Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028

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Journal of Arid Environments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jaridenv

Soil organic carbon sequestration potential of conservation agriculture in

arid and semi-arid regions: A review
Vesh R. Thapa a, 1, Rajan Ghimire a, b, *, Kamal P. Adhikari c, Sushil Lamichhane d
a
New Mexico State University, Agricultural Science Center, Clovis, NM, USA
b
New Mexico State University, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Las Cruces, NM, USA
c
Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand
d
School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Conservation agriculture is increasingly adopted for efficient soil and water management in dry environments,
Carbon sequestration yet their role in climate change mitigation through increased soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration is not fully
Cropping system intensification understood. This study reviewed the literature on SOC change in arid and semi-arid regions with the adoption of
Arid and semi-arid regions
cover cropping, diverse crop rotations, and reduced or no-tillage management to elucidate the role of conser­
vation practices on SOC sequestration. Published data between 1990 and 2021 were evaluated based on com­
parison counts and discussed in terms of percentage or mean change for SOC storage and sequestration potential.
Results revealed mean SOC sequestration of 271 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1 and 235 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1 with cover cropping and
diverse crop rotation, respectively, in the upper 30 cm soil depth. However, the SOC sequestration potential
varied with soil type and tillage management. The SOC response to cover cropping or diverse crop rotation was
more evident in medium-textured soils than other soils, in which diverse cropping systems with conservation
tillage sequestered 10% more SOC than conventional tilled crop-fallow systems, greater than SOC sequestration
with diverse cropping or conservation tillage alone. It was also noteworthy that the SOC sequestration rate was
high in the first five years of adopting conservation practices and decreased as time passed until it reached a new
equilibrium. The average SOC sequestration rate for studies <5 yr was highly variable across the arid and semi-
arid regions, while the rate was low but consistent in the studies >10 yr. Conservation systems can benefit arid
and semi-arid agrosystems by enhancing SOC sequestration; stacked conservation practices could effectively
harness greater benefits.

1. Introduction unprotected, loosely aggregated, and coarse-textured, leading to inher­

Arid and semi-arid regions spread across western North America,
northern Europe, central Africa, Northwest China, and southwest
Australia, covering ~41% of the global terrestrial area. Crop production
in arid and semi-arid regions is often challenged by the low availability
of water (annual precipitation ≤700 mm) and nutrients (Plaza-Bonilla
et al., 2015; Tchakerian, 2015; Gallart et al., 2002). These regions
experience frequent and intense droughts, strong winds, and
high-intensity, short-duration rainfall during the wetter months. Such
extreme weather conditions limit plant biomass production, ground
coverage, and biomass carbon (C) inputs to the soil resulting in C-deficit
soils. Moreover, soils in arid and semi-arid regions are often
ently low fertility status (Plaza-Bonilla et al., 2015).
Continuous cropping is challenging in arid and semi-arid agro­
systems because of low precipitation. Fallowing is a common practice to
conserve rainwater in soils in dry regions, which involves leaving land
without cropping for one or more growing seasons (Hansen et al., 2012).
Fallowing is considered essential in arid and semi-arid regions because
of the lack of enough precipitation during the crop-growing season
(Ghimire et al., 2018). These areas often experience evapotranspiration
greater than total annual precipitation (Gallart et al., 2002; Tchakerian,
2015). Therefore, substantial storage of plant-available water in the soil
profile is needed to supplement the growing season precipitation.
However, the water conservation efficiency of a fallow is only about

* Corresponding author. 2346 State Road 288, Clovis, NM, 88101, USA.
E-mail address: rghimire@nmsu.edu (R. Ghimire).
1
Current address: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Lincoln, NE, USA.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105028
Received 25 December 2022; Received in revised form 3 July 2023; Accepted 6 July 2023
Available online 12 July 2023
0140-1963/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
V.R. Thapa et al.
10–35% (Dalrymple et al., 1993; Nielsen and Vigil, 2010). In addition,
leaving land fallow for a long time limits the biomass C inputs to the soil
due to insufficient crop residue return to the soil, depletes SOC, induces
soil erosion, and increases weed problems (Rasmussen et al., 1998;
Sherrod et al., 2003). Frequent tillage is used to incorporate surface
residue and control weeds that would otherwise compete for available
soil moisture during fallow periods (Schillinger and Papendick, 2008).
However, repetitive tillage has long been known to contribute to further
SOC loss (Al-Kaisi and Yin, 2005; Hansen et al., 2012; Ghimire and
Khanal, 2020). Depletion of SOC by up to 63% has been reported from
the Great Plains and Pacific Northwest of the USA (Bowman et al., 1990;
Ghimire et al., 2015; Norton et al., 2012; Ghimire and Khanal, 2020).
These highlight the need to identify management strategies that increase
SOC storage in arid and semi-arid regions to mitigate climate change and
sustain crop production.
A better understanding of how management strategies that increase
cropping intensity and diversity and reduce soil disturbance affect SOC
storage is needed to make informed decisions on SOC sequestration and
enhance climate resilience in arid and semi-arid regions (Nicoloso and
Rice, 2021; Jaya et al., 2021). Therefore, we reviewed and synthesized
available research on cover cropping and diverse crop rotation to further
our understanding of tradeoffs, challenges, and opportunities for
adopting such practices in water-limited environments. Specifically, we
evaluated published data to understand the C sequestration potential of
cover crops and diverse crop rotations compared to crop-fallow or
mono-cropping systems across arid and semiarid regions of the world.
2. Cropping systems in arid and semi-arid regions
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) are the two
principal crops in arid and semi-arid regions. Winter wheat is typically
rotated with fallow; the length of fallow periods varies with geographic
locations and cropping systems. In a winter wheat-fallow system, a two-
year rotation starts with planting winter wheat in October and har­
vesting in subsequent July, followed by a 14-month fallow (one crop in
two years). A winter wheat-sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)-fallow
(WSF) rotation is typical in the Central and Southern Great Plains of the
USA, where two crops are produced in three years with two 11 months
fallow periods (one between wheat harvest and grain sorghum planting
and another between grain sorghum harvest and wheat planting)
(Baumhardt and Jones, 2002). In wheat–summer crop–fallow systems of
the Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest, fallow length varies with
crop in rotation with winter wheat (Cann et al., 2020; Hansen et al.,
2012; Schillinger and Papendick, 2008). A continuous winter wheat
cropping system with a short fallow period of three months is also
practiced in the northern Great Plains and Pacific Northwest of the USA,
where wheat is planted in October and harvested in July of the following
year (Cann et al., 2020). In the Northern Great Plains of the USA and
semi-arid regions of the Canadian prairies, spring wheat and durum
wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) are grown rather than winter wheat, but a
similar wheat-fallow rotation as in Central or Southern Great Plains is
practiced (Campbell et al., 2002). Spring and durum wheat are typically
planted in April and harvested in July, with fallow periods of eight
months in wetter areas to 21 months in drier regions (Hansen et al.,
2012).
In the semi-arid Loess Plateau of China, continuous winter wheat or
maize monoculture is commonly practiced with fallow periods of three
and seven months, respectively (Sun et al., 2018). Rotation of winter
wheat-spring maize with two harvests in two years and ten months
fallow from the winter wheat harvest in June to spring maize planting in
the March of the following year is also practiced in the dry part of the
Loess Plateau (Liu et al., 2013). In northeastern China, spring wheat is
grown instead of winter wheat. In this area, spring wheat-summer corn
(Zea mays L.)-fallow/soybean (Glycine max. ev. Bayueza) in a three-year
cycle has been practiced for a long time. This practice leaves about eight
months fallow between spring wheat harvest and summer corn planting,
2
Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028
six months between summer corn harvest and soybean planting, and
another five months between soybean harvest and next spring wheat
planting (Liu et al., 2013).
Fallowing has recently increased in the drylands of Australia and
northern Europe as an adaptation strategy to frequent droughts (Manalil
and Flower, 2014). For example, western Australia has a semi-arid
Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summer and cool,
wet winter. In this area, fallowing is practiced after the harvest of a
wheat crop in a wheat-fallow rotation and late winter or early spring
(August–September) in a three-year wheat-annual pasture-fallow rota­
tion. In both rotations, wheat is sown typically in early May (autumn),
allowing crops to grow through winter, flower in September (spring),
and harvest in late November or early December (summer). Annual
pastures usually included in wheat-annual pasture-fallow rotation are
subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) with volunteer annual
grasses and herbs such as medic (Medicago spp.), and the growing season
typically extends from April/May until October when two-thirds of the
annual rainfall occurs (Oliver et al., 2010). Both rotations have a 10–18
month fallow period commencing mid-summer to mid-autumn
(January–April) (Latta and O’Leary, 2003). Grain legumes such as len­
tils (Lens culinaris Med.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), grain lupin
(Lupinus angustifolius L.), and field peas (Pisum sativum L.), oilseed break
crops, including canola (Brassica napus L.) and mustard (Brassica juncea
L.), and cereals such as oats (Avena sativa L.) and barley (Hordeum vul­
gare L.) are planted in drylands of Australia to reduce the negative im­
pacts of long fallow periods (Oliver et al., 2010; Seymour et al., 2012).
3. Review approach
We conducted a thorough literature search of the peer-reviewed
papers (1990–2021) that have reported changes in SOC with cover
cropping and diverse crop rotation in various parts of the world (Fig. 1).
The literature was searched in Google Scholar and the Web of Science
database. The search terms included: “cover crop(s)”, “green manure”,
“catch crop”, or “trap crop” and “arid” or “semi-arid” in combination
with “soil organic carbon”, or “soil organic matter”. We searched and
downloaded about 100 papers, then used the criteria discussed below to
determine a publication to be included in the current review. We
included only field studies and did not include greenhouse or pot
studies. Studies that either provided SOC stocks or the information
necessary to calculate SOC stocks [i.e., % SOC or concentration (g kg− 1)
with bulk density] and reported the depth of measurement and time
frame for changed management were selected. Only studies that have
reported comparisons between crop-fallow (predominant dryland
cropping system) and cover crops or diverse cropping practices were
considered. Tillage information was also recorded as a secondary vari­
able to study SOC sequestration. When studies have not reported mean
annual precipitation, we estimated such values for the nearby city listed
Fig. 1. Distribution of cover cropping and diverse crop rotation studies across
the arid and semi-arid regions of the world overlaid on the spatial distribution
of soil organic carbon stocks sourced from SoilGrids version 2.0 for the top 100
cm (Poggio et al., 2021). The white (blank) area in the figure represents the
region outside of arid and semi-arid environments, which is beyond the scope of
the current review.
V.R. Thapa et al.
in the paper via online sources (https://www.worldweatheronline.
com/and https://www.wunderground.com/). With these criteria, 69
and 93 comparisons were adapted from 22 and 26 studies related to
cover cropping and diverse crop rotation, respectively. The majority of
these studies collected were from North America. Each comparison re­
ported in the selected studies was independent of one another.
The SOC accumulation with improved management practices may
differ across regions as climate, management practices, cropping sys­
tems, soil type, and other factors vary widely. Therefore, data on SOC
stocks were tabulated by cover cropping and diverse crop rotation
practices at different locations, soil type, study duration, soil sampling
depth, tillage system, cropping system/rotation, and cover crop species
for each study (Supplemental Table S1). The locations included in this
study have a mean annual precipitation of ≤700 mm. The SOC values
presented in the figures (e.g., bar graphs) were extracted using Web­
PlotDigitizer (https://apps.automeris.io/wpd/), and SOC stocks were
calculated by multiplying SOC concentration with soil bulk density
where necessary. Any data reported as soil organic matter (SOM) was
converted to SOC by dividing SOM by the Van Bemmelen factor of 1.72
(Pribyl, 2010). We computed percentage change, means, and accumu­
lation rate to discuss the difference in SOC between crop-fallow and
alternative management practices. The difference in SOC stocks between
alternative management practices and business-as-usual practices was
divided by the years over which the management change occurred to
determine the rate of SOC accumulation per year. Irrespective of loca­
tions, soil types, cover crop species, and tillage systems, we also
analyzed data using a power regression procedure to predict SOC
accumulation rate as a function of years after management changes. In
the present review, comparison counts in SOC stocks were used as a
primary approach to evaluate the effects (increase, decrease, or no ef­
fect) of cover cropping, diverse crop rotation, and tillage systems on SOC
stocks compared to crop-fallow systems. We chose comparison counts
rather than the number of studies as several studies included multiple
cover crop species, crop rotation, and tillage systems with differing ef­
fects on the soil ecosystem service. In addition, we opted to use com­
parison counts instead of other methods of comparison (e.g.,
meta-analysis) because most studies did not report a measure of vari­
ance [i.e., a least significant difference (LSD), standard deviation, or
standard error] of SOC stocks, which are needed for a meta-analysis.
To better explore how factors, such as cover crop species, soil type,
and duration of management changes affect SOC content, cover crops
were grouped by functional groups as grasses, legumes, brassicas, and
diverse-mixes, soil type as coarse-textured (loamy sand and sandy
loam), medium-textured (loam and silt loam), and fine-textured (clay
loam, silty clay loam, and clayey soils), and duration of management
changes as short term (≤5 yr), medium term (5–10 yr), and long-term
(>10 yr). Similarly, tillage was grouped into two categories: conven­
tional (moldboard, chisel, mechanical, stubble-mulch, heavy-duty
cultivator, disking, harrowing, rotary, ridge, traditional) and conserva­
tion tillage (reduced, minimum, zero, strip, no-tillage) to investigate
how tillage interacted with cover crop and crop rotation effects on SOC
sequestration.
We also created a map of arid and semi-arid regions of the world. The
arid and semi-arid areas were delineated using an annual precipitation
data layer of 30 arc-second resolution from the WorldClim V1 datasets
available in the repository of Google Earth Engine (Hijmans et al.,
2005). As for the literature review, a threshold of ≤700 mm annual
precipitation was used to determine arid and semi-arid regions while
creating the map (Fig. 1) (Gallart et al., 2002). The SOC stocks for the
top 100 cm were calculated using predicted SoilGrids version 2.0 mean
SOC content, bulk density, and coarse fragment raster layers available at
the spatial resolution of 250 m (Poggio et al., 2021). Carbon stocks were
calculated for different layers, namely, 0–5 cm, 5–15 cm, 15–30 cm,
30–60 cm, and 60–100 cm, and added to get the carbon stocks for the
entire 0–100 cm depth. The distribution of cover cropping and diverse
cropping studies across the arid and semi-arid regions were
3
Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028
superimposed on the spatial distribution of SOC stocks for the top 100
cm depth.
4. Cover cropping and soil organic carbon sequestration
Cover crops are plants selectively grown to provide surface cover to
reduce soil erosion, enhance water infiltration, control weeds and pests,
and improve soil quality (Clark, 2008). Integrating cover crops in arid
and semi-arid cropping systems adds biomass C to the soil, ultimately
increasing SOC and improving soil health (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2013;
Thapa et al., 2022). In general, the roots of the cover crop account for a
large part of the C input (up to 75%) in the cover cropped system (Gale
et al., 2000; Kätterer et al., 2011). Studies show that C inputs from roots
are more stable and release less CO2 than from aboveground biomass
due to the slow decomposition of roots (e.g., Gale et al., 2000; Kätterer
et al., 2011). Supplemental Table S1 summarized 69 comparison counts
from 22 studies on cover crops and SOC stocks from arid and semi-arid
agrosystems across the world. Among 69 comparisons (crop-fallow vs.
cover crop), 63 counts (91.3%) indicated SOC increase, and six indicated
loss. The accumulation of SOC by cover crops ranged from 2 to 1300 kg
ha− 1yr− 1, with an average accumulation rate of 271 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in the
upper 0–30 cm soil depth. The average SOC accumulation rate observed
in the present review is 18.1–52.1% lower than the average SOC accu­
mulation rate (320–547 kg ha− 1 yr− 1) reported in the previous global
cover crop studies (Abdalla et al., 2019; Poeplau and Don, 2015).
Studies included in previous reviews were not limited to dry environ­
ments, while our study compared only studies from arid and semi-arid
regions. The rate of SOC accumulation is often higher when water is
not a limiting factor for biomass production. We even observed a
reduction in SOC stocks in a few cases (8.7%), mainly associated with
legume cover crops. Legume-derived fresh organic matter (low C:N
ratio) might have a positive priming effect because low C:N ratio resi­
dues added to the soil can increase the decomposition of old soil organic
matter (Poeplau and Don, 2015).
The effect of cover cropping on SOC stocks in our study showed a
very high regional difference. The rate of SOC increases were 201 (n =
13), 135 (n = 8), 645 (n = 9), 339 (n = 8), 131 (n = 19) kg C ha− 1yr− 1 in
the western United States, Canadian prairies, Loess Plateau of China,
northern Europe, and Western Australia, respectively (Fig. 2). The in­
creases were equivalent to 7.0%, 9.3%, 8.6%, 6.3%, and 18.3% increase
of the original SOC stocks, respectively. Regional differences in SOC
accumulation could be attributed to the differences and complexities in
soil and management systems, initial SOC levels, number of comparison
counts, soil type, climate, etc. For example, relatively greater SOC
content observed in the current review in northern Europe and Canadian
Prairies could be associated with slow organic matter turnover rates due
to comparatively cooler climates than hot, dry regions (Huang et al.,
2016). The increased temperature typically increases soil microbial ac­
tivity (Wang et al., 2016), stimulating SOC decomposition and lowering
its levels. Nevertheless, the increase in SOC storage with the inclusion of
cover crops is associated with their potential to increase above- and
Fig. 2. Regional differences in SOC storage in the upper 30 cm soil depth due to
cover cropping in water-limited environments across the world.
V.R. Thapa et al.
belowground biomass C inputs, rhizodeposits, and soil microbial activity
due to the presence of a large amount of readily available organic sub­
strates (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2013; Thapa et al., 2022). For instance, in a
semi-arid area of Indonesia, cover crop [mung bean (Vigna radiata L.
Wilzeck)] that produced 8.3 Mg ha− 1yr− 1 of aboveground biomass
increased SOC by 60% compared to control without cover crops (Jaya
et al., 2021). In contrast, after five years of cover cropping in the hot,
dry, semi-arid climate of the Southern Great Plains of the USA, Thapa
et al. (2022) did not show an increase in SOC compared to crop-fallow
under limited-irrigation conditions, possibly due to low cover crop
biomass input. On average, the annual cover crop biomass input in their
study was only 2.1 Mg ha− 1, which may not be enough to increase SOC
levels significantly in a hot, dry environment because of the high
decomposition rate in warmer areas. A review and analysis of US cover
crop studies suggest that cover crops might not increase SOC if they
produce <2 Mg biomass ha− 1yr− 1, whereas they increase SOC if biomass
production is > 6 Mg ha− 1yr− 1 (Blanco-Canqui, 2022). Cover crop
biomass production may have considerably contributed to regional
differences in SOC accumulation in water-limited environments.
The review results also indicated that SOC benefits with cover crops
also varied with cover crop type or species. The number of comparison
counts included for grasses, legumes, brassicas, and cover crop mixes
were 10, 34, 10, and 5, respectively. The mean SOC increase by grasses
was highest (11.1%, n = 10), followed by legumes (10.7%, n = 34),
cover crop mixes (5.7%, n = 5), and brassicas (5.1%, n = 10). The
variation in SOC levels could have been related to differences in biomass
production and C:N ratios between cover crop species, as the amount of
biomass C input primarily determines the SOC storage (Ghimire et al.,
2017). Grasses with dense fibrous root systems produce greater biomass
with high C:N ratios, while legumes and brassicas typically provide
better quality residue with low C:N ratios (Thapa et al., 2022). Higher C:
N ratios of grasses compared to legumes and brassicas may have slowed
down the mineralization rate of the residue, thereby increasing SOC
contents. Furthermore, robust and dense root systems and a large can­
opy cover of grasses enable better soil anchorage for SOC stabilization
and reduce residue decomposition rates (Amsili and Kaye, 2021). The
lower rate of increase in SOC with the use of mixtures and brassica cover
crops compared to grasses and legumes in the present review contrasts
with the results of a previous meta-analysis by Jian et al. (2020). The
distinction in our results may be related to the differences in the spatial
distribution of studies compiled in the meta-analysis versus the present
review and the differences in the amount of cover crop biomass inputs.
These findings imply that the average SOC accumulation rate reported
for a particular cover crop varies with location.
The SOC accumulation by cover crops also varied with soil types.
Supplementary Table 1 reports 34 comparison counts from fine-textured
soils, 24 medium-textured soils, and 11 coarse-textured soils. The pro­
portion of the comparison counts with increasing SOC by cover crops
were 88% (30 of 34), 96% (23 of 24), and 91% (10 of 11) in fine-
textured, medium-textured, and coarse-textured soils, respectively.
The mean SOC accumulation rate was 179 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in fine-textured
soils, 350 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in medium-textured soils, and 310 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in
coarse-textured soils, suggesting the SOC sequestration with cover crops
was more visible in medium-textured soils than coarse- and fine-
textured soils. Higher plant-available nutrients and water in medium-
textured soils could have increased cover crop biomass production and
thereby carbon input into the soil than fine- and coarse-textured soils,
favoring a greater SOC accumulation (Jian et al., 2020; Blanco-Canqui
et al., 2022).
While all cover crops capture CO2 from the atmosphere via photo­
synthesis, the amount of C captured and stored in soils may depend on
the duration of improved management practices. In this study, years
after introducing cover crops varied from 2 to 94 y (Supplemental
Table S1). Cover crops increased SOC in 88% of comparisons (30 of 34)
in the short-term (≤5 yr after cover crop introduction), in 88% of
comparisons (7 of 8) in the medium-term (5–10 yr after cover crop
4
Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028
introduction), and in 96% of comparisons (26 of 27) in the long-term
(>10 yr after cover crop introduction). The mean SOC accumulation
rates were 410, 142, and 124 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in the short-term, medium-
term, and long-term management with cover crops, respectively. These
results indicate that the highly C-depleted soils of water-limited regions
may have more room for accumulating SOC in the first few years. SOC
then increases at a decreasing rate as time passes until it reaches an
equilibrium. The simple power regression analysis (Fig. 3) further sup­
ported that the SOC accumulation rate can decrease with increasing
years of cover cropping.
5. Crop rotation intensification for soil organic carbon
sequestration
Crop rotation includes planting different crops sequentially on the
same land to improve soil quality, optimize nutrients, and combat pest
and weed pressure. Cropping systems intensification extends the
photosynthetic capture duration, thus increasing soil organic C inputs.
Different cereal grain crops (corn, proso millet, sorghum), legumes
(forages and grains), oilseed crops, and brassicas could be promising
options to increase the complexity of rotations. Crop rotations may in­
fluence SOC by affecting the time for biomass accrual and altering soil
nutrient availability, structure, and microbial properties (Campbell
et al., 2000). Supplemental Table S1 summarizes 26 studies on diverse
crop rotation and SOC stocks in arid and semi-arid regions of the United
States, Canada, China, Iran, Spain, Argentina, and Australia. The 26
studies resulted in 93 comparison counts (crop-fallow vs. diverse crop
rotation), out of which diverse crop rotation accumulated SOC (kg
ha− 1yr− 1) in 75 counts (81%), with no effect in 3 counts (3%) and
decreased SOC in 15 counts (16%). Soil organic C accumulation by
diverse crop rotation ranged from 12 to 1750 kg ha− 1yr− 1, with an
average SOC sequestration rate of 235 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in the upper 30 cm
soil depth. Similar results were reported in global data analysis from 67
long-term agricultural experiments indicating that enhancing rotation
complexity can accumulate SOC on average 200 ± 120 kg ha− 1 yr− 1
(West and Post, 2002). The release of N from decomposing residues may
better synchronize with plant uptake, possibly increasing N-uptake ef­
ficiency and crop yield (Fageria and Baligar, 2005; Sugihara et al.,
2012). Diverse crop rotation increases the amount of biomass C entering
the soil, moderates soil temperature, reduces abrupt fluctuations in
temperature, and thereby increases SOC levels (Sherrod et al., 2003).
Diverse crop rotations can also nourish diverse microbial communities
by releasing various compounds, including root exudates, cap cells, ly­
sates, and mucilages (D’Acunto et al., 2018). Various microbial exuda­
tes/organic polymers help bind soil particles to form stable aggregates
and promote C stabilization. For example, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(AMF), in particular, physically entangle soil particles in hyphae to form
aggregates, secrete cohesive substances such as glycoproteins that
Fig. 3. Relationship between SOC sequestration rate and years of
cover cropping.
V.R. Thapa et al.
enhance aggregation, and contribute to SOC stabilization (Wilson et al.,
2009).
The effects of cropping system intensification on SOC accumulation
varied with the experimental location (Supplemental Table S1). Diverse
crop rotation, on average, increased SOC by 8%, 7%, 12%, and 14%,
equivalent to C accumulation of 150 (n = 19), 133 (n = 21), 232 (n =
20), and 104 (n = 7) kg ha− 1yr− 1 in western United States, Canadian
Prairies, Loess Plateau of China, and western Australia, respectively
(Fig. 4). The variability in SOC accumulation rate could be attributed to
the differences in mean annual precipitation and temperature, biomass
production, soil type, and duration of the changed management. For
example, a relatively greater increase in SOC stocks was observed in the
Loess Plateau of China and western Australia, possibly due to greater
annual biomass C additions due to shorter fallow periods between main
crops. Approximately 6.8–7.6 Mg residue ha− 1yr− 1 is estimated to
maintain SOC stocks in the semi-arid Central Great Plains of the USA
(Halvorson and Schlegel, 2012). Supplementary Table 1 reports 33
comparison counts from fine-textured soils, 39 from medium-textured
soils, and 21 from coarse-textured soils. Diverse crop rotation accumu­
lated SOC in 82% of comparisons (27 of 33) in fine-textured soils, in 90%
of comparisons (35 of 39) in medium-textured soils, and in 62% of
comparisons (13 of 21) in coarse-textured soils. There was no effect of
diverse crop rotation in one comparison in medium-textured and two
comparisons in coarse-textured soils.
The amount of SOC storage resulting from diverse crop rotation also
varied with the duration of management changes (Supplemental
Table 1). Years of crop rotation diversification varied from 2 to 30 y
among the 26 studies cited (93 comparison counts; Supplemental
Table S1). The number of comparison counts by diverse crop duration
was 25 for short-term, 31 for medium-term, and 37 for long-term,
indicating most comparison counts were from long-term (40%) and
medium-term (33%) studies. Diverse crop rotation accumulated SOC in
72% of comparisons (18 of 25) in the short-term, 68% of comparisons
(21 of 31) in the medium-term, and 97% of comparisons (36 of 37) in the
long term. The mean SOC accumulation rate was 508 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in the
short-term, 212 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in the medium term, and 108 kg ha− 1yr− 1
in the long term. It appears SOC accumulation occurred at a greater rate
in the first ten years in C-deficit soils of water-limited regions and may
decrease over time. The simple power regression analysis also indicated
that the SOC accumulation rate could decrease with time after inte­
grating diverse crop rotations (Fig. 5). A global data analysis by West
and Post (2002) reported similar results indicating 5–10 yr of changed
management as a peak period for C accumulation, with SOC reaching a
new equilibrium in approximately 40–60 y after the imposition of
rotation complexity. The review results also implied soils with high
initial SOC content may mask the SOC storage benefits of improved
management shifts such as diverse crop rotation (Liebig et al., 2010).
Therefore, SOC-depleted soils in arid and semi-arid regions often
allowed SOC accumulation with diverse crop rotation.
Fig. 4. Regional differences in SOC storage in the upper 30 cm soil depth due to
diverse crop rotation in water-limited environments across the world.
5
Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028
Fig. 5. Relationship between SOC sequestration rate and years after intro­
ducing diverse crop rotation.
6. Does conservation tillage complement the effects of cropping
intensification?
Adopting conservation tillage systems can enhance the SOC accrual
rate of cover cropping or other forms of cropping system intensification.
Supplemental Table S1 shows most of the cover cropping or crop rota­
tion studies were conducted under a single tillage system. In cover crop
studies, 34 comparison counts were from conventional tillage, 33
comparisons from conservation tillage, and 2 comparisons from manual
plow systems. Cover crops increased SOC in 91% of comparisons (31 of
34) in conventionally tilled soils and 91% of comparisons (30 of 33) in
conservation tillage systems soils. The mean SOC sequestration rate due
to cover cropping was 232 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in conventional tillage, while it
was 298 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in conservation tillage systems. A recent global
meta-analysis of 121 long-term tillage (>5 years) studies reported that
intensification of no-tillage with legume cover crops could accumulate
4.7 ± 1.9 Mg C ha− 1 at 0–60 cm depth (Nicoloso and Rice, 2021).
In crop rotation studies, 56 comparison counts were from conven­
tional tillage, 31 comparisons from no-tillage, and six comparisons from
a combination of both (Supplemental Table S1). Diverse crop rotation
increased SOC in 79% of comparisons (44 of 56) in conventionally tilled
soils and 81% of comparisons (25 of 31) in conservation tillage soils. The
mean SOC accumulation rate due to diverse crop rotation was 175 kg
ha− 1 yr− 1 in conventional tillage, while it was 291 kg ha− 1 yr− 1 for
conservation tillage systems. Studies evaluating SOC accumulation with
management changes under different tillage systems within the same
experiment may provide better insights into the comparative efficiency
of a conservation tillage system to complement cropping system inten­
sification. Only three studies (Halvorson et al., 2002; Sainju et al., 2006;
McConkey et al., 2003) in our assessment evaluated diverse crop rota­
tion under conventional and no-tillage systems within the same exper­
iment (Supplemental Table S1). When averaged across all comparison
counts by tillage, diverse crop rotation increased SOC on average by
4.4% and 5.3%, equivalent to C accumulation of 149 and 170 kg ha− 1
yr− 1 in conventional and no-tillage systems, respectively (Fig. 6).
No-tillage and diverse cropping systems had 10% more SOC than con­
ventional tillage crop-fallow systems, suggesting greater SOC benefits of
cropping intensification when integrated with no-tillage. In line with
this, Halvorson et al. (2002) observed no-till with continuous cropping
increased C accumulation in the drylands of the northern Great Plains of
the USA by 233 kg ha− 1yr− 1, compared with a loss of 141 kg ha− 1yr− 1 in
conventional tillage.
Cover cropping or cropping system intensification under conven­
tional tillage may not significantly contribute to SOC accumulation
because tillage promotes soil C loss by increasing residue-soil contact,
exposes soil aggregates to wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles at the surface,
and increases aggregate disruption (Six et al., 2002). Disruption of
V.R. Thapa et al.
Fig. 6. Effects of diverse crop rotations under conventional tillage (n = 5) and
no-tillage (n = 5) systems on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in the upper 30
cm soil depth.
aggregates exposes large amounts of protected labile organic C to mi­
croorganisms, stimulates microbial activity, and contributes to SOC
decomposition (Six et al., 2002). Moreover, tillage also increases the
destruction of fungal hyphal networks, reduces enmeshing of soil par­
ticles on those hyphal networks, and reduces aggregate stability. In
addition, tillage increases topsoil temperature and soil aeration. As
indicated by SOC mineralization, the increased soil temperature, aera­
tion, and enhanced microbial contact with organic residues are expected
to increase soil biological activity (Wang et al., 2016). Furthermore,
tillage can leave soils more prone to erosion, resulting in further losses of
soil C. However, coupled with no or reduced soil disturbance in a
no-tillage system, the additional residue C inputs from cover cropping or
diverse crop rotation promote aggregation and aggregate stability,
hence SOC formation and stabilization (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2010).
Reducing tillage frequency and intensity also helps increase fungal
growth, aggregate formation and stability, and SOC stabilization. This
suggests a potential for building SOC by integrating cover crops or
diverse crops into crop rotation with reduced- or no-tillage. Therefore,
cropping systems representing maximum biomass production and
eventually returning it to the soil with reduced soil disturbance are
crucial for enhancing aggregate stability and SOC levels in water-limited
environments.
7. Conclusion
Increasing SOC storage can mitigate atmospheric CO2 concentrations
while improving soil functions. This review showed cover cropping and
diverse crop rotation as promising options to increase SOC storage in
arid and semi-arid agrosystems. Cover cropping with single species
increased SOC more than with the mixture, and the enhancement of SOC
storage was greater with grasses than with legumes. The SOC seques­
tration with cover cropping or other forms of crop rotation intensifica­
tion was more evident in medium-textured soils than in fine- and coarse-
textured soils. With cover cropping or crop rotation, SOC accumulation
occurs at a greater rate in the first ten years in C deficit soils of water-
limited regions and may decrease over time. Similarly, the SOC bene­
fits of cover cropping or diverse crop rotation were higher with con­
servation tillage than with conventional tillage systems. Integration of
multiple conservation practices complemented each other to increase
SOC sequestration. Further research exploring the underlying mecha­
nisms that drive SOC sequestration would help identify best manage­
ment practices for SOC sequestration. Additionally, assessing the socio-
economic and environmental implications of the widespread adoption of
cover cropping or diverse crop rotation would help inform policy de­
cisions and promote conservation agriculture for climate change miti­
gation in regions facing water limitations.
6
Journal of Arid Environments 217 (2023) 105028
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the NMSU Carbon Management and Soil Health
Initiative, funded by project No. GR0007378 of USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Services, and partly by the New Mexico Department of
Agriculture. Financial support for the contributions of the third author
came from the Strategic Science Investment Fund (SSIF) for Crown
Research Institutes from the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Em­
ployment’s Science Innovation Group, New Zealand.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105028.
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