required to be objective and maintain some emotional distance from the client. But at the
same time, he is required to be empathetic, feeling what the client feels, putting himself
figuratively in the client’s situation. These are the contradictory demands.
There are also some of the occupational stress to which workers are subjects stems from
uncertainty about not only what they should be doing but also how they should be doing.
The worker is under stress from doubts about his competence and about the significance
of his work.
The occupational title, Social Work Profession arouses expectations in other which
results in stress. Workers may feel a stressful pressure to live up to the expectations
communicated by the title.
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F. The Organization as a Source of Tension
The worker is affected by the general community attitudes towards Social Work and the
functions it performs. Over the years, public attitudes towards social work have more
from approval, trust and confidence through questioning ambivalence.
To greater measures of critical mistrust and cynicism.
One study tested the effects of supportive and non-supportive orientations to supervision
(Blane 1968)
- Counseling students with supportive supervision showed a significant difference in
empathic understanding while those with non-supportive supervision did not show
this change.
Non-supportive supervision tends to shift the workers of focus concern away from the
client and toward him (Davidson and Emmer 1966)
Reductions of anxiety to the worker’s results from supportive supervision (Blau 1960)
Available research also supports that good supervision reduces the negative effects of
burnout.
Berkeley Planning Associates (1977) – a research organization, studied worker
performance in eleven protective service demonstration projects across the United
States. “It was found that those demonstration projects in which workers report
inadequate supervision had the highest incidence of burnout. Good supervision is
crucial to workers’ performance and satisfaction.”
Adequate supervisory structure and support and provision of timely, appropriate
and adequate information have lower levels of burnout (Armstrong 1979)
Munson (1983:217) found that “regular supportive supervision was the most
effective aid in combating burnout.”
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-poor supervision is associated with increased risk of burnout.
Gillespie and Cohen (1984) found that burnout was related to failure of
supervisors to provide support and technical assistance to workers in a survey of
183 protective service workers.
“With social support from one’s supervisor- the supervisor’s support of the worker was
found to be a mediating factor in minimizing the negative effects of the work
environment and was recommended as a strategy to prevent burnout” (Sullivan
1989:9091).
Social workers identified “more support and appreciation” from supervisor as among the
principal factors leading to the alleviation of job stress (Gibson, and Reid 1989:15, table
7).
A study of ninety eight social workers in a youth and community agency found that “the
worker experiencing burnout perceived that there was a little support from both their
supervisor and their work environment” and they were “less satisfied with their
supervisors’ appreciation of their abilities and needs” (McCulloch and O’Brien 1986:85).
The better the support network, less burnout occurred.
Support network defined as including people with whom one had “enduring interpersonal
ties” and “who could be relied upon to provide emotional sustenance, assistance and
resources in time of need and who provide feedback and with whom we share values and
standards”(Pines 1982:156)
White- concludes that provision of effective clinical case supervision is the most
consistent mechanism needed to provide staff with emotional rewards that may be only
minimally provided by their clients whom they work.
Newsome and Pillari-found that “overall job satisfaction and the overall quality of the
supervisory relationship were positively correlated”.
Poulin- “the level of supervisory support goes up then the level of satisfaction increases.
..”
“Satisfaction with supervision has the most ability to predict satisfaction” (Staudt
1997:49)
Schrofell- concluded that “workers who were satisfied with their quality of supervision
are also satisfied with most aspect of jobs.”
Itzhaky and aviad-Heibloom tested 100 supervisees from Israel social welfare, mental
health, rehabilitation and family therapy agencies to examine on social work burnout the
effects of :
supervisory orientation – (psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral)
supervisory functions – (administration, education and support)
dimensions of role stress – (role ambiguity and role conflict)
- “the higher the emotional-supportive function in supervision, the lower the conflict
and ambiguity, and consequently, the lower the level of burnout among social
workers”
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Rauktis and koeske (1994) – examined the direct effects of supportive supervision on the
relationship between social workers work load and job satisfaction, a proxy measure of
burnout.
- “there is an important limiting condition to supervision effectiveness, when work
demand are high, emotionally supportive supervision loses its benefits. Apparently,
even highly supportive supervision cannot overcome a work environment
characterized by excessive work demands”.
Harkness (1997) – examined variations in supervisory empathy and its effects on the
supervisory relationship, worker skills and relationships with clients, and client outcomes
over sixteen weeks of direct practice.
1. The client – through appreciative comments and responses, they confirmed the worker’s
competence and sense of self-worth.
2. The peer group – workers turn to peers with whom they feel comfortable to talk about
dissatisfactions and expresses feelings and emotions.
3. Social support network – workplace is the best context of dealing with work stress;
supervisor is the best resource for dealing with supervisee work stress.
4. Supervisee’s adaptions – supportive supervision is further supplemented by the workers’
own capacity to adjust and adapt.
Supervisees’ Games
Much of the material in this section originally appeared in the article “Games People Play in
Supervision,” Social Work (1968):23-32.
- the game is generally played by intelligent, intuitively gifted supervisees who are
impatient with routine agency procedures.
- the more sophisticated supervisee introduces the game by noting the conflict between
bureaucratic and professional orientation to the work of the agency.
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- the supervisor is induced to play this game because he or she identifies with the
supervisee’s concern for meeting the client’s needs; the supervisor has frequently
resented bureaucratic demands and so initially sympathetic to the supervisees complaints.
-the supervisor will subvert agency administration procedures allied to the supervisee if
he/she plays the game.
- the principal ploy is flattery including such compliments as “You’re the best supervisor
I ever had,” “You’re so consistently helpful”.
- a game of emotional blackmail in which, having been paid in this kind of coin, the
supervisor finds him- or herself unable to hold the worker firmly to legitimate demands.
- A second series of games designed to lessen the demands made on the supervisee by
redefining the supervisory relationship
- Depend on ambiguity in the definition of supervisory relationship; it is open to a
variety of interpretations and, in some crucial respects, resembles analogous
relationships
□ Protect the Sick and the Infirm or Treat Me, Don’t Beat Me
- this game is one of redefinition which suggests a shift from the relationship of the
teacher and learner in an administrative hierarchy to worker and client in the context of
therapy.
- supervisee would rather expose him- or herself (personal problems) rather than his
work, so he/she asks the supervisor for help in solving personal problems.
- the supervisor is induced to play because the games appeal to the social worker in him
or her
- it requires increased determination and resolution on the part of any supervisor to hold
the “friend” to the required level of performance
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□ Maximum Feasible Participation
- involves a shift in roles from supervisor and supervisee to peer and peer
- the supervisor is forced to play but needs to be constantly alert to maintain some
semblance of administrative authority
A third series of game which is designed to reduce anxiety by reducing the power disparity
between supervisor and worker
Sources of supervisor’s power: position; and expertise and superior skills
expertise and superior skills is vulnerable in this series of games
If the supervisee can establish the fact that the supervisor is not so smart, some of the power
different is lessened and with it some of the need to feel anxious
If You Knew Dostoyevsky Like I Know Dostoyevsky
-The effective ploy, used to score addditional points, involves asking the supervisor
rheotorically, “You remember, don’t you?”. It equally clear to both supervisee and
supervisor that the latter does not remember. At this point, the supervisee intructs the
supervisor
-the roles of teacher and learner are reversed; power disparity and supevisee anxiety are
simultaneously reduced
-The supevisor acquiesces to the game because refusal requires a confession of ignorance
on his or her part
-effects to the supervisor include: feeling of depression and general malaise at having been
found ignorant
So What Do You Know About It?
-another game that reduces power dispaarity and permits the supervisee the feeling that he
or she, rather than the supervisor, in is control
-the supervisor trying to tune in, finds his or her older psyche is not with it.
-the supervisor here finds him/herself being instructed by those he or she is charged with
instructing; roles are reversed
Telling It Like It Is
-more recently developed procedure for putting the supervisor down
-social action-oriented supervisee is concerned with fundamental changes in social
relationships.
All or Nothing at All
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-designed to make the supervisor feel that she or he has sold out, been co-opted by the
establishment, lost or abandoned abroader vision of the “good” society and become
endlessly concerned with symptoms rather than with causes.
-effective because the supervisor recognizes that there is an element of truth in the
accusation for all who occupy position of responsibility in the establishment.
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-Who Me?-the supervisee tries to shift the burden of responsibility onto other things
-Mea Culpa, but Just this Once-an apology coupled with a show of repentance, that
reduces supervisors reprimand the supervisee for task failures
Yes-Butting
-game of seeming to accept wha the supervisor says but in effect rejecting the
communication
-yes- signifies initial acceptance, but- introduces the rejection
Countering Games
Simplest and direct way of dealing with games introduces by the supervisee is to refuse the
play.
The second response is open confrontation.
Another approach is to share honestly with the supervisee one’s awareness of what he is
attempting to do in adjusting to work-related stress.
In a study of how human servise professinal cope with burnout and the suggestion
they have for coping with it, building competence.
The supervisor’s responsee to the development of stress and tension on the part of the
worker and the ultimate danger of burnout involves a specific intervention. The supervisor can act
to;
PREVENTION OF STRESS
At the very beginning the probability of burnot might be reduced by the supervisor’s
effective performance of the administrative supervisory function of hiring and inductng. This
permits that there is a best fit between applicant and the work that needs to be performed.
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The supervisor can arranged for a temporary reduction in caseload or a temporary shift to
less problematic clients.
Conferences, institutes and workshops not only provide learning and stimulatng personal
contacts but also enable the worker to get away from the office and the caseload.
The supervisor might sanction timeout as a tension-reducing measure.
The supervisor can remove the worker from stress by job enrichment, job diversification
and job rotaton.
A temporary change of assignment from the field to the office with temporarily dimished
responsibility for contact with clients helps the worker catch his or her psychic breath and
recharge emotional batteries.
In an attempt more specifically related to helping the worker cope with developing tension,
supervisors in some agencies have arranged for stress management workshops.
The supevisors can be supportive by sharing frankly some his or her dufficulties with the
supervisee.
The worker maybe upset about a problem he or she is facing withh the client. Discussing
it with the supervisor who is calm about the situation is supportive.
Externalization-an open expression of anxous feelings
The supervisor reduces stress by normalizing unprofessional feelings noting that workers
may often feel negative or crtical about some clients.
Reinforcement or confirmation of the worker’s decisions is supportive because it assures
them that the supervisor shares the responsibilty for what they are doing or planning to do.
The supervisor mitigates stress by supportively sharing the responsibility for difficult
decisions with the worker.
Vocabularies of realism- acquiring a language for coping with failure and
human fallibility can be seen as part of the process of acquiring a professional orientation
and frame of reference toward the work of profession.
The supervisor helps the supervisee accept the reality of human fallibility and
imperfections, the limits of technology, and the fact that all approaches are effective
sometimes but never all the time.
The supervisor can help the supervisee in modifying stress producing self-statements
through reframing and cognitive restructing.
The supervisor reduces tension by helping the worker resolve the problem of conflicting
role obligations.
The supervisor provides the support of perspective.
Supervisors provide support for workers in helping them formulate a clearer conception of
agency policies, their own work goals and their role within the agency.
The supervisor supports by praising and commending good performance and
communicates agency appreaciation for the workers’ efforts.
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TYPES OF SUPERVISION
Effective supervision has been an agency problem for social agencies. As social work
struggles to become more recognized and more comfortable as a profession it develoed much
energy to establishing and maintining agency standards and to organizing and transmitting its
knowledge and skills. Within agencies the mechanism for accomplishing these goals is
supervision. The following are the types of supervision generally practiced in the Philippines.
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are experienced workers who respect the ability and opinions of each other. As a tandem,
they meet informally whenever either a case for consideration has. Decisions are the
responsibility of the person to whom the case is assigned, but as the tandem work together
for a while, both members become familiar with each other’s cases and the decision tends
to become more collaborative. At times members could cover other.
6. The team- this model consist of varied numbers within the agency structure. They meet
on a regular basis, with the agenda proposed by the members in advance. Any member has
the liberty to add a case to the agenda for discussion. It is the task of the team to arrive at
he discussion about the case through the group process during the meeting. The decision
in every case, regardless of which member is responsible for implementing it, is the team.
A 1989 questionnaire study of some 900 supervisors and supervisees showed that
the group conference was the principal context for supervision for about 18% of the respondents.
Definition
The term group supervision is defined here as the use of a group setting to implement
the responsibilities of supervision. In group supervision, the supervisor-given educational,
administrative, and supportive responsibility for the activities of a specific number of workers-
meets with the group to discharged their responsibilities.
The primary ultimate objective of group supervision is the same as the ultimate
objective of all supervision: more effective and efficient service to agency clients.
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Advantage of Group Supervision
1. One clear advantage of group supervision is economy of administrative time and effort
(Hawkins and Shohet 1989).
2. Group conference makes possible the efficient utlization of a wider variety of teaching-
learning experiences (Hawkins and Shohet 1989).
3. Group supervision provides the opportunity for supervisees to share their experiences with
similar problems encountered on the job and possible solutions that each has formulated in
response.
4. Members of the group also act as a source of emotional support (Bernard and Goodyear).
5. The opportunity for sharing common problems encountered in a job is, in itslef, a
therapeutically reassuring contributon to individual morale.
6. Workers find it difficult to assess their comparative competence because they perform their
tasks in Private and discuss their performance in the privacy of the individual supervisory
conference.
7. For some workers the group situation is the most comfortable learning environment.
8. The group context provides the safety in numbers that individual supervisees may need to
challenged the supervisor.
9. Group supervision is employed to encouraged interaction among members of the work unit
and to help develop peer group cohesion (Munson 1997; Hayes, Blackman, and Brennan
2001).
10. The group conference provides the supervisor with the opportunity of observing the
supervisee in a different kind of relationship (Bernard and Goodyear 1998, Hawkins and
Shohet 1989).
11. Group supervision permits an advantageous specialization of function.
12. It may be easier for the supervisor to achieve modification of a supervisee’s behavior
through the medium of the group conference than in an individual conference.
13. Just as the group conference permits the supervisor to observe the supervisee in a somewhat
different set of relationships, it permits the supervisee to observe the supervisor under
different condition.
14. The group settings provide the supervisee with the opportunity for using the supervisor as
a model in learning-group interaction skills (Munsom 1997).
15. Group supervision provides a gradual step toward independence from supervision.
16. Group supervision provides an opportunity for multi-cultural education.
1. The great advantage of individual conference is that teaching and learning can be
individualized to meet the needs of a particular of supervisee.
2. The supervisee may well learn more easily in a group conference through identification
with peers, inencumbered by feelings of dependency and hostility toward the authority of
the supervisor, but the group presents its own impediments to learning.
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3. It is more difficult to incorporate a new apointee into a supervisory group than to provide
the same appointee with the individual suervision.
4. The individual conference forces the supervisee to come up with his or her own answers
and decisions regarding the problem he or she faces.
5. If the offers a large pool of possible sources of insights and support, it also offers more
sources of critical feedback.
6. Communication within a group risks higher probability of failure than in the dyadic
interaction.
7. The safety of numbers that allows the supervisee to raise critical questions and comments
also presents a danger that the peer group may organize against the supervisor in the group
conference.
8. The more cohesive a group is, the more the individual member feels identified with the
group, the greater are the pressure to conform to group thinking and attitudes.
9. Accepting the responsibility for the group supervision imposes heavy, perhaps unfamiliar
demands on their supervisors and their knowledge and skills.
Frequently, the agenda for group conferences from recurrent problems discussed in
individual conferences; often, the group discussions are subsequently referred to in
Individual conference to group conferences to individual conferences. The flow is circular from
individual conference to group conferences to individual conferences.
The decision as to what should be taught on an individual basis and what should be taught
through the group must be on diagnostic on the educational needs of the learner.
Looking in the experience in supervision of 671 supervisees and 109 supervisors, Shulman found
that group session were held on an average of twice a month and that “holding regularly scheduled
group sessions correlation positively with a good working relationship” (1982:261) between the
supervisor and supervisee.
In addition to the greater efficiency in time expended in group supervision, the study further
confirms some of the other hypothesized advantage of the approach “students in group supervision
felt greater freedom to communicate dissatisfaction with field instruction to their supervision and
greater freedom to with them about professional ideas”.
In studying the behavior of peers in group supervision Hoese (1987) found that peers
tended to provide mutual support to one another in developing a comfortable group environment.
Supervisors will perceive as establishing goals, providing feedback in helping group members
evaluate work, and providing direct help or suggestions regarding client contacts.
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Group Supervision: Process
Many considerations to which we might call attention regarding the process of group
supervision are not particular or unique to the group supervisory situations. They are generally true
for any circumstance in which a group is used as the vehicle for achieving the desired objective.
Awareness of the procedure that are most productive and the recurrent problem in group interaction
that are likely to be encountered is applicable to the group supervisory situation.
Group Setting
Purpose
The group meeting, like defined purse the individual conference, needs to have a clearly
defined purpose. Formed by the agency to achieve it purpose, the group is not entirely free to
determined its own purposes. Group and individual supervision have the same ultimate objectives,
and group conference are required to have purposeful outcomes that further these objectives.
An egalitarian stance on the part of the supervision (“I am just another member of the
group”, We are all the same here”) is seen as false by some and as an abdication of responsibility
by other. The very fact that the supervisors has the authority is, in and of itself, proof of authority.
The group is not free to develop its own solutions but needs to recognize constraints
imposed by agency budgets, legislative regulations, or agency policy.
Although leadership of the group is primarily the responsibility of the supervisor, it is not
his or her responsibility alone. The group itself has considerable responsibility for the many
decisions that relate to the group purpose and functioning.
If the supervisor is invested with the responsibility for defining and implementing-however
tentatively, however gently-the aim and the objectives of the group adequate preparation for the
group meetings is mandatory.
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The general purpose of group supervision may be clear, but because it is stated in a very
global way, the supervisor has to help translate it into specific, clearly identifiable obejectives for
each particular meeting.
A Cleary stated purpose that has group understanding and acceptance is one of the best
guarantees against over contra and over direction of group activities by the supervisor.
Planning should include consideration of the most advantageous format for the kind of
content with which the meeting is concerned.
The content of the group supervisory meeting includes of general concern to social workers
in an agency-recording, interviewing, referral procedures, psychological test, caseload
management, worker-client interaction, use of consultation, the ethics of practice, and so on.
When a group member presents his or her own material for discussion, there are additional
problems. The supervisor may work with the supervisee toward selecting the case for presentation
that is like; to have grates value for both the supervisee and the group.
Audio and videotapes are appropriately use as the basis for the group discussion.
Audiotapes are often difficult to understand, and the strain of listening to unclear, disembodied
voices can leave the group without energy for discussion.
Early on the group process the supervisor to make an explicit attempt to establish some
group norms. Agreed-on norms of productive group supervision might include the following:
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Humor in Group Supervision
Laughter provides a welcome break for the groups. Serious consideration of clinical and
administrative problems in stressful. The refreshing interposition of a moment of humor enables
the group to return refreshed to its work.
Humor acts as a safety valve for tension in the group. Laughter together unites the group,
performing as integrative function.
A sense of humor is positive attribute of the effective supervisor (Vinton 1989). Laughing
together means that supervisor and supervised share the same meaning of the situation. It ends to
reduce status barriers.
Summary
Group supervision is the use of the group setting to implement the administrative,
educational, and supportive functions of supervisions. It is most frequently used as a supplement
(rather than a substitute) for individual supervision.
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EVALUATION
Definition
-Defined as the objective appraisal of the worker’s total functioning on the job ever
specified period of time.
-Is a process of systematic procedures to determine the validity the extent to which the
workers achieving the requirements of his or her position in the agency.
-Is concerned with both the quality of performance and the quantity of accomplishment.
-An administrative procedure that can and should contribute to professional growth.
Values of Evaluation
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A Value to the agency
-Evaluation provides the supervisor to know the agenda for future educational
supervision.
-Supervisor can make a better much between tasks that need to be completed and interest
and abilities of individual workers.
-The evaluation criteria and the need to justify judgement helps discipline the
supervisor’s thinking in assessing the workers performance.
3. Overarching objective
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Dislike of evaluation
Evaluation is important but at the same time crucial make one not comfortable of
performing the task.
Evaluation is among the supervisory procedures that most explicitly call attention to the
difference in status and between supervisor and supervisee. This rate and perform activity might
be taken with extreme personalism, making it hard for the supervisor to rate and so with who
performs. Evaluations can evoke negative feelings that can lead to a hostile reaction from the
supervisee and guilt from the ones who evaluate. These consequences will stage significance for
the job status and professional career of the workers. Another thing is the idea of self- centered
evaluator who evaluates to provide a kind of validation that she/ he Is a good therapist in helping
somebody in the field that is why a certain worker achieved a good evaluation. The idea of
“pakikisama” is also inflected in some ways, especially if the evaluator prefers to give
euphemistic term for him/ her to be well accepted on true circle of the workers rather than doing
the crucial evaluation.
To be comfortable with the threats posed by performance appraisal, the supervisor must
accept the legitimacy of the evaluation process an feel entitled to make an evaluation.
The supervisor again faces the tasks of introduction orientation, and screening using the on a cost
benefit analysis balance that contains detailed formed evaluation which involves a risk of
evoking hostility, resentment or rejection for the worker.
Frank and proper evaluation is a key that will open an effective worker. From the first
step of evaluation, supervisor must be very honest with the deficiencies of the worker to avoid an
improving mistake and to prove the validity of one’s evaluation.
Evaluation is not an easy task but it is the most definite expression of supervisory and a
potent instrument for control.
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Desirable Evaluation Procedure
1. Supervisors have a duty to evaluate their supervisees and point to the failure to provide
timely and relevant feedback. Supervisee should be told the amount type (formal or
informal, written or verbal), timing and frequency of evaluation procedures to be used.
2. Social work supervisors place a priority on evaluating supervisees as do their managerial
counterparts elsewhere.
3. Evaluation should be continuous process of systematic observation and assessment,
rather than an occasional event because the accuracy rating tends to increase with the
amount of time supervisors observing supervisees.
4. Supervisor might do well to maintain ongoing observational records or diaries of
supervisee performance.
5. Regularly devoting some part of each conference to assessment, however brief, helps
desensitize the workers anxiety regarding it. This practice also helps prepare him or her
for what is likely to be shared at the formal conference so that it does not come as an
unexpected.
6. The evaluation should be conducted and communicated in the context of a positive
relationship.
7. The evaluation procedure should be a mutual, shared process. The supervisor should
attempt to maximize the worker’s participation in and contribution to the evaluation.
8. Evaluations should be made with some recognition and consideration of reality factors
that might be determinants of the workers performance.
9. The principal (if not exclusive) focus of evaluation should be the work performance of
the supervisee rather than any evaluation of the worker as a person.
10. The evaluation should review both strength and weaknesses, growth and stagnation, and
should be fair and balance.
The worker should be informed at least a week in advance about the specific place and
time of the evaluation conference.
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Ethical Dilemmas in Supervision
ETHICAL UNETHICAL
The supervisor has to make him or herself available in case of emergencies or at any time
when crisis decisions need to be made. The supervisor’s responsibility is initially and primarily to
the needs of the clients and only secondarily to the needs of the supervisee. A dilemma for the
supervisee becomes a dilemma for the supervisor.
What adjustment does the supervisor advises the worker to make when needed resources
or services are denied? Should the supervisor authorize services to clients in need, even if
managed care companies refuse to authorize payments?
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Strom-Gottfried and Corcoran- identify the root of such problem as conflicts of
interest that requires supervisor to act as triple agents, “with concurrent
responsibilities to clients, to supervisees and to employers or other entities that have
a stake in the helping process.
Duty of Disclose- the ethical solution to this problem, making the clients aware of
conflicts of interest and giving priority to providing quality of care.
Reamer believes that the clients should be informed of how the delivery of services
may be affected by third party policies and restrictions, made aware of procedures
for service authorization, advised of their right to appeal and forewarned that
appeals compromise their privacy.
Duty to appeal adverse decisions- an ethical duty of the supervisors to protest the
third-party decisions contrary to professional judgment. (Appelbaum)
How absolute are the limits of confidentiality that the supervisor asks the supervisee to
observe?
For example, if a pregnant thirteen-year-old seeks the help of the social worker in
obtaining an abortion and does not want either her parents or the father of the child notified
of her decision.
In response to this situation, the general orientation is that the clients have the right
and the obligation to make the decision for themselves, the worker’s responsibility
being to help the clients come to a decision. But in regard to some equally difficult
questions, the worker is involved in helping the client implement the decision.
On the part of the supervisor they find it difficult to entirely by neutral in response
to the decision the client selected, which way do they lean, or should they lean. In
response to these situations, most of these situations post ethical dilemmas that are
as yet unresolved.
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IV. SOCIAL RESEARCH
2. Compare the process followed in social research and is social work. Cite as many scientific
principles and steps as they are observed both in research and in practice (problem-
solving).
Reference: Goldstein, H. Research Standards for Social Work, 1963; MacDonald
M. “Social Work Research: A Perspective.” In Polansky, N. (ed.) Social Work Research,
1980.
1) Definitions
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Greenwood, cited in MacDonald’s article, lbid. P.2.
- The major goal of scientific research is to establish causal laws that enable us to
predict and explain scientific phenomena.”
Labovitch and Hagedon, R. Introduction to Social Research (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1970, p.1
1.2 Social Work Research
- “Begins with practical problems, and its objective is to produce knowledge that
can be put to use in planning or carrying out social work programs.” MacDonald,
Op Cit. p.3.
- “Intelligent problem-solving in the interest of adding to knowledge.” Lbid.
2) Kinds
2.1 General type
2.2.2 Descriptive – to obtain complete and accurate information with provisions for
protection which is not found in exploratory studies.
1) Special Purpose
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2.3 According to Methods/Designs
b) Tabular Comparison
1.1.1 May be done in terms of a concrete statement of the purpose of the study
(objectives of the study) or in terms of specific questions which the
study needs to answer.
1.1.2 Criteria for problem-formulation statements
Source: C. Ripple “Problem Identification and Formulation, Social
Work Research by N. Polansky (ed.)
The research task must be reduced too manageable size, “or divided
into a number of sub-topic, each of which can be handled in a single
study.
Breaking down the study into several aspects/dimensions/variables.
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1.1.4 Guide question in formulating a research problem
a) The itinerant peddlers and sidewalk vendors who carry their wares around
b) Hawkers in semi-fixed locations . . . on pavements or sidewalks by
department stores or near churches and market areas with wares often
clipped on the walls.
c) Hawkers in more/less permanent locations. . . in kiosks around market
place, sidewalks and vacant lots in commercial areas.
Source: Guerrero, S. G. Hawkers and Vendors in Manila and Baguio, 1970.
c) Process of elaboration – two variable analyses represent the start, not the
completion of the variable analysis. Elaboration as a next step may suggest
further investigation, hence, the possible introduction of such variables
termed as “contingent, antecedent, extraneous, intervening or suppressor.”
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1.4 Hypothesis Formulation
a) Definition of Hypothesis
- Statement of a relationship between two or more variables
- A proposition of tentative relationship or explanation of observations
- “a proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed perhaps without belief in
order to draw out its logical consequences, and by this method to test its accord
with fats which are known or may be determined.”
- A proposition of statement to be accepted or rejected, whose role is to suggest
explanation for certain facts or to guide the investigation of others.
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