COMPARING CASTE SYSTEM OF CONTEMPORARY INDIA –

URBAN METROPOLITAN AND RURAL AREAS

FINAL DRAFT SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE COURSE ALTERNATE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
FOR OBTAINING THE DEGREE OF B.A., LL.B. (HONS.)

Submitted by –

Group ‘D’
ADITYA KUMAR(23205); AMIYA ARNAV(2514); ANKIT KUMAR(2515);
MOHISHA PRABHAKAR(23231); SAMRIDHI PRIYA(23249); SHALIN KUMAR(2566)

Submitted to –
Dr. AMIT JAIN
(Faculty of Sociology)

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

NYAYA NAGAR, MITHAPUR, PATNA – 800001

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... 2

DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................... 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 4

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 1 – CASTE SYSTEM IN RURAL INDIA............................................................................ 8

Chapter 2 - CASTE SYSTEM IN METROPOLITAN AREAS .......................................................... 13

Chapter 3 – SOCIAL MOBILITY OF CASTE IN BOTH AREAS ...................................................... 15

Social Mobility in Agrarian Classes ........................................................................................................ 15

Social Mobility in Urban Classes ............................................................................................................ 16

The Everlasting Impact of Caste, on Socioeconomic Progress in India:................................................. 17

Group Mobility: The Power of Collective Action ................................................................................... 17

Post-Independence Continuation of Westernization and Reforms....................................................... 18

Economic Impact of Social Mobility ...................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 4 - CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES AHEAD ......................................................... 21

Challenges and opportunities- .............................................................................................................. 21

Possible Initiatives – .............................................................................................................................. 22

CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 24

BIBLIOGRAOPHY.................................................................................................................... 26
WEBSITES AND ARTICLES................................................................................................................................... 26

2
 DECLARATION

We, Group ‘D’, students of Chanakya National Law University, Patna hereby declare that our
project work entitled “Comparing Caste System of Contemporary India – Urban Metropolitan
and Rural areas” submitted to the Chanakya National Law University, Patna is a record of an
original work done by me under the guidance of Dr. Amit Jain, teacher in subject, Chanakya
National Law University, Patna.

Thank You
Group ‘D’ -
Aditya Kumar(23205);
Amiya Arnav(2514);
Ankit Kumar2515);
Mohisha Prabhakar(23231);
Samridhi Priya(23249);
Shalin Kumar(2566)
Subject – Caste Survey
Academic Year – 2023-24

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would specially like to thank my guide, mentor, Dr. Amit Jain without whose constant support
and guidance this project would have been a distant reality. This work is an outcome of an
unparalleled infrastructural support that we have received from Chanakya National Law
University,Patna. We owe our deepest gratitude to the library staff of the university. It would never
have been possible to complete this study without an untiring support from our family, specially
to parents of ours. This study bears testimony to the active encouragement and guidance of a host
of friendsand well-wishers.

Thank You
Group ‘D’ -
Aditya Kumar(23205);
Amiya Arnav(2514);
Ankit Kumar(2515);
Mohisha Prabhakar(23231);
Samridhi Priya(23249);
Shalin Kumar(2566)
Subject – Caste Survey
Academic Year – 2023-24

4
 Introduction
India got its independence on 15th August 1947 and even after 76 years of independence one social
evil which the nation has failed to eradicate is caste discrimination. There has been lots of research
and studies and most of them state that India as a nation has to travel long to reach its final
destination of eradication of caste discrimination. The second thing which is always brought into
the picture whenever there is discussion regarding caste discrimination is about the “Reservation”
provided to the marginalized castes or the lower castes for their betterment. There is always debate
going on whether India has reached a position or is it the high time that country should do away
with the reservation? The debate of Meritocracy is also prevalent.
The community or the group of people who are not benefited from it raises the question that it is
against them and it in itself is a discrimination against them but the community which is benefited
from it stands in favor of it. The concept of “ Reservation” is for representation. People from
different categories, different social backgrounds get an opportunity to represent in various sectors.
What has to be seen is the answer of the question whether in 2024, reservation has helped in
eradicating the existing caste discrimination?1
If we see the various data, statistics and studies, there is still a huge gap among various caste groups
like SCs, STs and OBCs when it comes to their representation. Whether it is an academic field,
journalism or film industry, still the general caste or the unreserved group has a majority. Talking
about academia, In 2019, Ramesh Pokhriyal Nishank, in a written reply to the Parliament, said that
48 per cent of students dropping out of the IITs and over 62.6 per cent from IIMs are from the SC,
ST and OBC categories.2 If we look at faculty data in these institutions from reserved categories,
the representation is minuscule. According to data by the education ministry, presented in 2019 in
Lok Sabha, out of 6,043 faculty members at the 23 IITs, 149 were SCs and 21 were STs3 — they
made up less than 3 percent of the total number of faculty members. Most of the IITs do not have
a single professor from the SC/ST community. This is the reality when we analyze the academic
world in India, with very few people getting placed in the faculty list from reserved categories,

1
Patra, Mamata. "Reservation Policy in India: Has it Attained the Desired Goal?." (2020): 37-46.
2
Rao, Enapa Upender. "The Dalits of India: Higher Education and Development." Education Policy and
Administration on Higher Education: 306.
3
ibid

5
how can one expect that the nation's young mind will be nurtured with the idea of Social Justice
and Equality.
Now, let's discuss the reserved students. Is everything good for them in the institutions, don’t they
face any kind of caste discrimination or humiliation by the faculties and from the peer? According
to a statement made in the Parliament by Dharmendra Pradhan, the Union Minister of Education,
122 students have committed suicides in IITs, NITs, Central Universities, and IISERs in the
country in the period between 2014 to 2021.4 All these students belonged to the SC, ST, and the
OBC communities. Isn’t this shameful for a country which claims to preach the gospel of
“Vasudaiva Kutumbkam”?
Moving ahead, the most discriminated profession on the basis of caste is Judiciary, where the
mockery of the idea of “Reservation” is done. The information furnished by the Union Minister of
Law & Justice shows that 492 of the 650 High Court judges appointed between 2018 and 2023
belong to the General Category (75.69%)5. Out of the High Court judges' appointments made
during this period, 23 are from the Scheduled Caste (SC) category, 10 from the Scheduled Tribes
(ST) category, 76 from the Other Backward Classes and 36. This is utterly shameful for a country
like India whose majority of the population is not adequately represented in the most powerful tool
of democracy “JUDICIARY”.
The vital way to eradicate caste discrimination is through inter caste marriages. The authorities
provide various rewards for the couples who do inter-caste marriage like monetary reward but has
it helped in addressing the caste discrimination?6 In India the percentage of inter-caste marriages
is about 10 percent out of which in 4.97 percent cases women marry to men of lower caste and in
another 4.95percent cases, the women belong to lower caste but husbands belong to higher castes.
Generally it is expected that with more development and education, the force of caste factor
becomes weak and thereby increases the incidence of inter-caste marriages. The southern region
of India is socio-economically more developed than other regions of India. So, applying the same
logic, inter-caste marriage is expected to be more in the southern region than other parts of India.

4
Shakil, Albeena. "Radical shifts in undergraduate education in India: Concerns and
challenges." Reclaiming Public Universities. Routledge India, 2022. 301-324.
5
Bhavani Mishra, “75.69% of judges appointed between 2018 and 2023 belong to general
category”, Buisness Standards, Last opened: 8 t h April 2024, (https://mybs.in/2cK3gTX)
6
Hortaçsu, Ali, Sam Il Myoung Hwang, and Divya Mathur. "Monetary incentives on inter-caste
marriages in India: Theory and evidence." Journal of Development Economics 141 (2019): 102371.

6
But analysis shows that inter-caste marriage is only 9.71 percent in the southern part of India. The
statistics show that people prefer to marry within their own caste so that the hierarchy of caste
continues.7
This is the situation of India when we talk about Caste Discrimination, be it academic field,
judiciary, marriages etc there is huge parity and the idea of social justice is merely on the paper. A
lot needs to be done to bring every caste and their representation on equal stepping.

7
Das, Kumudin, et al. "Dynamics of inter-religious and inter-caste marriages in India." Population
Association of America, Washington DC, USA (2011).

7
 Chapter 1 – CASTE SYSTEM IN RURAL INDIA
The caste system has long been a crucial aspect of rural Indian society, playing a significant role
in shaping social structures and individual lives. This system serves as a primary determinant of
behaviour, social order, and individual status from birth, influencing interactions, occupations, and
religious practices.8 Over time, the traditional caste system has evolved into a class system due to
alterations in economic structures. This transformation from caste to class has impacted social
dynamics and economic disparities within rural communities.9
In rural areas, the dominance of certain castes, particularly upper castes like Brahmins and Rajputs,
and backward agricultural castes,10 significantly affects economic outcomes and social well-being
in villages. Despite the shift from caste to class, the caste system remains deeply entrenched in
Indian society, with thousands of years of history. It continues to influence professions, social
interactions, and marriage choices, with individuals identifying with various caste categories
regardless of religion. Although caste segregation remains widespread, many Indians do perceive
rampant discrimination based on caste, with social lives often revolving around caste hierarchies.
Studies have revealed a clear correlation between caste and happiness in rural India, with economic
welfare increasing across caste hierarchies and individuals at the top castes reporting higher levels
of satisfaction compared to lower and middle castes.11 This relationship between caste, social
status, and well-being highlights the enduring influence of the caste system on opportunities and
life outcomes in rural regions of India.
The caste system persists in rural India due to traditional lifestyles, limited social mobility, strong
community bonds, and a lack of awareness and education. These factors reinforce caste-based
occupations, social norms, and interactions, making it challenging for individuals to question or
challenge the system. In rural India, the caste system shapes social structures and individual lives
in various ways. Traditional caste roles, such as priests, warriors, and labourers, have evolved into
modern-day agricultural classes, with different castes occupying distinct positions within the

8
Vikas, Ram Manohar, Rohit Varman, and Russell W. Belk. "Status, caste, and market in a changing
Indian village." Journal of Consumer Research 42.3 (2015): 472-498.
9
Bapuji, Hari, and Snehanjali Chrispal. "Understanding economic inequality through the lens of
caste." Journal of Business Ethics 162 (2020): 533-551.
10
Nedumpara, Jose J. "Dominant Caste System in Rural India." Rajagiri Journal of Social
Development 5.1 (2013): 29.
11
Bros, Catherine. "The burden of caste on social identity in India." The Journal of Development
Studies 50.10 (2014): 1411-1429.

8
agricultural hierarchy. The caste system, deeply rooted in Indian society, continues to impact
professions, social interactions, and marriage choices, with individuals identifying with various
caste categories regardless of religion.12
Discrimination against lower castes is a stark reality that persists in rural areas, impacting
opportunities and well-being. For instance, the caste system acts as a powerful determinant of
individual behaviour and social order in rural communities, where one's caste status is determined
from birth and significantly influences their social milieu and interactions. This entrenched system
not only dictates social status but also guides behaviour, associations, and interactions, maintaining
the continuity of social order by preserving cultural patterns and traditions.
Caste-based violence in rural India is exemplified by the recent surge in crimes against Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes, with data from the National Crime Records Bureau revealing a
disturbing trend of six crimes reported per hour against Dalits in 2021.13 The Hathras case brought
to light the harrowing experiences of Dalit women,14 who endure sexual violence, abuse,
molestation, rape, and murder despite legal protections, showcasing the severe oppression faced
by this community. Another poignant example is the Khairlanji incident of 2006 in Maharashtra,15
where four members of a Dalit family were brutally murdered by upper-caste individuals following
a land dispute, illustrating the extreme violence and discrimination inflicted upon Dalits in rural
regions. These incidents underscore the widespread prevalence of caste-based violence and
discrimination in rural India, perpetuating social injustices and deepening inequalities within
society.

Example of discrimination against lower castes in rural India can be seen in the limited access to
education and economic opportunities faced by Dalits, who are at the bottom of the caste hierarchy.
Studies have shown that Dalits have historically faced barriers in accessing quality education,
leading to lower educational attainment levels compared to upper castes. Despite affirmative action

12
Vaid, Divya. "Caste in contemporary India: Flexibility and persistence." Annual Review of
Sociology 40 (2014): 391-410.
13
Sashittal, Nihar. "The enigma of caste atrocities: Do scheduled castes and scheduled tribes face
excessive violence in India?." Oñati Socio-Legal Series 13.1 (2023): 89-126.
14
Soundararajan, Thenmozhi. The trauma of caste: A Dalit feminist meditation on survivorship,
healing, and abolition. North Atlantic Books, 2022.
15
Teltumbde, Anand. "Khairlanji and its aftermath: Exploding some myths." Economic and Political
Weekly (2007): 1019-1025.

9
policies aimed at uplifting historically discriminated groups, disparities persist, with Dalit males
having higher rates of non-enrollment in schools and lower rates of college graduation compared
to upper caste males. This disparity in educational outcomes reflects the deep-rooted inequalities
perpetuated by the caste system in rural India.

Moreover, the caste system influences various aspects of life, including occupation, social
mobility, and religious practices. Lower castes, such as Dalits, are often restricted to low-status
occupations like scavenging, sweeping, and manual labor, which are considered menial and
associated with notions of impurity and pollution. This occupational segregation based on caste
perpetuates social inequalities and limits economic opportunities for lower castes in rural areas.
Additionally, discrimination based on caste extends to social interactions, access to public spaces
like temples and courthouses, and even relationships in social, educational, political, and economic
domains, where individuals from lower castes face restrictions and stigmatization.
A 1997 report by the National Commission for Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribes revealed that
"untouchability" and other forms of caste-based discrimination were still prevalent in India,16
particularly in rural areas where land is the prime asset. A study by Desai et al. in 2008 found that
lower caste children in India had made significant progress in education attainment, but still lagged
behind upper caste children in terms of college graduation rates and school enrollment.17
A 2007 nationwide survey of India by the World Bank found that over 80 percent of children of
historically discriminated castes and tribes still faced significant barriers to education and socio-
economic development.18 The survey found that the fastest increase in school attendance by Dalit
community children occurred during recent periods of India's economic growth, but significant
disparities persisted in terms of health and other socio-economic indicators.
In Maharashtra's Nanded district, a 24-year-old Dalit man, Akshay Bhalerao, was brutally
assaulted and murdered by seven upper caste men for celebrating Dr. Ambedkar's birth

16
Louis, Prakash. "Scheduled castes and tribes: The reservation debate." Economic and Political
Weekly (2003): 2475-2478.
17
Desai, Sonalde, and Veena Kulkarni. "Changing educational inequalities in India in the context of
affirmative action." Demography 45 (2008): 245-270.
18
Ibid.

10
anniversary,19 while his brother Akash suffered a beating. In Wazirganj, an 18-year-old Dalit youth
was verbally abused and thrashed for touching food during a wedding,20 with his elder brother
Satyapal also being attacked when he tried to intervene. In Tamil Nadu, six fourth-grade Dalit
students were compelled to clean a school's toilet and water tank with bleach,21 while in
Karnataka's Heggotara Village, upper caste individuals drained a water tank and 'cleansed' it with
cow urine after a Dalit woman drank from it These incidents reflect the deep-seated caste-based
discrimination and violence that continues to plague India, particularly against Dalits

The discrimination faced by lower caste individuals, particularly Dalits, in rural India is deeply
ingrained in society, extending beyond economic disparities to encompass socio-cultural factors.
Instances of extreme violence, such as gang rapes and dehumanizing acts like urinating on faces,
solely based on caste identity, highlight the pervasive nature of this discrimination. Denial of entry
to religious sites further exemplifies the systemic bias against lower caste individuals. It is crucial
to recognize that addressing this discrimination requires more than just financial equality; a
profound shift in socio-cultural attitudes is imperative to truly combat this deep-rooted issue in
Indian society.

Traditional beliefs and practices associated with caste also reinforce social norms and expectations
within rural communities. For instance, in certain regions, traditional customs dictate that lower
castes must show deference to upper castes, reinforcing power differentials and discrimination.
Similarly, in some rural areas, inter-caste marriages are frowned upon, with traditional social
sanctions imposed on those who defy caste norms. Traditional caste-based power structures also
influence community decision-making processes, with upper castes often holding disproportionate
power and influence.

19
Sukanya Shanta, “In Maharashtra, 'Upper' Caste Men Kill Youth Who Ensured Village Celebrated
Ambedkar Jayanti”, The Wire, Last Opened: 9 t h April, 2024, (https://thewire.in/caste/maharashtra-
nanded-upper-caste-ambedkar-jayanti)
20
The Times of India, Last opened: 9th April, 2024,
( http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/96158430.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_
medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst )
21
The News Minute, Last opened: 9 t h April, 2024, “TN school headmistress arrested for making
Dalit students clean toilets for a year”, (https://www.thenewsminute.com/tamil-nadu/tn-school-
headmistress-arrested-making-dalit-students-clean-toilets-year-170573)

11
Caste system present in rural India reveals a complex and deeply entrenched social structure that
continues to influence various aspects of rural life. Despite efforts by the government and social
movements to address caste-based discrimination, the caste system remains a significant identity
marker, shaping social interactions, access to resources, and economic opportunities in rural areas.
The above mentioned data and cases highlight the persistence of untouchability practices,
discrimination, and unequal treatment faced by Dalits, emphasizing the need for continued efforts
to eradicate caste-based inequalities. The interplay between caste and social mobility, economic
relations, and family structures underscores the enduring influence of the caste system on rural
society.

12
 Chapter 2 - CASTE SYSTEM IN METROPOLITAN AREAS
Unlike the rural areas where people's place of residence are divided according to the caste or social
group they belong to, the demography in Urban or rather Metropolitan areas are mixed.22 Mixed
here in the context of the caste system but then society gets divided on a monetary basis or based
on the so-called standards that they are supposed to hold. Society gets divided into the elite class
and lower middle class who are trying to adapt to the metropolitan areas.
We have to understand that people from rural areas especially people belonging from less
privileged social groups started mobilization to metropolitan areas to escape that kind of complex
social system. But the harsh reality is that they face yet another type of discrimination in
metropolitan areas. But is it the same as the one in rural areas? Not directly but then these people
who are still struggling to get mingled with an elite class of society are the ones in most cases who
have faced a deficit of resources from the beginning.
We see urbanization and globalization having a great impact. In metropolitan areas, we see more
intermingling of linguistic identity, and religious and regional identity. As compared to rural India
where people are strict with their traditions, we see more diverse perspectives in metropolitan
areas. It has helped the people belonging to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and other less
privileged groups to come out of conservative practices that have often limited their opportunities
and their freedom, which in the longer term have restricted their growth.
Marriage is one of the most important bases or social institutions in our society. In both rural and
Urban India marriage is considered sacred and inherent to one’s identity. Marriage in this context
becomes important and can shed light upon the fact of how far have we moved away from our
conservative and narrow tradition. But to an utter surprise stats don’t approve the increasing trend
of intercaste marriages in Urban India. The survey conducted in 2017 reveals that intercaste
marriages are more practiced in rural India(5.2%) than in Urban India(4.9%).23 This is a very
surprising stats because the normal notion is that people in metropolitan or urban India have more
endurance and acceptance regarding the intermingling of castes. But then this shows that even if
people in urban India show that they have moved on from that complex structure of the caste
system and don’t believe in all these, they are yet to accept it mentally and completely. Had they

22
Gober, Patricia. "Urban housing demography." Progress in Human Geography 16.2 (1992): 171-
189.
23
Shoba, B. "INTER-CASTE MARRIAGE." CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY SUBJECTS:
VOLUME-2: 79.

13
been renounced the caste system, the same would have been reflected in our social customs as
well. But this is what we see in comparison to rural India. Intercaste marriages are increasing in
Metropolitan cities as urbanization provides a more diverse environment. People see education
and economic wealth as good way to upgrade their status and this has helped.

Coming to untouchability, we believe that Urbanization and globalization have eradicated

Untouchability to a larger extent.24 But Untouchability is still prevalent in metropolitan cities.
Though that is less when compared to rural India stats prove the existence of this malafide practice.
According to a study conducted in 2016, 27% of people have accepted that they practice
untouchability in Urban India25. This is a very disturbing statistic. Though we have legal measures
for the same in India that deeply entrenched social mindset of caste hierarchy is still prevalent and
there is a long way to go if we want to get rid of this social evil.
Due to the inadequate representation, untouchability, and lack of implementation of laws. We see
a surge in crime rates against less privileged groups. The latest “NCRB” data shows an increase in
anti-Dalit crimes, with a 7% surge from 2018 to 201926. But the only positive thing is that these
crimes are recorded because people are aware of the laws and are taking the initiative to go and
file cases. But stricter implementation of these measures are very important.

To conclude, there has been increasing mobility from rural to metropolitan cities to escape
complex social structures but even metropolitan cities are not completely free from this social evil.
“Article 17 of Indian constitution” states about abolition of untouchability, we have “the SC/ST
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989” for crimes against them, but then we see untouchability and
crime against untouchables is prevalent even after 74 years after our constitution came into force.
Just having laws and regulations cannot help us get rid of caste structure in India. Mentality of the
people is very crucial. People have to come out of that sick mindset and that will not happen just
by closing our eyes and saying that we don’t believe in social hierarchy. But when we incorporate
this in our personal life and social customs, then only the change would be visible.

24
Heuzé, Gérard Djallal. "Indian Society and Globalization: Inequality and Change." Globalization
and Transformations of Social Inequality. Routledge, 2010. 235-251.
25
Archana, and Pushpendra Singh. "Media Influences on Caste-based Untouchability Practices in
India." Contemporary Voice of Dalit (2022): 2455328X211066088.
26
Kochar, Ritu. "From Traditional to Modern Atrocities: Has Caste Changed in Independent
India?." Contemporary Voice of Dalit (2022): 2455328X221136385.

14
 Chapter 3 – SOCIAL MOBILITY OF CASTE IN BOTH AREAS
Two important paths to social mobility have been identified by sociologist Pradeep Bose. In the
first, a caste's status is raised by petitioning authorities and participating in censuses. This
frequently involved becoming Sanskritized and setting oneself apart from related castes; the
Kayasthas and Bhumihars of Bihar are two examples of this. The second path originated from
financial difficulties, leading to the formation of alliances by castes such as Yadavs, Kurmis, and
Keoris to enhance their political and economic status.
Social Mobility in Agrarian Classes27
Land ownership was traditionally seen as a mark of status and was difficult to acquire or lose.28
Agrarian relations and social mobility were impacted by the selling of land during British rule, as
they have introduced the zamindari system in which only a particular class of society was allowed
to regulate the land.
• Land Reforms - The main aim of the 1950s land reforms was to provide the tillers with
more control and to get rid of the system of middlemen. Both upward and downward
mobility resulted from these land reforms, while some tenants bought excessive of lands,
others were forced to leave by Zamindars claiming cultivator status, which led to the
impoverishment of laborers without land. Land reforms caused downward mobility for
Zamindars. They lost their right to extract taxes, leaving them with fragmented holdings
unsuitable for their feudal lifestyles.
• The Green Revolution and Social Inequality - The government of India have launched the
Green Revolution in the 1960s with the goal of boosting agricultural productivity, using
high-yielding cultivars and fertilizers,. But these developments necessitated infrastructure,
such as tube wells, which tiny peasants could not afford. This led to the emergence of a
new class of "Progressive Farmers"29 with vast landholdings and the ability to purchase
equipment like tractors, hence exacerbating social inequality.

27
Athreya, Venkatesh B., Göran Djurfeldt, and Staffan Lindberg. "Social Mobility and Agrarian
Transformation-An Indian case." The 19th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies.
2006.
28
Bernstein, Henry. Class dynamics of agrarian change. Vol. 1. Kumarian Press, 2010.
29
Dhanagare, Dattatraya N. "Green revolution and social inequalities in rural India." Economic and
political weekly(1987): AN137-AN144.

15
Social Mobility in Urban Classes
Even though urbanization is not new to India, industrialization and urban migration have had a
substantial impact on the social class structure.30
• Capitalists/Bourgeoisie - Modern industrialization was brought about by British
colonialism, which fueled the expansion of the capitalist class. Free trade, new markets,
and industries made it possible for traders to become wealthy and enter the sector.
Interestingly, a large number of modern industrialists come from trading communities and
castes.
• Entrepreneurs, Traders, and Shopkeepers - Shopkeepers and traders have long been part of
urban civilization. These classes prospered as cities grew, taking advantage of the increased
demand for products and services. Wealthy people are becoming entrepreneurs in a variety
of industries, including restaurants, marriage agencies, and real estate. While some have
started whole new firms, others have grown or diversified their previous businesses.
• Professional Classes - Institutions of higher learning were established during the British
colonial era to educate professionals such as physicians, attorneys, executives, scientists,
and technocrats. This professional class, which includes a wide variety of jobs, has
increased dramatically in size and reputation. Their status is largely determined by their
education and credentials; many work as salaried professionals in the public or private
sectors, there is no discriminating among these professionals.
• Working Class - The working class in India has changed. It was made up of poor
agricultural laborers at first. Many were hired as "target" or seasonal laborers. The country's
working class has expanded and become more diverse as a result of recent industrial boom.
In order to bargain with their employers for improved working conditions, some employees
have united into unions. These labor unions have promoted their leaders to influential
positions and frequently have political ties.

30
Chekki, Dan A. "Social stratification and trends of social mobility in modern
India." Sociologus (1970): 146-163.

16
The Everlasting Impact of Caste, on Socioeconomic Progress in India:
After discussing the notion of advancement within caste frameworks lets explore further into the
intricacies of the scenario. In this context the caste system intersects with class hierarchies resulting
in a network of influences on financial mobility.31
• Caste; An Often Misinterpreted Structure - Contrary to belief the caste system is not
completely rigid. While ones birth traditionally dictated their status pathways for
advancement did exist. Changes in politics enabled castes to ascend in influence through
land ownership. Some castes managed to enhance their standing by adopting regal titles
and imitating customs of higher castes.
• Different Levels of Movement; From Individual to Collective - Sociologists distinguish
three levels of mobility within the caste system; individual, familial and communal.32
Individual mobility emphasizes how personal attributes and accomplishments can
transcend group identities. On the hand personal shortcomings can result in a decline in
status. Family level mobility allows certain families within a caste to enhance their position
through prosperity, education or involvement, in politics. This type of movement is more
lateral as it boosts prestige within the caste without altering ones caste rank.
Group Mobility: The Power of Collective Action33
Group mobility is considered to be as one of the most impactful level,34 the collective shift in the
status, honor and social standing leads to the adoption of new socio-cultural practices.
Abandonment of customs is considered as impure, whereas, adoption of those deemed to be
superior, and by the abandonment of cutoms various castes have been able to improve their social
status. Sanskritization is one of the examples of this process.
• Sanskritization: It is a central mechanism for the people of lower castes in order to improve
the social status of themselves. It consists of imitating the rituals, practices, and behaviors
of people of upper castes, looking for the social validation as well as social acceptance in

31
Deshpande, Ashwini. The grammar of caste: Economic discrimination in contemporary India.
Oxford University Press, 2011.
32
Jaspal, Rusi. "Caste, social stigma and identity processes." Psychology and Developing
Societies 23.1 (2011): 27-62.
33
Tausch, Nicole, Tamar Saguy, and Jeff Bryson. "How does intergroup contact affect social change?
Its impact on collective action and individual mobility intentions among members of a
disadvantaged group." Journal of Social Issues71.3 (2015): 536-553.
34
Moghaddam, Fathali M., and Stephane Perreault. "Individual and collective mobility strategies
among minority group members." The Journal of Social Psychology 132.3 (1992): 343-357.

17
 order to gain social mobility. By the process of Sanskritization, castes have made quite
significant strides in redefining their social position within the traditional caste system.
• Westernization – According to M.N. Srinivas Westernization is considered to be yet
another force which has an impact on the social mobility of caste in India.35 This process,
which included adjustments to institutions, technology, ideologies, and values, changed the
social structures that were already in place and created new opportunities for growth.
• Land (as Commodity and New Institutions): Land's commercialization made it possible for
people from lower castes to acquire land and ascend up the social ladder. On the other
hand, individuals who lost their land went downhill. Possibilities for mobility were also
offered by new establishments like the the military, administration, and legal system, which
hired people on the basis of talent rather than caste.
• Education and Economic Opportunities: The introduction of schools and colleges under
British rule along-with the new economic opportunities opened doors for lower castes.
Post-Independence Continuation of Westernization and Reforms
India after independence had further embraced the principles of equality and social justice which
was priorly introduced by the British, and thus India promoted social mobility.36 Here's how
various factors contributed to the social mobility of Independent India:
• Legal Systems: The new legal system of the Independent India is based on the principle of
equality before law and the land reforms of 1974 has further empowered lower castes.
• Universal Adult Franchise: The adoption of universal adult franchise which provided the
right to vote to every individual on the basis of their age(18 years or above) altered power
dynamics in favor of underprivileged sections of society as the politicians started thinking
of them as the vote bank and started working for their benefits in order to gain their votes.
• Indian Reformers: Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda
promoted rationality and equality to the discriminated sections of the society. Several other
leaders have emerged who have worked for the upliftment of the marginalised sections
such as Jyotibha Phule, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, etc.

35
Desai, I. P. "Sources of Social Change in India." (1966): 21-24
36
Kalia, Ravi. "Modernism, modernization and post-colonial India: a reflective essay." Planning
Perspectives 21.2 (2006): 133-156.

18
 • Education- The Key to Upward Mobility37 : Historically, the "twice born" castes and
Brahmins were the only groups allowed to pursue education. Under British colonial
authority, this situation started to alter as educational institutions offered to all categories,
establishing the groundwork for logical and practical knowledge. The democratization of
education promoted the values of justice, liberty, and equality while opening doors for both
individual and group social mobility. It also made it possible for people from a variety of
backgrounds to get jobs in the military and government. Though the benefits were first
restricted to a minority, creating divisions based on access to education, India's attempts to
strengthen Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes
(OBC) through educational reservations led to the creation of a new middle class after
independence.

Economic Impact of Social Mobility

This is not to say, however, that India today is merely a more complex version of the past. The
Dalits have been discriminated against and exploited with limited opportunities for a long time.
Nevertheless, there has been a trend of convergence in education levels and occupations between
upper castes and lower castes over the last few decades. This partly arises from affirmative action
policies and partly from caste-based networks playing a special role.
In imperfect markets, networks facilitate movement among groups and promote economic
development.38 On the one hand, these linkages in castes ensures members fulfill their roles
through social sanctions and encourage cooperation. Actually these networks have facilitated
historical rural- urban migrations allowing for an establishment of city-based labor markets. The
changes in the economy brought with them opportunities as well as challenges. These include
structural changes that have resulted in new economic opportunities particularly in commercial
and specialized sectors. This situation, along with other shocks such as the transition in diamond
industry, has enabled disadvantaged castes to use networks to quickly advance their careers within
a generation. Making links can help underprivileged groups catch up at a faster pace, according to
this study. However, it is not absolutely ideal. Castes network may limit individual mobility

37
Vaid, Divya. "Patterns of social mobility and the role of education in India." Contemporary South
Asia 24.3 (2016): 285-312.
38
Iversen, Vegard, Anirudh Krishna, and Kunal Sen. Social mobility in developing countries:
Concepts, methods, and determinants. Oxford University Press, 2021.

19
although they could be triggers for group movements as well. A case was made by research studies
on how powerful networks within traditional businesses can make it hard for people to take up
new opportunities thus adapting themselves to changing economic conditions.
Moreover, rural communities rely on informal insurance systems based on caste that can
discourage permanent movement to urban areas. This could explain why India has a lower-than-
expected rate of migration from rural to urban areas as people are willing to sacrificing social
security for higher incomes in the cities. This example shows how inefficiencies in one market
such as the lack of formal insurance can limit mobility because of inefficiencies in another (caste
networks).
India’s social set-up is unique as it includes caste networks which work to its advantage. Despite
being a double-edged sword for mobility, these networks continued existence illustrates how
casting still plays a role in influencing living, career and education choices. For any policies that
effectively encourage social mobility and economic progress going forward, it will be necessary
to take into account the ongoing value of these networks. The emergence of formal alternatives
and addressing market failures will not make caste networks disappear overnight; thereby opening
up space for a more mobile and equitable Indian economy.

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 Chapter 4 - CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES AHEAD

Challenges and opportunities-

• In many cases, discrimination based on caste have become deeply rooted in many societies
that the very social fabric of these societies are so prejudiced against those who belong to
these caste groups that are marginalized.39 Much work has to be done to address such
deeply ingrained attitudes through a process of sensitization, education and cultural
transformation.
• Discrimination based on caste is supported by structural inequalities in health, education,
employment and housing, all of which impede the marginalized and make them further
vulnerable to economic and social exclusion.
• Lack of an efficient institutional mechanism often facilitates discrimination, and there are
no appropriate actions for such cases despite legal regulations that ban such practices. It is
essential that laws be tightened up and their implementations accelerated in order to prevent
discrimination on a caste basis.
• In some communities, caste discrimination is complicated by the addition of other
discriminatory issues such as gender, religion, and economic status, resulting in further
marginalization of Dalit women and children who experience even worse cases of
discrimination. To address these multiple intersecting forms of inequality, there is a need
to develop a holistic and intersectional approach.
• There is a risk that elites and dominant groups may resist a change in caste-based
prejudice.40 Hence, alliances with a variety of communities will be needed to challenge
exclusion and promote diversity and social justice.
• The development of evidence-based treatments and policies on discrimination based on
caste is hampered by the lack of evidence. Sound research and data need to be collected to
guide effective planning. Government responses to caste discrimination can be influenced

39
Harriss-White, Barbara, and Aseem Prakash. "Social discrimination in India: A case for economic
citizenship." (2010).
40
Hasan, Zoya, Aziz Z. Huq, and Martha C. Nussbaum, eds. The empire of disgust: Prejudice,
discrimination, and policy in India and the US. Oxford University Press, 2018.

21
 by political reasons and electoral considerations, highlighting the significance of political
leadership and commitment at all levels.
• It is often the case that cultural practices and social norms contribute to the perpetuation of
caste discrimination, making it crucial for the community to participate actively in efforts
aimed at promoting alternative narratives of justice and equality.
• The discrimination against the poor in the judicial system and poverty are the two obstacles
that have left underprivileged caste groups with no easy choice of approaching courts for
seeking justice. Raising the level of accessibility of legal systems is an important task.
• From the perspective of caste discrimination, it is not restricted to any specific locality but
can require global coordination and campaigns as a measure of addressing it effectively.
• Governments, civil society, grassroots movements, the private sector, and affected
communities should join forces to promote social justice, equality, and inclusivity for every
individual regardless of identity or caste.
Possible Initiatives –
For promoting social justice as well as inclusivity, there are some possible initiatives:41

Legal and Policy Reforms: It is crucial to make the existing laws and regulations that explicitly
prohibit caste discrimination stronger and ensure their effective enforcement. In addition, new
legislations should be enacted to deal with emerging forms of discrimination while providing
greater protection to the depressed castes.
Education and Awareness Campaigns42: Extensive education and awareness campaigns will be
needed in order to challenge stereotypes based on caste, foster empathy and encourage inclusivity.
These should target individuals in urban or rural areas, communities businesses and schools.
Economic Empowerment: Specific activities or programs must be implemented to give
economically marginalized castes more power. This would involve giving access to schooling,
vocational training, jobs and assistance for entrepreneurship in order to break the cycle of poverty
as well as marginalization.

41
Farrington, John, and Conor Farrington. "Rural accessibility, social inclusion and social justice:
towards conceptualisation." Journal of Transport geography 13.1 (2005): 1-12.
42
Grier, Sonya A. "Marketing inclusion: A social justice project for diversity education." Journal of
Marketing Education 42.1 (2020): 59-75.

22
Affirmative Action Measures: Through actions like quotas in politics employment and education
so that all these categories always take part proportionately with respect to them remain
represented; therefore representation counts. Such policies must address both social justice as well
as historical injustices.
Community Outreach and Support Services: Design community outreach initiatives and provide
opportunities for marginalised caste groups to access social welfare initiatives, housing, healthcare
and legal aid. Stakeholders and impacted communities should be consulted when such programmes
are being devised.
Interfaith and Inter-caste Dialogue: Encouraging calls for communication and cooperation
between caste groups and religions will lead to social harmony and coherence. Community
gatherings, basic training on in-equality, discussion panels and cross-cultural exchanges can help
to create healthy networks. investments in initiatives to develop the ability and sharpen the
leadership skills of people who are underrepresented.
Journalism and Arts: To tackle prejudices and advance human interest narratives, more inclusive
portrayals of caste identities in the arts, media and culture is necessary. This would entail
supporting projects that feature the lived experiences and successes of communities who are
underrepresented.
Community Participation and Advocacy: It is important to strengthen community-based groups
and social movements that generate, collect and receive data on caste discrimination. It is also
necessary to lend support to policy advocacy and social justice efforts.
State Responsibility and Oversight: It is necessary that States are accountable for ending caste-
based discrimination. This involves establishing reliable and consistent mechanisms for data
gathering, reporting and monitoring. Engaging with the State is an essential part of these
opportunities. It is the role of national authorities and international agencies to demand adherence
to legal commitments and pledges for the promotion of social equality and inclusivity. These
strategies must be implemented in a comprehensive and coherent manner, recognising where caste
is interconnected with other forms of discrimination. Most importantly, noticeable sincerity,
commitment, leadership and effective engagement across all stakeholders is essential for the robust
counter narrative and promotion of social justice and inclusivity.

23
 CONCLUSION
In a society there is a hierarchy of social structure which is based on the birth and it has a big
impact on the rural India. This social structure dictates the occupations , social interactions and
even the choice of marriage of people. The extent of the impact of this social structure is not much
in Urban livelihood as compared to rural livelihood. In rural India the upper castes tend to dominate
the land ownership and even the economic opportunities and on the other hand the lower castes
are given the odd jobs and they face severe discrimination in education, social gatherings and in
their religious practices.
This harsh social structure give birth to inequality and social injustice in the society. Dalits who
are in the lowest pedestal in this social structure has to face the harsh realitites of this social
structure. They had limited access to education , they face violence and even social exclusion and
basic rights are snatched away from them. There has been several attempts to reduce this social
inequality and several protections and actions have been taken for this , then also this gap between
the upper caste and lower caste tends to exist and various research shows that there is lower
education level , restricted economic opportunities and higher crime rate against Dalit.
This caste-based discrimination is deeply rooted in the traditional beliefs and practices of the
society. To remove this caste-based inequality and discrimination there is a need for multi multi-
pronged approach. Access to Education should be among lower caste so that they can break this
social order and challenge this social structure. Only the formulation of Laws will not help in
removing this discrimination, there should be stricter enforcement of these laws. And the most
important tool to eradicate this discrimination is to change the attitude and belief of the society of
caste superiority so that this social structure based on birth can be challenged.
There is a glimmer of hope. Increased mobility and urbanization expose people to diverse
perspectives, potentially weakening the hold of the caste system. However, much remains to be
done. The fight for a casteless society requires sustained efforts from the government, social
movements, and civil society to dismantle this oppressive system and ensure equal opportunities
for all.
Urbanization and increase in mobility can loosen the grip of this caste system and it can expose
people to diverse perspectives which will give them to whole new perspective. This fight against
this caste-based discrimination also needs an effort from the side of government, social

24
movements, and civil society and this will lead to the suppression of this oppressive system and
will ensure equal opportunity to all.
There has been a relationship between mobility and caste. Some castes climbed up the social ladder
which was done by adopting the practices of the upper caste such as Sanskritization and
westernization. Land ownership and education which was ensured after the independence also
helped in the social upliftment. But despite this, there are significant challenges like deep-rooted
prejudice, unequal access to resources, and weak enforcement of the anti-discrimination laws.
Educational campaigns and economic empowerment campaigns are needed to challenge this caste
based discrimination .

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 BIBLIOGRAOPHY

WEBSITES AND ARTICLES

• jStor.com
• Google Scholar
• The Times of India
• The Wire
• The Hindu
• The Mint

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