FLOW OF ACTIVITY FOR GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

MONDAY: Kindly have the copy of this- continuation of our topic about reproduction:
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one organism to another, and so some
generalizations were made about animal reproductive systems in order to understand its variations.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MALE FEMALE
1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which sperm are produced - in which eggs are produced
2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
- used for the transport of sperm to the - a tube for the transport of egg
exterior of the body 3. Vagina
3. Penis - the terminal portion of the oviduct
- the terminal part of the sperm duct responsible for the receiving of male copulatory
which opens onto or into a copulatory organ organ

Some Reproductive Variations

Some animals show unique and tremendous diversity in their methods of reproduction. Even members
of the same class may differ markedly in their reproductive process.

A. Metagenesis – also known as ‘transformation development’, refers to an alternation of asexual

and sexual generations.

Example: hydrozoan Obelia, a polyp generation gives rise by budding to a generation of medusas. The
motile medusas produce gametes and reproduce sexually, giving rise to new generation of polyps. Thus,
there is alternation of generations – polyp, medusa, polyp, medusa, and so on. Both generations consist
of diploid organisms.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-diagram-life-cycle/
B. Parthenogenesis – also known as ‘virgin development’, is a form of reproduction in which an
unfertilized egg develops into an adult animal. This occurs for several generations, after which males
develop, produce sperm, and mate with females to fertilize their eggs. In some species, parthenogenesis
is advantageous in maintaining social order; in others, it appears to be an adaptation for survival in times
of stressor when there is a serious decrease in population.

Example: Honeybees. The queen honeybee is inseminated by a male during the “nuptial flight”. The
sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch connected with her genital tract but closed off by a
muscular valve. As the queen lays eggs, she can either open this valve, permitting the sperm to escape
and fertilize the eggs, or keep the valve closed, so that the eggs develop without fertilization. Generally,
fertilization occurs in the fall, and the fertilized eggs are quiescent during the winter. The fertilized eggs
become females (queens and workers); the unfertilized eggs become males (drones).

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/

C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both eggs and sperm. Although this
form of reproduction is still classified as sexual, (since both eggs and sperms are involved), it is an
exception to the important generalization that sexual reproduction involves two different individuals.

Example: Earthworm. Most hermaphrodites do not reproduce by selffertilization. Rather, as in

earthworms, two animals copulate, and each inseminates the other.
 http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-

foodweb?tmpl=%2Fsystem%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=1

Human Reproduction
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-reproductive-system https://microbenotes.com/female-reproductive-system/
Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in a tough protective capsule and
contains many follicles. Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in the process of ovulation.

Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the opening of the oviduct,
or fallopian tube. The uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to
accommodate a 4-kg fetus. The inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium, is richly supplied with blood
vessels. The neck of the uterus is the cervix, which opens into the vagina.

Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and that
serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born. Vulva is a collective term for the external female
genitalia. Vestibule, labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and
Bartholin’s glands are all located in this area having their
special functions.

Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally

function only in women. They are not part of the reproductive
system but are important to mammalian
reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial
tissue secrete milk which drains into a series of ducts
opening at the nipple.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-locations-functions-male-reproductive-organs/ https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563

Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules – where sperm form)
surrounded by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig cells that are scattered between the seminiferous
tubules produce testosterone and other androgens. The production of normal `sperm cannot occur at the normal
body temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of humans and many other mammals are held outside the
abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During ejaculation, the sperm are
propelled from the epididymis through the muscular vas deferens. These two ducts (one from each epididymis)
run from the scrotum around and behind the urinary bladder, where each joins a duct from the seminal vesicl,
forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra, the tube that drains both the
excretory system and reproductive system of male. The urethra runs through the penis and opens to the outside
at the tip of the penis.

Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands – add
secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.

Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen, and each milliliter may
contain 50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in the semen cause thinning of the mucus at the opening of the
uterus and stimulate contractions of the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the uterus.

Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified veins and capillaries.
During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing
pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis, causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection is
essential to insertion of the penis into the vagina.

TUESDAY: Kindly answer it in your filler

A. PLANT REPRODUCTION
Pollination Genetic; identical Staminate, pistillate Scion; stock; cambium

Simple Propagules Petals Pollen; water

fruit new combinations staminate Ovulate; pollen tube;
archegonium; embryo
1. The main advantage of asexual reproduction, in addition to its speed, is that it permits the propagation of
advantageous ____makeups since the offspring are genetically _____ with the parent.
2. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, permits _________ of traits to arise from the contributions of
multiple different ancestors.
3. Certain plants produce body parts specialized for breakaway and dispersal that are known as
___________________________.
4. In grafting, the plant that is to be asexually propagated is known as the ____; this is attached to the
_____, which may be little more than a root. It is important that the two have their ______layers in contact with
each other.
5. The production of _____ by the seed plants largely circumvents the requirement found in ferns, mosses,
and the like for ____as a requirement for fertilization.
B. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Fragmentation Hermaphroditic sterile
Gamete; zygote Sexual and asexual generations Develops into a new individual
1. The type of reproduction in which an animal divides into several pieces and then each piece develops
into an entire new animal is called _____________________________.
2. In metagenesis there is an alternation of ____________________________________________.
3. Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg _____.
4. An individual that can produce both eggs and sperm is described as _____.
5. A sex cell (either egg or sperm) is properly called a ____; a fertilized egg is a ___.

I. Matching type. Select the most appropriate answer from column B for each description in column A. Write
the letter of the correct answer only in your activity notebook.
Column A Column B
1. Regeneration A. Asexual reproduction
2. Internal fertilization B. Sexual reproduction
3. Budding
4. External fertilization
5. Fission

III. Enumeration
6-9. List down at least 4 organs of the male reproductive system (human)
10-14. List down at least 5 female internal reproductive organs (human)
15-20 List down the 6 types of contraception
21-22. Enumerate the male reproductive organs of plants
23-25. Enumerate the female reproductive organs of plants

Wednesday: Continue your outline about Development

A. Plant Development
Plants are the antennae by which the energy of sunlight is captured in the ecosphere and then stored in food for later slow,
catabolic release in the living cells of both plants and animals. To many of us, plants are little more than a green mass in the
background of life. Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living matter is composed of plants; this includes a tremendous variety of algae,
vines, shrubs, trees, grasses, and herbs. Almost all of these diverse plant shapes are variations on a common theme, and almost all
tracheophytes (vascular plants) are composed of just three main parts: leaves, stems, and roots.
Although a plant begins life as a seed, the seed has a history of development all its own. The fundamental body plan of a
plant is laid down even before a seed leaves the parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

Seeds
 The seed plants are classified into two major groups, the gymnosperms (are both male and female; that is, each
reproductive organ is either male or female. They are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers,
cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that is based on the unenclosed condition
of their seeds) and the angiosperms (a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel. The
angiosperms are a large group and include herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees). The angiosperms
are then divided into the monocots and the dicots, mostly on the basis of their seed structure.

SEED STRUCTURE

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/
The Monocot Seed
In a typical monocot such as a grass, the seed is surrounded with a protective seed coat. The aleurone
layer, which lies under the seed coat, functions as a kind of digestive organ in seed germination. Most of the
seeds consist of starchy endosperm, a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the seed
is still attached to the parent plant. In some monocots the embryo proper is demarked from the endosperm by a
tough scutellum, and often by another layer known as the coleorhiza, which protects the future root, or radicle,
as it grows out of the seed into the surrounding soil. All of these structures will be discarded once they have
served their function, leaving only the radicle, the mesocotyl (future stem), and the shoot apex, which by then
will have developed into the mature versions of these structures.
Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers to its only seed structure that appears to be homologous with
a leaf – the single cotyledon. The monocot cotyledon absorbs digested food from the endosperm. In grass
embryos, a very large cotyledon develops, which is known as the scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

The Dicot Seed

 Dicots, as their name implies, have two cotyledons. Sometimes, as in the castor bean plant, these do function as
actual leaves. More typically, as in beans, peas, and maple seeds, the cotyledons serve as food storage organs in
place of the endosperm.
Other dicot seed structures include the radicle and the plumule, which corresponds to the shoot apex in
monocots. In most dicot seeds, however, there is nothing comparable to the aleurone or coleorhiza, although
some do have a functional endosperm.
The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the result of one of two distinct fertilizations: in one of these, the
endosperm (if any) is produced. The other fertilization process, which gives rise to the embryo, yields a zygote,
which then undergoes cleavage. The cell divisions that the zygote undergoes following fertilization first
produce a basal cell and a terminal cell. From the basal cell develops a filament of cells called a suspensor. The
terminal cell divides, forming a rounded mass of cells; from this mass grow the two cotyledons and a central
axis. In dicots, the part of the axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledons is called the hypocotyl and
the part above it, is the epicotyl. The embryo is in this state of development when the seed becomes dormant.

SEED GERMINATION

The embryonic plant is kept in a state of suspended development called dormancy, which ends when
germination takes place.

Breaking Dormancy
As a first step in breaking dormancy, the embryo emits a hormone called gibberellin, which
diffuses through the seed. In monocots, the hormone then triggers the production of digestive enzymes
by the aleurone; in dicots, the digestive enzymes are produced by the cotyledons. These enzymes then
proceed to break down the stored food in the endosperm or cotyledons. For example, amylase breaks
down starch to form maltose, which is then cleaved by maltase to yield glucose; and other enzymes
attack stored proteins, fats, and oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s use.

The Early Root and Emergence

Microscopic examination of the root tip will disclose a cap consisting partly of dead or moribund
cells at its apex, whose function is largely to protect the tender tissues from abrasion by soil particles,
and in addition to serve as a source of growth hormones. The actual living tissue, however, is
undergoing vigorous mitosis. For that reason, this part of the root tip is known as the zone of division. It
is an apical meristem, a growing tip of embryonic, differentiating tissue. By the time they have begun to
enlarge, they are left behind in a zone of elongation, which is responsible for most of the lengthwise
growth of the root tip. Since new cells are constantly added to this zone by mitosis, however, growth
continues indefinitely. At the same time, the older portions of the zone of elongation cease to grow and
become incorporated into the zone of maturation, where tissue differentiation now begins.

Meristems and Buds

PRIMARY MERISTEMS
For the most part, the primary meristems give rise to differentiated tissues such as phloem and
xylem. However, some tissues derived from the primary meristem remain undifferentiated and form the
cambium layers of the stem and the similar pericycle layer of the root. These eventually form
differentiated tissues themselves, but in such a way as to produce lateral growth and increase in girth.

THE LEAF BUD

 Leaf Growth
Each leaf originates on the side of the meristem, growing upward as it enlarges and begins to
differentiate. Once its growth is well under way, another group of cells next to it and somewhat above it
begins to grow outward and upward.

Leaf Fall
Leaves age and die in all plants, and in some cases the plant senesces as a whole. As xylem ages, for
example, it becomes clogged with resins and turns to heartwood. As cells produced by the cork
cambium age, they die and become converted to cork.
The part of a perennial plant that ages most obviously – and sometimes spectacularly – is the leaf. In
deciduous trees, however, all leaves age and die at about the same time in what happens to be basically a
water conservation measure.

The Ecology of Abscission

Abscission is the process by which plants shed one of their parts, and an abscission layer is an
adaptation that specifically permits loss of leaves. The abscission layer also represents a point of
weakness, so that in due time, the yellowed leaves are swirled away by the winds of winter.

SECONDARY GROWTH

In Dicots
If root and shoot (stem) meristems give rise to all plant tissues, a process of differentiation must occur
behind the growing tips of the stem and the root. In stems, the earliest trace of differentiation occurs just
behind the apical zone of active mitosis. In the center of the apical bud is a cylinder that develops into
the vascular tissues as it matures. It is appropriately known as the provascular cylinder. On the
exterior, potential epidermis called the protoderm develops. Between the two lies a layer called ground
meristem or ground tissue, which becomes the cortex and the pith.

In Monocots
Secondary growth usually does not occur in monocots. The trunk of a treelike monocot such as
bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly the same diameter from base to crown.; in fact, the diameter of a
palm trunk can be somewhat smaller at the base than midway between it and the crown. Yet the trunk of
a palm seedling is obviously not nearly as great as is that of the mature tree. What happens is a bit
different than what occurs in dicots. Immediately behind the apical meristem is a primary thickening
meristem that is as great in diameter as the trunk. It is derived from the apical meristem, which
continuously enlarges to produce it. The primary thickening meristem then lays down vascular and other
differentiated tissues to form the stem of the palm tree.

Early Development
The Zygote
The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the diverse cell types of the
complete individual.
In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as food for the developing
embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among different animal groups. Yolk is absent from the
human zygote.

Cleavage: From One Cell to Many

Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By about 24 hours after fertilization, the
human zygote has completed the first mitotic division and reached the two-cell stage. Each of the cells of the
two-cell stage embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the number of cells to four. Repeated divisions continue to
increase the number of cells making up the embryo. At about the 16cell stage, the embryo consists of a tiny
cluster of cells called the morula. As cleavage takes place, the embryo is pushed along the uterine tube by
ciliary action and muscular contraction. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, on about the fifth day of
development, it is in the morula stage.

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-

morula-can-be-differentiated-form-blastula-in/

The Blastocyst
During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball called blastocyst (blastula),
eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the chorion and placenta) that surround the embryo. A little cluster
of cells, the inner cell mass, projects into the cavity of the blastocyst. These cells give rise to the embryo itself.

https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-cleavage-implantation/

Implantation
Implantation of embryo in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins on the seventh day of
embryonic development. During this period, enzymes destroy some tiny maternal capillaries in the wall of the
uterus. Blood from these capillaries comes in direct contact with the trophoblast of the embryo, temporarily
providing a rich source of nutrition. Implantation is completed by the ninth day of development.
Formation of Germ Layers
The cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst arrange themselves to form a two-layered disk. The
cells of the lower level then merge to line an inner cavity, the primitive gut, or archenteron, which will
eventually develop into the digestive tract and certain other structures.
These cells make up the endoderm, while the cells that remain to cover the embryo and become its outermost
layer form the ectoderm. A third layer of cells, the mesoderm, proliferates between the ectoderm and
endoderm.
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are known as the three germ layers, or embryonic tissue layers. Each
gives rise to specific structures in all vertebrate embryos (Villee, Solomon & Davis).

Stages in the Human Life Cycle

If you did not finished your outline then continue it on Thursday after that,answer the different questions below.
Kindly answer it in your filler and pass it after the period.

1. Cite atlease 2 importance of the growth and development of plants and animals

A. Multiple choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer and write on your notebook.

1. It functions as a kind of digestive organ in seed germination.

A. Seed coat B. Aleurone layer C. Ectoderm Mesoderm

2. It is a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the seed is still attached to the parent
plant.
A. Endoderm B. Aleurone layer C. Ectoderm Mesoderm

3. It is a state of suspended development which ends when germination takes place.

A. Suspension B. Implantation C. Dormancy D. Activation

4. It is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis.

A. Mutation B. Diffusion C. Division D. Cleavage

5. Inner cell mass produces three germ layers known as the following, except for one:
A. Endoderm B. Endosperm C. Mesoderm D. Ectoderm

B. Enumeration
List down the 9 stages of human life cycle, in order. 6-14.