History of

homosexuality

Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place. Attitudes to
male homosexuality have varied from requiring males to engage in same-sex relationships to
casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it
through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.
In addition, it has varied as to whether any negative attitudes towards men who have sex with
men have extended to all participants, as has been common in Abrahamic religions, or only to
passive (penetrated) participants, as was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Female
homosexuality has historically been given less acknowledgment, explicit acceptance, and
opposition. The widespread concept of homosexuality as a sexual orientation and sexual
identity is a relatively recent development, with the word itself being coined in the 19th century.

Homosexuality was generally accepted in many ancient eastern cultures such as those
influenced by Buddhism, Hinduism and Taoism.[1][2] It is thought that ancient Assyria (2nd
millennium BC to 1st millennium AD) viewed homosexuality as negative and at least criminal,[3]
with the religious codes of Zoroastrianism forbidding homosexuality,[4] and the rise of Judaism,
Christianity and Islam supplanting homophobia in much of the western world; the majority of the
ancient sources prior to the onset of the Abrahamic religions present homosexuality in the form
of male domination or rape.[5][6] The LGBTQ rights movement is associated with the 1969
Stonewall riots in New York.[7]
Many male historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron, Edward II, and Hadrian,[8] have had
terms such as gay or bisexual applied to them; some scholars, such as Michel Foucault, have
regarded this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary social construct of
sexuality foreign to their times,[9] though others challenge this.[10][11][12] A common thread of
constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced
homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has
countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,[13] which describe individuals
exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.

The Americas

Pre-colonization Indigenous societies

Drawing by George Catlin (1796–

1872) while on the Great Plains
among the Sac and Fox Nation.
Depicting a group of male warriors
dancing around a male-bodied person
in a woman's dress, non-Native artist
George Catlin titled the painting
Dance to the Berdache.

Among Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European colonization, a number of Nations
had respected ceremonial and social roles for homosexual, bisexual, and gender-nonconforming
individuals in their communities; in many contemporary Native American and First Nations
communities, these roles still exist.[14] While each Indigenous culture has their own names for
these individuals,[15] a modern, pan-Indian term that was adopted in 1990 is "Two-Spirit".[16] This
new term has not been universally accepted, having been criticized by traditional communities
who already have their own terms for the people being grouped under this "urban neologism",
and by those who reject what they call the "western" binary implications, such as implying that
Natives believe these individuals are "both male and female". However, it has generally met with
more acceptance than the anthropological term it replaced.[17][18]

Homosexual and gender-variant individuals were also common among other pre-conquest
civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs, and
the Tupinambá of Brazil.[19][20]

The explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa setting his

war dogs upon Indian practitioners of sodomy in
1513; New York Public Library

The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover sodomy openly practiced among native
peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the berdaches (as the Spanish called them)
under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution, burning and being torn to pieces
by dogs.[21]

Post-colonization
East Asia
In East Asia, same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history.

China
Homosexuality is widely documented in ancient China and attitudes towards it varied through
time, location, and social class.[22] Chinese literature recorded multiple anecdotes of man
engaging in homosexual relationships. In the story of the leftover peach( 余桃), set during the
Spring and Autumn Era, the historian Han Fei recorded an anecdote in the relationship of Mi
彌子瑕) and Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公) in which Mizi Xia shared an especially delicious
Zixia (
peach with his lover. The story of the cut sleeve(断袖) recorded the Emperor Ai of Han
[23]: 32

sharing a bed his lover, Dongxian (董賢); when Emperor Ai woke up later, he carefully cut off his
sleeve, so as not to awake Dongxian, who had fallen asleep on top of it.[23]: 46 Scholar Pan
Guangdan ( 潘光旦) came to the conclusion that many emperors in the Han dynasty had one or
more male sex partners. However, except in unusual cases, such as Emperor Ai, the men named
for their homosexual relationships in the official histories appear to have had active heterosexual
lives as well.

With the rise of the Tang dynasty, China became increasingly influenced by the sexual mores of
foreigners from Western and Central Asia, and female companions began to replace male
companions in terms of power and familial standings.[23] The following Song dynasty was the
last dynasty to include a chapter on male companions of the emperors in official documents.[23]
During these dynasties, the general attitude toward homosexuality was still tolerant, but male
lovers started to be seen as less legitimate compared to wives and men are usually expected to
get married and continue the family line.[24]

During the Ming Dynasty, it is said that the Zhengde Emperor had a homosexual relationship with
a Muslim leader named Sayyid Husain.[25][26] In later Ming Dynasty, homosexuality began to be
referred to as the "southern custom" due to the fact that Fujian was the site of a unique system
of male marriages, attested to by the scholar-bureaucrat Shen Defu and the writer Li Yu, and
mythologized by in the folk tale, The Leveret Spirit.

The Qing dynasty instituted the first law against consensual, non-monetized homosexuality in
China. However, the punishment designated, which included a month in prison and 100 heavy
blows, was actually the lightest punishment which existed in the Qing legal system.[23]: 144
Homosexuality started to become eliminated in China by the Self-Strengthening Movement,
when homophobia was imported to China along with Western science and philosophy.[27]

Japan
Homosexuality in Japan, variously known as shudo or nanshoku, has been documented for over
one thousand years and had some connections to the Buddhist monastic life and the samurai
tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature
documenting and celebrating such relationships. [28]

Siam
Similarly, in Thailand, kathoey, or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many
centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While kathoey may encompass
simple effeminacy or transvestism, it most commonly is treated in Thai culture as a third gender.
They are generally accepted by society. [29]
Europe

Antiquity

Roman man penetrating a youth,

middle of the 1st century AD. Found in
Bittir (?), near Jerusalem

The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, and mythographic
materials) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from ancient Greece.

The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationship between a free-born (i.e. not a
slave or freedman) adult male and a free-born adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits
and as a means of population control, though occasionally blamed for causing societal disorder.
Plato praised its benefits in his early writings[30] but in his late works proposed its prohibition.[31]
In the Symposium (182B-D), Plato equates acceptance of homosexuality with democracy, and its
suppression with despotism, saying that homosexuality "is shameful to barbarians because of
their despotic governments, just as philosophy and athletics are, since it is apparently not in best
interests of such rulers to have great ideas engendered in their subjects, or powerful friendships
or physical unions, all of which love is particularly apt to produce".[13]

Aristotle, in his Politics, dismissed Plato's ideas about abolishing homosexuality (2.4); he
explains that barbarians like the Celts accorded it a special honour (2.6.6), while the Cretans
used it to regulate the population (2.7.5).[13]
 Young women are depicted as
surrounding Sappho in this painting of
Lafond "Sappho sings for Homer",
1824

Little is known of female homosexuality in antiquity. Sappho, born on the island of Lesbos, was
included by later classical Greek people in the canonical list of nine lyric poets. The adjectives
deriving from her name and place of birth (sapphic and lesbian) came to be applied to female
homosexuality beginning in the 19th century.[32][33] Sappho's poetry centers on passion and love
for various personages and both genders. The narrators of many of her poems speak of
infatuations and love (sometimes requited, sometimes not) for various women, but descriptions
of physical acts between women are few and subject to debate.[34][35] There is no evidence that
she ran an academy for girls.

Sappho reading to her

companions on an Attic vase of c.
435 BC.

In ancient Rome, the young male body remained a focus of male sexual attention, but
relationships were between older free men and slaves or freed youths who took the receptive
role in sex. The Hellenophile emperor Hadrian is renowned for his relationship with Antinous.
However, after the transition to Christianity, by 390 A.D., Emperor Theodosius I made
homosexuality a legally punishable offense for the passive partner: "All persons who have the
shameful custom of condemning a man's body, acting the part of a woman's to the sufferance of
alien sex (for they appear not to be different from women), shall expiate a crime of this kind in
avenging flames in the sight of the people."[36] In 558, toward the end of his reign, Justinian
expanded the proscription to the active partner as well, warning that such conduct can lead to
the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God". Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on
brothels of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the
reign of Anastasius I in 518.[37]

The Middle Ages

Two males, Richard Puller von Hohenburg

and Anton Mätzler, accused of sodomy
burned at the stake, Zurich 1482 (Zurich
Central Library)

Through the medieval period in Europe, homosexuality was generally condemned and thought to
be the moral of the story of Sodom and Gomorrah. Historians debate if there were any
prominent homosexuals and bisexuals at this time, but it is argued that figures such as Edward
II, Richard the Lionheart, Philip II Augustus, and William Rufus were engaged in same-sex
relationships.
Also during the medieval period, there were legal arrangements called adelphopoiesis ("brother-
making") in the Eastern Mediterranean or affrèrement ("embrotherment") in France that allowed
two men to share living quarters and pool their resources, sharing "one bread, one wine, one
purse."[38] Historians such as John Boswell and Allan A. Tulchin have argued that these
arrangements amounted to an early form of same-sex marriage.[39] This interpretation of these
arrangements remains controversial.

The Renaissance
During the Renaissance, wealthy cities in northern Italy—Florence and Venice in particular—were
renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of
the male population and constructed along with the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.[40][41]
But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the
authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning
a good portion of that population.[42] Many of the prominent artists who defined the
Renaissance such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci are believed to have had relationships
with men. The decline of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by
the rise to power of the moralizing monk Girolamo Savonarola.[43] In England, Geoffery Chaucer's
"The Pardoner's Tale" centered around an enigmatic and deceptive character who is also at one
point described as "a gelding or a mare", suggesting that the narrator thought the Pardoner to be
either a eunuch ("gelding") or a homosexual.[44][45]
Modernity

Early Modernity
The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of
Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets:
"The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and
Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede" [46]

The anonymous Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson was
published in 1723 in England and was presumed by some modern scholars to be a novel.[47]

The 1749 edition of John Cleland's popular novel Fanny Hill includes a homosexual scene, but
this was removed in its 1750 edition.[48][49] Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious
defense of homosexuality in English, Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and
Exemplified (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ancient_and_Modern_Pederasty_Investigated_and_E
xemplify%27d) , written by Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost
immediately. It includes the passage: "Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright
Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."[50] Around 1785 Jeremy
Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.[51] Executions for
sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803 and in England until 1835.
Late Modernity

Oscar Wilde and Alfred Douglas,

found in La longue marche des gays
(collection "Découvertes Gallimard"
[vol. 417]), a book by Frédéric Martel.

Between 1864 and 1880 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of twelve tracts, which he
collectively titled Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In 1867 he became the first self-
proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he
pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-
homosexual laws. Sexual Inversion by Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that
homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of
homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement.[52] Although
medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely
read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific
Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against anti-sodomy laws in
Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals
and writers, led by such figures as Edward Carpenter and John Addington Symonds. Beginning
in 1894 with Homogenic Love, Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-
homosexual articles and pamphlets, and "came out" in 1916 in his book My Days and Dreams. In
1900, Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his
own time, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur. His aim was to broaden the
public perspective of homosexuality beyond its being viewed simply as a medical or biological
issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. Sigmund Freud, among others, argued that neither
predominantly different- nor same-sex sexuality were the norm, instead that what is called
"bisexuality" is the normal human condition thwarted by society.

These developments suffered several setbacks, both coincidental and deliberate. For example,
in 1895, famed playwright Oscar Wilde was convicted of "gross indecency" in the United
Kingdom, and lurid details from the trials (especially those involving young male sex workers)
led to increased scrutiny of all facets of relationships between men. The most destructive
backlash occurred when the Third Reich specifically targeted LGBT people in the Holocaust.[53]

Middle East

Dance of a bacchá (dancing boy)

Samarkand, (ca 1905–1915), photo
Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii.
Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

There are a handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe during the mid-1800s. Two of these
travelers, Rifa'ah al-Tahtawi and Muhammad al-Saffar, show their surprise that the French
sometimes deliberately mis-translated love poetry about a young boy, instead referring to a
young woman, to maintain their social norms and morals.[54]

Among modern Middle Eastern countries, same-sex intercourse officially carries the death
penalty in several nations, including Saudi Arabia and Iran.[55]

Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize
homosexuality. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his 2007 speech at Columbia
University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people may live in Iran, however
they are forced to keep their sexuality veiled from the society, funded and encouraged by
government legislation and traditional norms.[56]

Mesopotamia
Some ancient religious Assyrian texts may have contained prayers for divine blessings on
homosexual relationships, though the same source acknowledges that homosexuality was
regarded has reprehensible, and no less than criminal.[57] Freely pictured art of anal intercourse,
practiced as part of a religious ritual, dated from the 3rd millennium BC and onwards.[58]
Homosexual relationships with royal attendants, between soldiers, and those where a social
better was submissive or penetrated were treated as rape or seen as bad omens, and
punishments were applied.[59]

South Asia
South Asia has a recorded and verifiable history of homosexuality going back to at least 1200
BC. Hindu medical texts written in India from this period document homosexual acts and
attempt to explain the cause in a neutral/scientific manner.[60][61][62] Numerous artworks and
literary works from this period also describe homosexuality.[63][64][65][66] The Pali Cannon, written
in Sri Lanka between 600 BC and 100 BC, states that sexual relations, whether of homosexual or
of heterosexual nature, is forbidden in the monastic code, and states that any acts of soft
homosexual sex (such as masturbation and interfemural sex) does not entail a punishment but
must be confessed to the monastery. These codes apply to monks only and not to the general
population.[67][68] The Kama Sutra written in India around 200 AD also described numerous
homosexual sex acts positively.[69]

The Laws of Manu, the foundational work of Hindu law, mentions a "third sex", members of
which may engage in nontraditional gender expression and homosexual activities.[70] The Kama
Sutra, written in the 4th century, describes techniques by which homosexuals perform fellatio.[71]
Further, such homosexual men were also known to marry, according to the Kama Sutra: "There
are also third-sex citizens, sometimes greatly attached to one another and with complete faith in
one another, who get married together." (KS 2.9.36).

South Pacific
In many societies of Melanesia, especially in Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were
an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century. The Etoro and Marind-anim for
example, even viewed heterosexuality as sinful and celebrated homosexuality instead. In many
traditional Melanesian cultures a prepubertal boy would be paired with an older adolescent who
would become his mentor and who would "inseminate" him (orally, anally, or topically, depending
on the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many
Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the
introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.[72]

Africa

Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep

kissing.

Egypt
Homosexuality in ancient Egypt is a passionately disputed subject within Egyptology: historians
and egyptologists alike debate what kind of view the Ancient Egyptian society fostered about
homosexuality. Only a handful of direct hints have survived to this day and many possible
indications are only vague and offer plenty of room for speculation.

The best known case of possible homosexuality in Ancient Egypt is that of the two high officials
Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep. Both men lived and served under pharaoh Niuserre during the
5th Dynasty (c. 2494–2345 BC).[73] Nyankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep each had families of their
own with children and wives, but when they died their families apparently decided to bury them
together in one and the same mastaba tomb. In this mastaba, several paintings depict both men
embracing each other and touching their faces nose-on-nose. These depictions leave plenty of
room for speculation, because in Ancient Egypt the nose-on-nose touching normally represented
a kiss.[73]

Egyptologists and historians disagree about how to interpret the paintings of Nyankh-khnum and
Khnum-hotep. Some scholars believe that the paintings reflect an example of homosexuality
between two married men and prove that the Ancient Egyptians accepted same-sex
relationships.[74] Other scholars disagree and interpret the scenes as an evidence that Nyankh-
khnum and Khnum-hotep were twins, even possibly conjoined twins. No matter what
interpretation is correct, the paintings show at the very least that Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-
hotep must have been very close to each other in life as in death.[73]

It remains unclear what exact view the Ancient Egyptians fostered about homosexuality. Any
document and literature that actually contains sexually orientated stories never name the nature
of the sexual deeds, but instead uses stilted and flowery paraphrases. While the stories about
Seth and his sexual behavior may reveal rather negative thoughts and views, the tomb
inscription of Nyankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep may instead suggest that homosexuality was
likewise accepted. Ancient Egyptian documents never clearly say that same-sex relationships
were seen as reprehensible or despicable. And no Ancient Egyptian document mentions that
homosexual acts were set under penalty. Thus, a straight evaluation remains problematic.[73][75]

Uganda
In the 19th century Mwanga II (1868–1903) the Kabaka of Buganda regularly had sex with his
male page.[76]
Post-World War II

The Western world

After World War II, the history of homosexuality in Western societies progressed on very similar
and often intertwined paths.

In 1948, American biologist Alfred Kinsey published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male,
popularly known as the Kinsey Reports. In 1957, the UK government commissioned the
Wolfenden report to review the country's anti-sodomy laws; the final report advised
decriminalizing consensual homosexual conduct, though the laws were not actually changed for
another ten years.

Homosexuality was deemed to be a psychiatric disorder for many years, although the studies
this theory was based on were later determined to be flawed. In 1973 homosexuality was
declassified as a mental illness in the United Kingdom. In 1986 all references to homosexuality
as a psychiatric disorder were removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association.

LGBT rights movements

During the Sexual Revolution, the different-sex sexual ideal became completely separated from
procreation, yet at the same time was distanced from same-sex sexuality. Many people viewed
this freeing of different-sex sexuality as leading to more freedom for same-sex sexuality.

The Stonewall riots were a series of violent conflicts between New York City police officers and
the patrons of the Stonewall Inn, a gay hangout in Greenwich Village. The riot began on Friday,
June 27, 1969, during a routine police raid, when trans women and men, gay men, lesbians,
street queens, and other street people fought back in the spirit of the civil rights movements of
the era.[77] This riot ended on the morning of 28 June, but smaller demonstrations occurred in
the neighborhood throughout the remainder of the week.[78] In the aftermath of the riots, many
gay rights organizations formed such as the Gay Liberation Front (GLF). A year later the first gay
pride march was held to mark the anniversary of the uprising.

Historiographic
considerations
In an 1868 letter to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, the terms homosexual and heterosexual were coined
by Karl-Maria Kertbeny and then published in two pamphlets in 1869.[79] These became the
standard terms when used by Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his Psychopathia Sexualis (1886). The
term bisexuality was invented in the 20th century as sexual identities became defined by the
predominant sex to which people are attracted and thus a label was needed for those who are
not predominantly attracted to one sex. This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely
the history of different-sex sexuality plus the history of same-sex sexuality, but a broader
conception viewing of historical events in light of our modern concept or concepts of sexuality
taken at its most broad and/or literal definitions.

Historical personalities are often described using modern sexual identity terms such as straight,
bisexual, gay or queer. Those who favour the practice say that this can highlight such issues as
discriminatory historiography by, for example, putting into relief the extent to which same-sex
sexual experiences are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or to which sensibilities
resulting from same-sex attraction are excluded from literary and artistic consideration of
important works, and so on. As well as that, an opposite situation is possible in the modern
society: some LGBT-supportive researchers stick to the homosexual theories, excluding other
possibilities.

However, many, especially in the academic world, regard the use of modern labels as
problematic, owing to differences in the ways that different societies constructed sexual
orientation identities and to the connotations of modern words like queer. For example, in many
societies same-sex sex acts were expected, or completely ignored, and no identity was
constructed on their basis at all. Other academics acknowledge that, for example, even in the
modern day not all men who have sex with men identify with any of the modern related terms,
and that terms for other modern constructed or medicalized identities (such as nationality or
disability) are routinely used in anachronistic contexts as mere descriptors or for ease of
modern understanding; thus they have no qualms doing the same for sexual orientation.
Academic works usually specify which words will be used and in which context. Readers are
cautioned to avoid making assumptions about the identity of historical figures based on the use
of the terms mentioned above.

Ancient Greece
Greek men had great latitude in their sexual expression, but their wives were severely restricted
and could hardly move about the town unsupervised if she was old enough that people would
ask whose mother she was, not whose wife she was.

Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown by some of the earliest documents
concerning same-sex pederastic relationships, which come from Ancient Greece. Though slave
boys could be bought, free boys had to be courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father
also had to consent to the relationship. Such relationships did not replace marriage between
man and woman, but occurred before and during the marriage. A mature man would not usually
have a mature male mate (though there were exceptions, among whom Alexander the Great); he
would be the erastes (lover) to a young eromenos (loved one). Dover suggests that it was
considered improper for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by
desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly by providing all the
education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, Dover's theory suggests
that questioned in light of massive evidence of ancient art and love poetry, a more emotional
connection than earlier researchers liked to acknowledge. Some research has shown that
ancient Greeks believed semen to be the source of knowledge and that these relationships
served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eromenos.
Ancient Rome
The "conquest mentality" of the ancient Romans shaped Roman homosexual practices.[80] In the
Roman Republic, a citizen's political liberty was defined in part by the right to preserve his body
from physical compulsion or use by others;[81] for the male citizen to submit his body to the
giving of pleasure was considered servile.[82] As long as a man played the penetrative role, it was
socially acceptable and considered natural for him to have same-sex relations, without a
perceived loss of his masculinity or social standing.[83] Sex between male citizens of equal
status, including soldiers, was disparaged, and in some circumstances penalized harshly.[84] The
bodies of citizen youths were strictly off-limits, and the Lex Scantinia imposed penalties on
those who committed a sex crime (stuprum) against a freeborn male minor.[85] Male slaves,
prostitutes, and entertainers or others considered infames (of no social standing) were
acceptable sex partners for the dominant male citizen to penetrate.

"Homosexual" and "heterosexual" were thus not categories of Roman sexuality, and no words
exist in Latin that would precisely translate these concepts.[86] A male citizen who willingly
performed oral sex or received anal sex was disparaged. In courtroom and political rhetoric,
charges of effeminacy and passive sexual behaviors were directed particularly at "democratic"
politicians (populares) such as Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.[87] Until the Roman Empire came
under Christian rule,[88] there is only limited evidence of legal penalties against men who were
presumably "homosexual" in the modern sense.[89]

References

1. "Sexuality and gender" (https://academic.

oup.com/book/28469/chapter/22909747
 0) . academic.oup.com. Retrieved
2024-01-24.

2. Fian, Andi (2 December 2022).

"BUDDHISM AND CONFUCIANISM ON
HOMOSEXUALITY: THE ACCEPTANCE
AND REJECTION BASED ON THE
ARGUMENTS OF RELIGIOUS TEXTS" (http
s://philarchive.org/archive/ALFBAC) .
Journal of Religious Studies. 3 (2).
Sekolah Pascasarjana, Universitas Gadjah
Mada: Center for Religious and Cross-
cultural Studies (CRCS): 73–82 – via Phil.
3. Honeycutt, Kevin S. (2022-06-01).
"Bertrand de Jouvenel's Philosophy of
Individual Liberty" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1
515/jeeh-2022-0016) . Journal des
Économistes et des Études Humaines. 28
(1): 167–182. doi:10.1515/jeeh-2022-0016
(https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjeeh-2022-00
16) . ISSN 2153-1552 (https://www.worldc
at.org/issn/2153-1552) .
4. Casey (2016-06-07). "Queer in the Age of
the Queen: Gender and Sexuality of the
Mid Modern Period in Victorian England
and North America" (https://mollybrown.or
g/queer-in-the-age-of-the-queen-gender-an
d-sexuality-of-the-mid-modern-period-in-vi
ctorian-england-and-north-america/) .
Molly Brown House Museum. Retrieved
2024-03-03.

5. Markl, Dominik (2020-03-31), "Reception

History of the Hebrew Bible/Old
Testament" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ac
refore/9780199340378.013.112) , Oxford
Research Encyclopedia of Religion, Oxford
University Press, retrieved 2024-03-03
6. Nissinen, Martti Heikki (2016).
"Homosexuality : I. Ancient Near East and
the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament" (http://h
dl.handle.net/10138/325479) .
Encyclopedia of the Bible and its
Reception. 12. Oxford University Press:
290–297 – via University of Helsinki. "2.
Male-to-male Intercourse as an Act of
Domination. The majority of ancient
sources present sexual-erotic intercation
between people of same sex as an (often
coerced) act of domination between the
penetrating and the penetrated party"
 7. Halley, Catherine (2019-06-12). "The
Stonewall Riots Didn't Start the Gay Rights
Movement" (https://daily.jstor.org/the-ston
ewall-riots-didnt-start-the-gay-rights-move
ment/) . JSTOR Daily. Retrieved
2024-03-03.

8. Roman Homosexuality, Craig Arthur

Williams, p.60

9. (Foucault 1986)

10. Thomas K. Hubbard, Review of David M.

Halperin, "How to Do the History of
Homosexuality" (https://bmcr.brynmawr.e
du/2003/2003.09.22/) in Bryn Mawr
Classical Review 2003.09.22
11. Norton, Rictor (2016). Myth of the Modern
Homosexual (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=DkTqDAAAQBAJ) . Bloomsbury
Academic. ISBN 9781474286923. The
author has made adapted and expanded
portions of this book available online as A
Critique of Social Constructionism and
Postmodern Queer Theory (http://rictornor
ton.co.uk/extracts.htm) .
12. Boswell, John (1989). "Revolutions,
Universals, and Sexual Categories" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2019030400220
5/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1f4/b
4d6d8a37a3470c63ae83bf0d4a5101b08c
e.pdf) (PDF). In Duberman, Martin Bauml;
Vicinus, Martha; Chauncey, George Jr.
(eds.). Hidden From History: Reclaiming
the Gay and Lesbian Past. Penguin Books.
pp. 17–36. S2CID 34904667 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34904667) .
Archived from the original (http://pdfs.se
manticscholar.org/d1f4/b4d6d8a37a3470
c63ae83bf0d4a5101b08ce.pdf) (PDF) on
2019-03-04.
13. Boswell, John (1980). Christianity, Social
Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People
in Western Europe from the Beginning of
the Christian Era to the Fourteenth
Century (https://archive.org/details/christi
anitysoci00boswrich) . Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
14. Estrada, Gabriel S. 2011. "Two Spirits,
Nádleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze (http://
nativeout.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/
09/Two-Spirits-Nadleeh-and-Navajo-LGBT
Q2-Gaze.pdf) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20150513044527/http://nativ
eout.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/T
wo-Spirits-Nadleeh-and-Navajo-LGBTQ2-G
aze.pdf) 2015-05-13 at the Wayback
Machine." American Indian Culture and
Research Journal 35(4):167–190.
15. "Two Spirit Terms in Tribal Languages (htt
p://nativeout.com/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-1
01/two-spirit-terms-in-tribal-languages/) "
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
150102172337/http://nativeout.com/twos
pirit-rc/two-spirit-101/two-spirit-terms-in-tr
ibal-languages/) 2015-01-02 at the
Wayback Machine" at NativeOut.
Accessed 23 Sep 2015
16. "Two Spirit 101 (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20141210110520/http://nativeout.co
m/twospirit-rc/two-spirit-101/) " at
NativeOut: "The Two Spirit term was
adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian
and gay international gathering to
encourage the replacement of the term
berdache, which means, 'passive partner
in sodomy, boy prostitute.'" Accessed 6
April 2016

17. de Vries, Kylan Mattias (2009). "Berdache

(Two-Spirit)" (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC) . In O'Brien,
Jodi (ed.). Encyclopedia of gender and
society. Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 64.
ISBN 9781412909167. Retrieved 6 March
2015.
18. Kehoe, Alice B. (2002). "Appropriate
Terms" (https://www.saa.org/publication
s/saabulletin/16-2/saa14.html) . SAA
Bulletin. Society for American
Archaeology 16(2), UC-Santa Barbara.
ISSN 0741-5672 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0741-5672) . Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20041105120021/http
s://www.saa.org/publications/saabulletin/
16-2/saa14.html) from the original on
2004-11-05. Retrieved 2019-05-01.
19. Pablo, Ben (2004), "Latin America:
Colonial" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
071211012339/http://www.glbtq.com/soc
ial-sciences/latin_america_colonial.html) ,
glbtq.com, archived from the original (htt
p://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/latin_
america_colonial.html) on 2007-12-11,
retrieved 2007-08-01
20. Murray, Stephen (2004). "Mexico" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20071102132531/ht
tp://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/mexi
co.html) . In Claude J. Summers (ed.).
glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian,
Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture.
glbtq, Inc. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/mexic
o.html) on 2007-11-02. Retrieved
2007-08-01.
21. Mártir de Anglería, Pedro. (1530). Décadas
del Mundo Nuevo (http://www.udel.edu/L
AS/Vol3-2Coello.html#Introduction) .
Quoted by Coello de la Rosa, Alexandre.
"Good Indians", "Bad Indians", "What
Christians?": The Dark Side of the New
World in Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y
Valdés (1478–1557), Delaware Review of
Latin American Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2,
2002.

22. Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male

Homosexual Tradition in China by Bret
Hinsch; Review by: Frank Dikötter. Bulletin
of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, Vol. 55, No.
1(1992), Cambridge University Press, p.
170
23. Hinsch, Bret. (1990). Passions of the Cut
Sleeve. University of California Press.

24. "History of Chinese homosexuality" (http

s://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2
004-04/01/content_319807.htm) .
www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved
2022-03-21.

25. Bret Hinsch (1992). Passions of the cut

sleeve: the male homosexual tradition in
China (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=1LmEC1b1bncC&q=zhengde%20sayyi
d%20husain&pg=PA142) . University of
California Press. p. 142. ISBN 0-520-
07869-1. Retrieved November 28, 2010.
26. Société française des seiziémistes (1997).
Nouvelle revue du XVIe siècle, Volumes
15–16 (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=_KIrAQAAIAAJ&q=Asan+y+est+associ%
C3%A9+aux+m%C3%A9faits+d'un+autre+f
avori+musulman+de+l'empereur+Zhengd
e.+le+Sayyid+Husain,+originaire+de+Ham
i.+Il+fut+ex%C3%A9cut%C3%A9+comme+
Jiang+Bin,+peu+apr%C3%A8s+la+mort+d
e+l'empereur) . Droz. p. 14. Retrieved
November 28, 2010.
27. Manoli, Maria (May 30, 2017). "Sexuality in
ancient China, part 2" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20190423120348/https://gbtime
s.com/sexuality-ancient-china-part-2) .
GBTimes. Archived from the original (http
s://gbtimes.com/sexuality-ancient-china-p
art-2) on April 23, 2019. Retrieved
March 8, 2020.

28. Fabiana, Diletta (May 2017). "History of

Same-Sex Samurai Love in Edo Japan" (htt
ps://allabout-japan.com/en/article/518
7/) . All About Japan. Retrieved 20 August
2022.
29. International Bar Association. Conference
(2000 : Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2014-
05-22). Sexuality and human rights : a
global overview. Graupner, Helmut, 1965–,
Tahmindjis, Phillip. Binghamton, NY.
ISBN 9781134732579. OCLC 880877782
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/88087778
2) .

30. Plato, Phaedrus in the Symposium

31. Plato, Laws, 636D & 835E

32. Douglas Harper (2001). "Lesbian" (http://w

ww.etymonline.com/index.php?term=lesbi
an) . Online Etymology Dictionary.
Retrieved 2009-02-07.
33. Douglas Harper (2001). "Sapphic" (http://
www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sa
pphic) . Online Etymology Dictionary.
Retrieved 2009-02-07.

34. Denys Page, Sappho and Alcaeus, Oxford

UP, 1959, pp. 142–146.

35. (Campbell 1982, p. xi–xii)

36. Joseph Robert Thornton, Bowers v.

Hardrick: An Incomplete Constitutional
Analysis, 65 U.N.C. L. Rev. 1100, 1100 n.
11 (1987)
37. Procopius: Secret History: XIX. HOW HE
SEIZED ALL THE WEALTH OF THE
ROMANS AND THREW IT AWAY IN THE
SEA AND ON THE BARBARIANS,
translated by Richard Atwater, (Chicago: P.
Covici, 1927; New York: Covici Friede,
1927) <http://www.sacred-
texts.com/cla/proc/shp/shp22.htm >
38. Tulchin, Allan A. (2007). "Same-Sex
Couples Creating Households in Old
Regime France: The Uses of the
Affrèrement" (https://hcommons.org/dep
osits/item/hc:23655/) . The Journal of
Modern History. 79 (3): 613–647.
doi:10.1086/517983 (https://doi.org/10.1
086%2F517983) . S2CID 92980933 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:929
80933) .
39. "Could the Idea of Civil Unions Be 600
Years Old?" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20081120150915/https://www.npr.org/bl
ogs/news/2007/08/could_the_idea_of_civ
il_unions.html) . The NPR news blog.
Archived from the original (https://www.np
r.org/blogs/news/2007/08/could_the_ide
a_of_civil_unions.html) on 20 November
2008.

40. Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden

Friendships: Homosexuality and Male
Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-
19-512292-5

41. Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries

of Eros, ISBN 0-19-503465-1
42. Florentine proverb, ca. 1480. After
Sabadino Degli Arienti in Le Porretane.
Michael Rocke, Forbidden friendships:
Homosexuality and Male Culture in
Renaissance Florence, Oxford, 1996; p.87

43. On homoeroticism in Florence and

Savonarola's campaign against it, Michael
Rocke, Forbidden Friendships:
Homosexuality and Male Culture in
Renaissance Florence (New York, 1996).
More generally, on youth culture, see
Richard Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance
Florence (New York, 1980).
44. Monica E. McAlpine, "The Pardoner's
Homosexuality and How It Matters";
critical study. (http://www.courses.fas.har
vard.edu/~laa14/sourcebook/mac-pard.ht
m) Archived (https://archive.today/20121
212205115/http://www.courses.fas.harva
rd.edu/~laa14/sourcebook/mac-pard.ht
m) 2012-12-12 at archive.today

45. Reeser, Todd W. 2016. Chicago: University

of Chicago Press.

46. Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd,

1691

47. Kimmel, Michael S. "Love Letters Between

a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous
Mr. Wilson." Issue 2; Issue 19 of Journal of
Homosexuality Series: No. 19, N. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan. 1990.
48. Fanny Hill at WikiSource (https://en.wikiso
urce.org/wiki/Fanny_Hill:_Memoirs_of_a_
Woman_of_Pleasure) (1749) by John
Cleland

49. Gertz, Stephen J. "The Wages Of Sin:

$80,000 For Rare Fanny Hill." Booktryst.
Oct. 2012. Retrieved 15 July. 2017.
<http://www.booktryst.com/2012/10/the-
wages-of-sin-80000-for-rare-fanny.html?
m=1 >

50. Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) In Search of

Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon's 'Ancient and
Modern Pederasty Investigated and
Exemplified", Institute of Historical
Research
51. Journal of Homosexuality (ISSN 0091-
8369 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?f
q=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0091-8369) ) Volume: 3
Issue: 4, Volume: 4 Issue: 1

52. Ellis, Havelock; Symonds, John Addington

(1975), Sexual Inversion, Arno Press,
ISBN 0-405-07363-1 (reprint)

53. Heinz Heger: Die Männer mit dem rosa

Winkel. Merlin-Verlag, Hamburg 1972.

54. El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2005). Before

Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World,
1500–1800. The University of Chicago
Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-226-72988-5.
55. "ILGA:7 countries still put people to death
for same-sex acts" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20091029185853/http://www.ilga.
org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&File
ID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50) .
Archived from the original (http://www.ilg
a.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&Fi
leID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50)
on October 29, 2009.

56. Fathi, Nazila (September 30, 2007).

"Despite Denials, Gays Insist They Exist, if
Quietly, in Iran" (https://www.nytimes.co
m/2007/09/30/world/middleeast/30gays.
html) . The New York Times. Retrieved
2007-10-01.
57. Gay Rights Or Wrongs: A Christian's Guide
to Homosexual Issues and Ministry, by
Mike Mazzalonga, 1996, p.11

58. Greenberg, p. 126

59. "Homosexuality in the Ancient Near East,

beyond Egypt by Bruce Gerig in the
Ancient Near East, beyond Egypt" (http://e
pistle.us/hbarticles/neareast.html) .
epistle.us.

60. Pattanaik, Devdutt. "Would ancient India

have supported Section 377?" (https://ww
w.rediff.com/news/special/would-ancient-
india-have-supported-section-377/201807
17.htm) . Rediff. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
61. Raveenthiran, Venkatachalam (November
2011). "Knowledge of ancient Hindu
surgeons on Hirschsprung disease:
evidence from Sushruta Samhita of circa
1200-600 bc" (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jp
edsurg.2011.07.007) . Journal of
Pediatric Surgery. 46 (11): 2204–2208.
doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.07.007 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jpedsurg.2011.0
7.007) . ISSN 0022-3468 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/issn/0022-3468) .
PMID 22075360 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/22075360) .
62. "Know all about Sushruta, the first ever
plastic surgeon who was Indian" (https://w
ww.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-curr
ent-affairs/story/sushruta-works-indian-ph
ysician-medicine-plastic-surgery-rhinoplas
ty-nose-job-1559599-2019-07-01) . India
Today. Retrieved 2024-01-01.

63. Mitra Varuna (http://www.galva108.org/de

ities.html#Mitra_Varuna) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2013082702263
3/http://galva108.org/deities.html) 2013-
08-27 at the Wayback Machine, The Gay
and Lesbian Vaishnava Association
64. "Live Blog: Supreme Court Rules Gay Sex
Illegal" (https://www.wsj.com/amp/article
s/live-blog-supreme-court-rules-gay-sex-ill
egal-1386740434) . The Wall Street
Journal. December 11, 2013. Retrieved
April 19, 2023.

65. Shastri, Hari Prasad, Tr. The Ramayana Of

Valmiki Vol. 2 (https://archive.org/details/i
n.ernet.dli.2015.39881/page/n375/mode/
2up) . Digital Library of India Item
2015.39881. Retrieved April 19, 2023.

66. Jhamb, Prateeksha (October 22, 2017).

"History of Homosexuality in India" (http
s://www.lawctopus.com/academike/histo
ry-of-homosexuality-in-india/) .
Lawctopus. Retrieved April 19, 2023.
67. "BuddhaNet Magazine Article:
Homosexuality and Theravada Buddhism"
(https://www.buddhanet.net/homosexu.ht
m) . www.buddhanet.net. Retrieved
2023-03-01.

68. "Pali canon | Definition, Contents, & Facts |

Britannica" (https://www.britannica.com/t
opic/Tipitaka) . www.britannica.com.
Retrieved 2023-03-01.

69. "Ancient India didn't think homosexuality

was against nature" (https://timesofindia.i
ndiatimes.com/india/ancient-india-didnt-t
hink-homosexuality-was-against-nature/ar
ticleshow/4708206.cms) . The Times of
India. 2009-06-27. ISSN 0971-8257 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-8257) .
Retrieved 2023-02-06.
70. Penrose, Walter (2001). Hidden in History:
Female Homoeroticism and Women of a
"Third Nature" in the South Asian Past,
Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.1
(2001), p.4

71. Vātsyāyana. (1994). The complete Kāma

Sūtra : the first unabridged modern
translation of the classic Indian text by
Vātsyāyana : including the Jayamangalā
commentary from the Sanskrit by
Yashodhara and extracts from the Hindi
commentary by Devadatta Shāstrā. Park
Street Press. ISBN 0892814926.
OCLC 28799425 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/28799425) .
72. Herdt, Gilbert H. (1984), Ritualized
Homosexuality in Melanesia, University of
California Press, pp. 128–136, ISBN 0-520-
08096-3

73. Richard Parkinson: Homosexual Desire

and Middle Kingdom Literature. In: The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (JEA),
vol. 81, 1995, pp. 57–76.

74. Dena Connors-Millard: Niankhkhnum and

Khnumhotep – Evidence of Gay
Relationships Exists as Early as 2400
B.C.? (https://web.archive.org/web/20101
020071548/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuse
um/archaeology/sites/africa/niankhkhnu
m_and_khnumhotep.html) (English).
75. Emma Brunner-Traut: Altägyptische
Märchen. Mythen und andere
volkstümliche Erzählungen. 10th Edition.
Diederichs, Munich 1991, ISBN 3-424-
01011-1, pp. 178–179.

76. "Long-Distance Trade and Foreign

Contact". Uganda. Library of Congress
Country Studies. December 1990.
Retrieved 6 June 2009.
77. Andrew Matzner. Stonewall Riots. "GLBTQ
>> social sciences >> Stonewall Riots" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/200601160510
51/https://www.glbtq.com/social-science
s/stonewall_riots.html) . Archived from
the original (http://www.glbtq.com/social-
sciences/stonewall_riots.html) on 2006-
01-16. Retrieved 2005-12-29.. Retrieved
2012-01-05, p.1

78. Andrew Matzner. Stonewall Riots (http://w

ww.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_
riots,2.html) . Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20150427041353/http://www.
glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riot
s,2.html) 2015-04-27 at the Wayback
Machine. Retrieved 2012-01-05, p.2
79. http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/kertben
y_km_S.pdf

80. Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient

World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002,
originally published 1988 in Italian), p. xi;
Marilyn B. Skinner, introduction to Roman
Sexualities (Princeton University Press,
1997), p. 11.

81. Thomas A.J. McGinn, Prostitution,

Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome
(Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 326.

82. Catharine Edwards, "Unspeakable

Professions: Public Performance and
Prostitution in Ancient Rome," in Roman
Sexualities, pp. 67–68.
83. Amy Richlin, The Garden of Priapus:
Sexuality and Aggression in Roman
Humor (Oxford University Press, 1983,
1992), p. 225, and "Not before
Homosexuality: The Materiality of the
cinaedus and the Roman Law against
Love between Men," Journal of the History
of Sexuality 3.4 (1993), p. 525.

84. Sara Elise Phang, Roman Military Service:

Ideologies of Discipline in the Late
Republic and Early Principate (Cambridge
University Press, 2008), p. 93.
85. Plutarch, Moralia 288a; Thomas Habinek,
"The Invention of Sexuality in the World-
City of Rome," in The Roman Cultural
Revolution (Cambridge University Press,
1997), p. 39; Richlin, "Not before
Homosexuality," pp. 545–546. Scholars
disagree as to whether the Lex Scantinia
imposed the death penalty or a hefty fine.

86. Craig Williams, Roman Homosexuality

(Oxford University Press, 1999, 2010), p.
304, citing Saara Lilja, Homosexuality in
Republican and Augustan Rome (Societas
Scientiarum Fennica, 1983), p. 122.

87. Catharine Edwards, The Politics of

Immorality in Ancient Rome (Cambridge
University Press, 1993), pp. 63–64.
88. Michael Groneberg, "Reasons for
Homophobia: Three Types of Explanation,"
in Combatting Homophobia: Experiences
and Analyses Pertinent to Education (LIT
Verlag, 2011), p. 193.

89. Williams, Roman Homosexuality, pp. 214–

215; Richlin, "Not before Homosexuality,"
passim.

Further reading

Campbell, David A., ed. (1982).

"Introduction". Greek Lyric I:Sappho and
Alcaeus. Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 0-674-
99157-5. OCLC 8805576 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/8805576) .