FOUNDATIONS

 Considered as the lowest artificial belt part of the structure

 Main objective is to transmit loads to the bearing level
 They are usually made of either mass or reinforced concrete and can be placed in two
categories
a) Shallow foundations
 Those which transfer the loads to subsoil at apointnear to the ground floor of the
building such as strip and rafts

b) Deep foundations
 Those which transfer the loads to subsoil to some distance below the ground floor of
the building such as piles

Factors affecting foundation selection

 The selection of foundation can be based on

 The superimposed dead & live loads

 Soil type and bearing capacity

Soil types
 Gravel- consists of coarse materials
 Sand- consists of angular & rounded irregular grains
 Clay- consists of micro & submicroscopic particles
 Reclaimed- consists of fill made of brick buts, ashes, refuse, etc. Examples are land
fill

 In order to determine the type of subsoil there are several methods are employed

Methods of subsoil investigation

i. General site inspection/observation

 Observing the behavior of soil after rains and heat from the sun
 Inspecting the arrangement of exposed soil particles

ii. Trial/test pits

 Open pits measuring 1.5x1.5m are dug around the area to be built, preferably
outside the building’s boundary line
 Number & spacing of pits depends on building’s importance and size
 Excavations are done to a depth not exceeding 3m deep
 Soil samples are collected at every 300mm interval depths (strata) & sent to
laboratory for testing
 The sides of pits are inclined to avoid collapse & alleviate need for timbering

iii. Probing method

 Use of steel rods usually 25-40mm diameter
 The end of the rod is either pointed or slitted
 The rod is driven into the ground & pulled out
 Soil collected at the end of the rod is sent for testing in labs
 Suitable for high cohesive soils
 iv. Boring methods
 Two methods exists which are:

1.1 Auger
 Either a large and long screw is driven into the soil
 Soil rises through the blades of the screw as it cuts & extracted out
 Alternatively, a long rod with a cutter at its end (shell) is driven and the cut soil is
collected
 Method suitable in soft soils i.e clay and sand
 Can be dug up to 1.5m deep

1.2 Wash boring

 Steel sheets are aligned together to form an enclose
 Water is injected under pressure through the soil enclosed
 The washed soil particles (mixed with water) are collected in container and sent to
lab for testing
 Can be applied in cohesive fine soils & dug upto 3m deep

Load bearing capacity of soil

 Can be defined as the maximum loa which the soil can carry per unit area without
displacement, usually measured in tones/m2

 For design, safe bearing capacity = bearing capacity

Safety factor (2-3)

 In any case the bearing capacity of soil can be improved by:

 Soil compaction
 Draining the soil
 Cement grouting
 Chemical addition e.g diluted silicate of sodium chloride

Types of foundations
(i) Strip foundations
 A continuous or longitudinal strip of concrete belt underlying a brick/masonry wall
 Sometimes it is necessary to extend the bearing level by increasing the depth of
concrete to mere than one metre and this is called deep strip foundation
 In some cases where ground is not level, a system of stepped foundation can be
applied
(ii) Raft foundations

 A type of foundation wit concrete fabric stretching the whole surface to be covered
by the building
 They are often used on poor soils for lightly loaded buildings and are considered
capable of accommodating small settlements of the soil
 In poor soils the upper crust of 450-600mm is often stiffer than the lower subsoil
and to build a light raft onthis crust is usually better than penetrating it with a strip
foundation
 The method is particularly useful where bearing capacity is low, again resulting in
the need for large bases
 Raft foundations can be classified into three types

1. Solid slab rafts

2. Beam and slab rafts
3. Cellular rafts
(iii) Pad foundations

 This type of foundation is used to support and transmit independent point loads to
the subsoil
 They are usually isolated to carry loads from piers and columns
 The most economic plan shape is the square but if the columns are close to site
boundaries it may be necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area
 (iv) Combined foundations
 Basically these are a combination of (i), (ii) and (iii) above

(v) Piled foundation

 Piled foundations can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into

the ground to transmit the load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil.
 They can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not found at or near
ground level making the use of deep traditional foundations uneconomic.

1. Classification of piles
 Piles may be classified by the way in which they transmit their loads to the subsoil
or by the way they are formed/constructed.

1.1 By way of transmitting loads

a) End bearing
 The shaft of the piles act as columns carrying the loads through the weak subsoils to
firm strata into which the pile toe has penetrated. The firm strata at the toe can be a
rock or layer of firm sand or gravel which has been compacted by the displacement
and vibration encountered during the driving.
b) Friction
 In this way, piles transmit loads to surrounding soil via friction between the surface
of pile and soil which in effect lowers bulb of pressure formed to a lower level
where a higher bearing capacity is found.
2.1 Classification of piles
Piles may be classified by the way in which they transmit their loads to the subsoil or by the
way they are formed/constructed.

2.1.1 By way of transmitting loads

a) End bearing
The shaft of the piles act as columns carrying the loads through the weak subsoils to firm
strata into which the pile toe has penetrated. The firm strata at the toe can be a rock or layer
of firm sand or gravel which has been compacted by the displacement and vibration
encountered during the driving.
b) Friction
In this way, piles transmit loads to surrounding soil via friction between the surface of pile
and soil which in effect lowers bulb of pressure formed to a lower level where a higher
bearing capacity is found.
2.2.2 By the way they are formed or constructed
a) Replacement Piles
Sometimes referred to as bored piles. They are formed by removing a column of soil and
replacing with in-situ concrete or as in the case of composite piles with precast and in-situ
concrete. They are mostly preferred on sites where piling is being carried out in close
proximity to existing buildings or where vibration and/or noise is restricted. Formation of
these piles can be in the following two ways

i) Percussion bored

Suitable for small to medium size contracts with up to 300 piles , load range of 300 to
1300KN and lengths of 1m – 1.4m. A steel cage made up lengths (1-4m) screwed together is
sunk by extracting the soil from within the tube liner using percussion cutter or baler
according to the type of soil to be penetrated. The steel lining tube will usually sink under its
own weight but it can be driven in with slight pressure normally applied by means of
hydraulic jacks. When required depth is reached, a cage of reinforcement is placed within the
liner and concrete is poured. Whilst concrete is being poured and tamped the steel lining tube
is gradually pulled out until the hole formed is completely filled with concrete.

ii) Rotary bored

Rotary bored piles

These can range from the short bored piles used in domestic dwellings to very large
diameter piles used for concentrated loads in multi storey buildings and bridge
construction. They are suitable for most cohesive soils such as clay and formed using an
auger which may be operated in conjunction with the steel tube liner. The borehole may
be lined or unlined according to type(s) of subsoil
b) Displacement Piles
These are often called driven piles since they are usually driven into the ground displacing
the soil around the pile shaft. The piles can be either preformed or partially preformed if they
are not cast in-situ and are available in a wide range of types and materials. The pile or
forming tube is driven into the required position to a predetermined depth or to the required
set which is a measure of the subsoils resistance to the penetration of the pile and hence its
bearing capacity by noting the amount of penetration obtained by a fixed number of hammer
blows. The following can be used for displacement piles.

i) Timber piles
Usually square sawn timber in length up to 12m with section size ranging
225x225mm to 600x600mm
They are easy to handle and can be driven by percussion
Most timber piles are fitted with an iron or steel driving shoe and have an iron ring
around the head to prevent splitting due to the driving
Although not particularly common they are used in sea defences
ii) Precast concrete piles
Used on medium to large contracts where soft soils overlying a firm strata are
encountered and at least 100 piles will be required
Lengths up to 18m and section size range from 250x250mm to 450x450mm
The precast concrete driven pile has little frictional bearing strength since driving
operation moulds the cohesive soils around the shaft which reduces the positive
frictional resistance
iii) BSP Cased Steel Tube Piles
These are typical composite piles using steel and in situ concrete. Cased piles are
bearing piles consisting of a driven tube which is filled with in-situ concrete. The
casing is manufactured from steel strip or plate which is formed into a continuous
helix with the adjoining edges butt welded. They are usually driven into position
by using an internal drop hammer operating within the casing. Pile lengths are
available up to 24.000m as a single tube but should extra length be required
 extension casings can be butt welded on after the first length has been driven to a
suitable depth.

A wide range of diameters from 250 to 600mm are available with varying casing
thicknesses to give working loads per pile ranging from 150 to 1500kN according
to type of subsoil.

iv) Driven In-situ (Franki ) Piles

An alternative to preformed displacement piles and are suitable for medium and large
contracts where there are likely to be variations in the lengths of piles required. They
can be formed economically in diameters of 300 to 600mm with lengths up to
18.000m designed to carry loads of up to 1300kN. They generally require heavy
piling rigs, an open level site and a site where noise is unrestricted.

In some systems the tube which is used to form the pile shaft is top driven while in
other systems such as the Franki system driving is carried out by means of an internal
drop hammer working on a plug of dry concrete
v) Cast In-situ (Vibro Cast) Piles
In situ concrete for the core is introduced into the lined shaft through a hopper or
skip and consolidation of the concrete can be carried out by impact of the internal
drop hammer or by vibration of the tube as it is withdrawn