Welcome

Cambridge O/A
level/IGCSE/GCSE/Edexcel/
AQA / IBDP (SL/HL)
Biology
Ms. Misbah Ashraf

1
 BIOLOGY
Cell Structure & Organization
CHAPTER NO 01
 Cell
STRUCTURE &
ORGANIZATION
O’LEVEL BIOLOGY
 Learning Outcomes
• Prepare Biological Materials for examination under microscope.
• Distinguish Various components of animal and plant cells under a
light microscope.
• Compare and contrast the structures of animal and plant cells
• Appreciate the importance of cell surface membrane
• Relate the adaptations of a cell’s structure to its function
• Differentiate between the term Cell, Tissues, Organ and organ
systems.
WHAT IS CELL???
 CELL
A cell is the smallest unit that can
carry all the processes of life.

Basic unit of life

Structural and functional unit of

all living organisms
ANIMAL CELL
plant CELL
 PROTOPLASM
❑ protoplasm living mass of cell
❑ Jelly like substance
❑ Site for chemical reactions
❑ Basic parts
❑ Cell membrane
❑ Cytoplasm
❑ nucleus
 PROTOPLASM
composition
❑ Water 70 – 90%
❑ Inorganic components
❑ Organic components
❑ Carbohydrates
❑ Proteins
❑ Fats
 Cell

Cell cytoplasm nucleus

membrane
 cell surface membrane
❑ Cell surface membrane:
❑ Outermost boundary in animal cells
❑ In plants covered by cell wall
❑ its strong but flexible.
Composition
❑ Carbohydrates
❑ Proteins
❑ Lipids
 cell surface membrane
Other names
❑Plasma membrane

❑Partially permeable membrane

❑Semi permeable membrane

❑Differentially permeable membrane

❑Selectively permeable membrane

 cell surface membrane
functions
❑Separating the cell from the environment.
❑Controls movement of substances by.
▪ Diffusion
▪ Osmosis
▪ Active Transport
❑Maintains composition of cell
 Cytoplasm
❑ Jelly like substance between nucleus and cell
membrane

Composition
❑ Carbohydrates
❑ Proteins
❑ Lipids
❑ Inorganic salts (mineral salts)
❑ water
 Cytoplasm
FUNCTIONS
❑Site for chemical reactions (photosynthesis and
respiration)
❑Site for organelles (like: mitochondria, ribosomes,
chloroplast, vacuole)
❑Non living components → inclusions (starch)
❑Living components → organelles (like: mitochondria,
ribosomes, chloroplast, vacuole)
Cytoplasm
 Cell wall
❑Present in plants ONLY
❑Outer most boundary
❑Fully permeable
Composition
❑Made up of Cellulose
 Cell wall
functionS
❑Support
❑Shape
❑prevents cell from bursting.
❑Strength
❑Maintains shape of cell
❑Provide protection
❑Turgidity
HOW IS STRUCTURE OF CELL
WALL AND CELL MEMBRANE
RELATED TO THEIR
FUNCTIONS?
 Nucleus
❑ Double membrane bounded organelle
❑ Present in both plant and animal cell
❑ Darkly stained region in center in animal cell and pushed to aside in plant
cell because of large central vacuole.
❑ Nuclear Envelop → double membrane → separates nuclear content from
cytoplasm
❑ Nucleoplasm → denser mass of protoplasm
❑ Nucleoli → darkly stained structure in nucleus → synthesize Ribosomes
(synthesis → Proteins)
❑ Chromatin → thread like structure → made of protein and DNA (hereditary
material → passed from parents to off springs
 Nucleus

functionS

❑ Controls ALL activities of cell

❑ Help in cell division

❑ R.B.C → Lack Nucleus → unable to

reproduce/divide
 Mitochondria
❑Spherical or rod shaped organelle

present in both plants and animals

❑Double membrane bounded

organelle

❑Release Energy from food in form of

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

during respiration
 ribosomes
❑ Granular structure
present in both plant
and animal cells

function
❑ Synthesis proteins
 vacuole
❑ Fluid filled space enclosed by a membrane
❑ Plant cells have large central vacuole → contains liquid →
cell sap
❑ cell sap → dissolved substances → sugars, mineral salts,
amino acids
❑ Tonoplast → membrane of vacuole

function
❑ Stores extra water and waste materials of cell
 Centrioles
❑ Pair of centrioles is
present only in animal
cells
❑ Collectively called as
centrosomes
❑ Present close to nucleus

function
❑ Cell division
 Chloroplast
❑ Double membrane bounded organelle
❑ Present only in plants (mesophyll cells
and guard cells in leaf)
❑ Contains green pigment Chlorophyll
❑ Chlorophyll → Converts sunlight into
chemical energy
❑ → used in formation of Carbohydrates
(glucose)
❑ from CO2, H2O during photosynthesis
WHAT ARE SIMILARIETIES
B/W PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELL???
WHAT ARE DIFFERENCIES
B/W PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELL???
 Animal cell Plant Cell

• No sap vacuole • contain sap vacuole

• No cell wall • cell wall present
• No chloroplast • Chloroplast present
Differences
• No starch grains (reserve • starch grains present (reserve food →
food → Glycogen) Starch)
• Smaller in size • Larger in size
• Centrioles present • Centrioles absent
• No large and central vacuole • large and central vacuole present
• Central Nucleus is present • Nucleus pushed to aside
Both have
• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm
Similarities
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
 Parts Description Composition Functions
Present in Both Plant and animal Cell
Cell Outermost boundary in animal cells Carbohydrates separating the cell from the environment
surface In plants covered by cell wall Proteins it controls movement of substances by
membrane its strong but flexible. Lipids Diffusion
Osmosis
Cell surface membrane Active Transport
Plasma membrane hence maintains composition of cell
partially permeable membrane
Semi permeable membrane
Differentially permeable membrane
Selectively permeable membrane
cytoplasm Carbohydrates Site for chemical reactions (photosynthesis and respiration)
Jelly like substance between nucleus and cell
membrane Proteins Site for organelles (like: mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplast,
Lipids vacuole)
Inorganic salts Non living components → inclusions (starch)
(mineral salts) Living components → organelles (like: mitochondria,
water ribosomes, chloroplast, vacuole)
Mitochondr Spherical or rod shaped organelle present in Release Energy from food in form of ATP (Adenosine
ia both plants and animals Triphosphate) during respiration
 Parts Description Functions
Nucleus Double membrane bounded organelle Controls ALL activities of cell
Darkly stained region in center in animal cell and pushed to aside in plant cell because of large Help in cell division
central vacuole R.B.C → Lack Nucleus →
unable to reproduce/divide
Nuclear Envelop → double membrane → separates nuclear content from cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm → denser mass of protoplasm
Nucleoli → darkly stained structure in nucleus → synthesize Ribosomes (synthesis →
Proteins)
Chromatin → thread like structure → made of protein and DNA (hereditary material →
passed from parents to off springs

Vacuole Fluid filled space enclosed by a membrane Stores extra water and waste
Plant cells have large central vacuole → contains liquid → cell sap materials of cell
cell sap → dissolved substances → sugars, mineral salts, amino acids
Tonoplast (Partially permeable)→ membrane of vacuole

Granular structure present in both plant and animal cells

Ribosome Synthesis proteins

s Bounded by partially permeable membrane

 Parts Description Composition Functions
Present ONLY IN plant CELL
Made up of Cellulose
Cell Wall Outer most boundary Support
Fully permeable Shape
prevents cell from bursting.
Strength
Maintains shape of cell
Provide protection
Turgidity

Chloroplast Double membrane bounded organelle Carbohydrates Contains green pigment Chlorophyll
Present only in plants (mesophyll cells Proteins Chlorophyll → Converts sunlight into chemical
ang guard cells in leaf) Lipids energy
Inorganic salts (mineral salts) → used in formation of Carbohydrates (glucose)
water from CO2, H2O during photosynthesis

Starch Grains Present in cytoplasm Store excess carbohydrates

Present ONLY IN ANIMAL CELL

Cell division
Centrioles Pair of centrioles is present only in animal
cells
Collectively called as centrosomes
Specialized Cells, Tissues, Organ and
Organ System

Differentiation

Process in which cells become

specialized for a specific function
 Red Blood Cells
❑ Found in the blood of animals
❑ Circular
❑ Hemoglobin → red pigment →transports
oxygen
❑ Biconcave → increases surface area to volume
ratio for transporting more oxygen
❑ Lack Nucleus →increases surface area to
volume ratio for transporting more oxygen
❑ Elastic and tiny→ squeeze through narrow
capillaries
❑ Lack Nucleus →cannot divide
❑ Life span → 90 -120 days
 Red Blood Cells
Function
❑ Transport oxygen from the
lungs to all the body cells,
and carbon dioxide from the
body cells
 xylem
❑ Narrow, elongated, cylindrical
❑ Dead
❑ Hollow → to allow water and minerals to pass
through them with no resistance.
❑ Lack protoplasm → continuous transport of
water through lumen (hollow space in xylem)
❑ No cross walls → continuous transport of
water through lumen (hollow space in xylem)
❑ Lignin → strengthens walls and prevent from
collapsing
 xylem
Deposition of lignin

Annular Pitted Spiral

 xylem
functions

❑ Their function is to transport

water and minerals from the

roots to aerial parts.

❑ Provide support to plant

 Root hair cell
functions
❑ Situated in the roots of plant
❑ Extension of epidermal cells
❑ Contain no chloroplasts

adaptations

❑ Have an extension, long and narrow → that increases the Surface

area for more water intake.

❑ Have a large number of Mitochondria for respiration to become

More active

❑ Have a concentrated Vacuole to help absorbing water by osmosis

Root hair cell
 Root hair cell
functions

❑Their function is to absorb

water and Minerals from the

soil.

❑Anchor the plant in the soil.

 HOW are red blood cells,
xylem vessels and root hair
cell adapted for their
function??
 Cell Adaptation To function Function
Structure
Red • Hemoglobin → red pigment →transports oxygen function is to transport oxygen from
Blood Cell Circular
the lungs to all
• Biconcave → increases surface area to volume ratio for transporting more oxygen
the body cells, and carbon dioxide
• Lack Nucleus →increases surface area to volume ratio for transporting more oxygen from the body cells
• Elastic and tiny→ squeeze through narrow capillaries
• Lack Nucleus →cannot divide
• Life span → 90 -120 days

Root hair • These are cells situated in the roots of plants. They Their function is to absorb water
contain no chloroplasts. and
Cell Minerals from the soil. And to
Have an extension, long and narrow → that increases the Surface area for more water intake. anchor
The plant in the soil.
• they have a large number of Mitochondria for respiration to become More active.
• a concentrated Vacuole to help absorbing water by osmosis.

Xylem • These are narrow, elongated, cylindrical Their function is to transport water
vessels • These are dead and minerals from
• they are hollow the roots to the leaves and the rest
to allow water and minerals to pass through them of the plant
with no resistance. through the stem.
• Lack protoplasm → continuous transport of water through lumen(hollow space in xylem) And to support the plant.
• No cross walls → continuous transport of water through lumen(hollow space in xylem) .
• lignin → strengthens walls and prevent from collapsing
• Deposited in 3 ways (Spiral, Annular, Pitted)
 Cellular organization

cell Organ
tissues organ system
 Tissue
Group of cells performing similar functions

Simple tissues Complex tissues

Made up of one type of cells Made up of different cells
❑ Xylem
❑ Epithelial tissues or epithelium ❑ Vessels
❑ sheath of cells covering both internal and ❑ Tracheid
external surface of cells
❑ Plants → epidermal tissues or epidermis ❑ Phloem
❑ Muscular tissues → contract and relax → ❑ Sieve cells
movement ❑ Companion cells
❑ Glandular tissues → produce secretions
→ enzymes and hormones ❑ Blood
❑ Nervous tissues → conduct impulses ❑ Red blood cells
(message) ❑ White blood cells
 Organ
Group of tissues performing similar functions

Examples
❑ Stomach
❑ Small Intestine
❑ Large intestine
❑ Rectum
❑ Anus
❑ Liver
❑ Pancreas
Stomach→ Digest food (protein content)
Tissues present in stomach
❑ Muscular tissues → contract and relax → Mix food with enzymes
❑ Glandular tissues → produce secretions → enzymes (pepsin)
❑ Nervous tissues → coordinate actions of stomach
❑ Connective tissues → connect other tissues
 Organ system
Group of organs performing similar functions

Examples

❑ Digestive System →Oral Cavity, esophagus,

stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus, liver, pancreas,
❑ Nervous System → Brain, spinal cord
❑ Muscular System
❑ Circulatory System,
❑ Reproductive System
❑ Skeletal System
❑ Excretory System
Structure Description Examples
Basic unit of life Animal cells →sperm cell, red blood cell, muscle cell, epithelial cell
Structural and functional unit of all living organism
cell Plant cells→ Palisade mesophyll cell, guard cell, root hair cell, epidermal cell

Animal Tissues
Group pf cells performing similar functions
• Epithelial tissues or epithelium cover both internal and external surface of cells
Tissues Simple tissues→ Made up of one type of cells
• Muscular tissues → contract and relax → movement
Complex tissues→ Made up of different cells
• Glandular tissues → produce secretions → enzymes and hormones
(e.g.Blood, Vascular Bundles)
• Nervous tissues → conduct impulses (message)

Plant Tissues→ Epidermal, Mesophyll, vascular bundles (xylem, phloem)

Animal organs →Stomach, Small Intestine, Large intestine, Rectum, Anus , Liver,
Pancreas, Heart, Lungs , kidneys
Stomach (Epithelial Tissues, Muscular tissues, Glandular tissues, Nervous tissues,
Organ Group of tissues performing similar functions
Connective tissues)

Plant organs → Root, Stem, Leaf

Stem (comprising → epidermal, supporting, vascular tissues)

Animal Systems →Digestive System, Nervous System, Muscular System, Circulatory

Organ
Group of organs performing similar functions System, , Reproductive System, Skeletal System, Excretory System
System
Plant Systems → Root, Shoot
microscope
 Cross/
Transverse/

Longitudinal
section
Slide preparation
❑ Onion (cut slices)
❑ Knife or Blade
❑ Forceps
❑ Spatula
❑ Dropper
❑ Water
❑ Staining Reagent/Solution ( making cells visible)
❑ Methylene blue (Blue)
❑ Iodine (Brown)
❑ Safranine (Pink)
❑ Cover Slip
❑ Glass Slide
❑ Microscope
 Slide preparation
❑ Cut slices of onion with the help of knife

❑ Remove thin layer of onion epidermis from inner side of onion slice using forceps

❑ Spread it on glass slide with the help of spatula

❑ Place few drops of water → to prevent dehydration

❑ Add Staining reagent → to make cell structures visible

❑ Blot extra strain with the help of blotting paper

❑ Place slide on stage of microscope and fix it with stage clips.

❑ Illuminate light

❑ Using proper magnification power and coarse adjustment observe the slide
 magnification
Mag. Size of drawing/image (length/width)
Actual Size of image (length/width)
 magnification
Examples
 Cell structure
UNIT # 1 &
organization
Biology O LEVEL KEY POIINTS

1 Cell is basic unit of life.

2 Cell has three basic parts (cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus).

The nucleus directs chemical reactions in the cell and also controls
3 cell division
 Cell structure
UNIT # 1 &
organization
Biology O LEVEL KEY POIINTS

4 Plant cell contains a cellulose cell wall and large central vacuole.

5 large number of similar cells packed together to for a

tissue

6 Different tissues arrange together to form an organ

 Cell structure
UNIT # 1 &
organization
Biology O LEVEL KEY POIINTS

7 A group of related organs makes up a system

Cellulose cell wall is not partially permeable membrane, in

8 fact it’s a fully permeable memnbrane

9 Root hair cells have no chloroplast